fractal and fractional
Article
Lightweight 3D-Printed Fractal Gradient-Index Lens Antenna
with Stable Gain Performance
Yeonju Kim, Duc Anh Pham, Ratanak Phon and Sungjoon Lim *
Citation: Kim, Y.; Pham, D.A.;
Phon, R.; Lim, S. Lightweight
3D-Printed Fractal Gradient-Index
Lens Antenna with Stable Gain
Performance. Fractal Fract. 2022, 6,
551. https://doi.org/10.3390/
fractalfract6100551
Academic Editors: Peter Z. Petkov
and Carlo Cattani
Received: 22 August 2022
Accepted: 26 September 2022
Published: 29 September 2022
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Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Fractal Fract. 2022, 6, 551. https://doi.org/10.3390/fractalfract6100551
School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Korea
* Correspondence: sungjoon@cau.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-2-820-5827
Abstract: This paper proposes a millimeter-wave lens antenna using 3-dimensional (3D) printing
technology to reduce weight and provide stable gain performance. The antenna consists of a four-
layer cylindrical gradient-index (GRIN) lens fed by a wideband Yagi antenna. We designed a
fractal cell geometry to achieve the desired effective permittivity for a GRIN lens. Among different
candidates, the honeycomb structure is chosen to provide high mechanical strength with light weight,
low dielectric loss, and lens dispersion for a lens antenna. Therefore, the measured peak gain was
relatively flat at 16.86 ± 0.5 dBi within 25−31.5 GHz, corresponding to 1 dB gain bandwidth = 23%.
The proposed 3D-printed GRIN lens is cost-effective, with rapid and easy manufacturing.
Keywords: lens antenna; millimeter-wave antenna; Yagi–Uda antenna; three-dimensional printing;
fractal unit cell
1. Introduction
Fifth-generation (5G) wireless communication is a revolutionary technology providing
high-data-rate communications, low latency, and massive connectivity required for various
applications (e.g., mobile, autonomous vehicles, and Internet of Things) [1–5]. However,
several challenges must be addressed to realize 5G wireless networks, including access
bounds, bandwidth, performance, and latency limitations from earlier generation commu-
nication system. Therefore, the millimeter-wave (mm-wave) frequency spectrum (including
26, 28, and 39 GHz) has been explored to secure sufficient bandwidth and achieve higher
data rate. These frequency spectrums allow wide bandwidth and hence enable high data
rates to meet the increasing system capacity and superfast connectivity requirements [6–9].
Component performance in mm-wave frequency bands may be degraded due to high path
loss and implementation challenges compared to lower frequency bands. Therefore, it is
essential to develop cost-effective antennas with high gain, high radiation efficiency, and
wide bandwidth in the mm-wave frequency bands to achieve high data transmission rates
for 5G.
Lens antenna convergence and divergence properties convert the spherical wave
radiated from the feed antenna into the in-phase plane wave at the lens surface. Many recent
studies have investigated mm-wave antennas with lenses since the planar phase front of
the lens can produce a focused radiation beam with high gain and narrow beamwidth [10].
Recent studies on lens antennas can be classified into homogeneous and inhomogeneous
lens antenna. The former refers to the structure in which the media inside the lens are
unchanged. For manipulating the electromagnetic (EM) wave propagation, these lens
typically are designed with the convex or spherical interfaces. Due to this geometrical
feature, the homogeneous lens antenna has to suffer with the disadvantage of bulky and
non-planar structure. Instead of depending on the interfaces of lenses, the inhomogeneous
lens antenna has flat structure that is typically constructed from several concentric layers
of different materials with gradient refractive indexes to focus the EM energy toward
the desired focusing direction. Because of its gradient refractive index profile, this type
of lens is well-known as the gradient-index (GRIN) lens antenna. Compared to classic
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/fractalfract
Fractal Fract. 2022, 6, 551 2 of 12

homogeneous lens antennas, GRIN lens antennas can be compact and lightweight while
maintaining high efficiency [11].
Recent studies on GRIN lens antennas have been separated based on the fabrication
technology of printed-circuit-board (PCB) and three-dimensional (3-D) printing. Although
PCB-based lens antennas have recently been well studied [12–15], the frequency increment
into the millimeter-wave spectrum for broadening the bandwidth has put considerable
pressure on the fabrication system for much higher accuracy. Therefore, complex manufac-
turing processes and high manufacturing costs are generally utilized in GRIN lens antenna
fabrication. 3D printing technology creates 3D objects by depositing materials in successive
layers and has been used to manufacture lens antennas due to the simple and cost-effective
manufacturing process. A 3D-printed discrete dielectric lens was designed for high gain
and beam scanning using a periodic and antireflection structure with the GRIN structure
comprising stratified hemispherical shells [16,17]. A comb mushroom shaped dielectric lens
achieved stable gain enhancement [18]. A circularly polarized lens antenna implemented by
a 3D-printed dielectric polarizer was presented [19]. The Luneburg lens antenna composed
of rod-type dielectric rings introduced multi-beam for MIMO applications in Ka-band [20].
Various configurations to realize the required lens permittivity distribution could be
efficiently produced using 3D printing technology [21]. Many reported lens antennas have
been manufactured using polyjet or SLA methods because they provide high-resolution
output with very detailed and fine features [22,23]. However, methods using photopoly-
mers increase manufacturing cost and require additional post-processing, such as manual
support removal. On the other hand, fused deposition modelling (FDM) using a thermo-
plastic filament provides a simpler and cheaper process than the SLA. A GRIN lens antenna
was fabricated using FDM with polylactic acid (PLA) as the 3D printing polymer [24] and
obtained a maximum gain of 24 dBi with low cost and easy fabrication.
This paper proposes a lightweight GRIN lens antenna with stable gain performance in
mm-wave frequency band using FDM 3D printing. The proposed high-gain lens antenna
incorporated a hollow fractal structure and was fabricated with an easy-to-handle and
cost-effective PLA filament. Though there are diverse fractal structures that are explored
and utilized in designing antenna and metamaterial [25–27], the honeycomb structure
is chosen for this design due to its unique features of being mechanically strong and
light at the same time. Owing to this valuable feature, we can achieve a relatively low
dielectric loss without reducing the mechanical strength of the total structure. Furthermore,
the honeycomb structure has a simple topological structure that can easily be realized
with low-cost 3D printers. We investigated how hollow honeycomb structure electrical
properties depended on honeycomb cell sizes to realize the relative permittivity required
for GRIN lens layers. The dielectric loss of 3D printing the polymer and overall lens antenna
weight significantly reduced using the hollow honeycomb geometry. A wideband Yagi
antenna was designed and combined with the honeycomb-shaped GRIN lens to examine
the proposed lens antenna performance. Antenna characteristics, including return loss and
radiation performance, were verified numerically and experimentally.

2. 3D-Printed Lens and Source Antenna Design

2.1. 3D-Printed Fractal GRIN Lens Design with Honeycomb Cells
Figure 1 shows an inhomogeneous cylindrical GRIN lens, which is a gradient refractive
index lens with different relative permittivity εr for each layer. For designing the GRIN lens
antenna, the diameter Dlens and focal distance Df need to be firstly chosen. The gradient-
index profiles for designing the GRIN lens antenna then can be achieved by controlling the
relative permittivity of each concentric layer following this equation [28]:
√
D1 − Dn + ε 1 tlens 2
 
εn = (1)
tlens

where n = 1, 2, 3, . . . N is the number of concentric layers, εn is the permittivity of the con-

centric layer nth and Dn is the distance from the focusing point to the respective concentric
 − + √ɛ
ɛ = (1)
Fractal Fract. 2022, 6, 551 3 of 12

where n = 1, 2, 3, …N is the number of concentric layers, ɛn is the permittivity of the con-

centric layer nth and Dn is the distance from the focusing point to the respective concentric
layers. Because
layers. Because εɛ11 respects
respects to tothe
thefirst
firstconcentric
concentric layer in the
layer center,
in the ε1 should
center, havehave
ɛ1 should the high-
the
est valuevalue
highest and isand
secondly chosenchosen
is secondly [24]. After[24].that,
Afterthethat,
relative
the permittivity of other concentric
relative permittivity of other
layers can layers
concentric be sequentially calculated.calculated.
can be sequentially However, However,it is difficult todifficult
it is realize the continuous
to realize per-
the con-
mittivitypermittivity
tinuous variation forvariation
an ideal for
GRIN an lens
idealinGRINpractice due
lens in to technical
practice due constraints. Thus,
to technical con-a
GRIN lens
straints. Thus,is generally
a GRIN lens designed in forms
is generally of a finite
designed number
in forms of a of concentric
finite numberhomogeneous
of concentric
layers, as shown in Figure 1b, where the relative permittivity
homogeneous layers, as shown in Figure 1b, where the relative permittivity and radius forandeach layer
radius
obey
for Equation
each (1). Equation
layer obey It is worth(1).
noting that the
It is worth higher
noting thethe
that number
higherofthe concentric
number of layers that
concen-
are layers
tric used, the
thatmore similarity
are used, can be
the more achieved
similarity between
can the theoretical
be achieved between the continuous relative
theoretical con-
permittivity
tinuous curve
relative and the designed
permittivity curve anddiscretized
the designed relative permittivity
discretized relative [24]. However,
permittivity [24].it
would increase the complexity of the design structure, and thus
However, it would increase the complexity of the design structure, and thus it requires it requires higher accuracy
fabrication
higher systems.
accuracy Meanwhile,
fabrication systems.GRIN lens antenna
Meanwhile, GRIN performance
lens antennaisperformance
also affected isbyalso
the
lens dimension. The lens antenna’s aperture efficiency can decrease
affected by the lens dimension. The lens antenna’s aperture efficiency can decrease as the as the diameter of the
lens increases. For those reasons, there is a trade-off between
diameter of the lens increases. For those reasons, there is a trade-off between performanceperformance and ease of
manufacturing
and when selecting
ease of manufacturing when the numberthe
selecting of layers
number in of
thelayers
lens. in the lens.

Figure 1.
Figure ProposedGRIN
1. Proposed GRINlens
lens concept:
concept: (a)
(a)four-layer
four-layercylindrical
cylindricalGRIN
GRINlens,
lens, and
and (b)
(b) 3D-printed
3D-printed
GRIN lens with honeycomb unit cells.
GRIN lens with honeycomb unit cells.
Considering these issues, we proposed the lens outer layer diameter be set as 6λ0 , the
Considering these issues, we proposed the lens outer layer diameter be set as 6λ0, the
focal distance as 8.87λ0 , and the total number of layers = 4. Table 1 shows the relative permit-
focal distance as 8.87λ0, and the total number of layers = 4. Table 1 shows the relative
tivity and radius for the GRIN lens layers with the lens outer diameter = 6λ0 at 28 GHz. The
permittivity and radius
relative permittivity and for the for
radius GRIN
eachlens layers
layer with
are 1.88 the lens
−1.22, outer
and 16.1 diameter
−32.1 = 6λ0 at 28
mm, respectively.
GHz. The relative permi ivity and radius for each layer are 1.88−1.22, and 16.1−32.1 mm,
respectively.
Table 1. Proposed GRIN lens design parameters.

TableParameters
1. Proposed GRIN lens 1design parameters. 2 3 4
Permittivity 1.88 1.67 1.44 1.22
Parameters
Radius (mm) 16.1
1 2
22.7
327.8 432.1
Permittivity 1.88 1.67 1.44 1.22
Radius
We used(mm) 16.1
a honeycomb structure for the22.7 27.8layer to realize32.1
unit cells in each layers with
derived relative permittivity. The honeycomb structure is suitable for lens design, providing
We used
efficient a honeycomb
unit cell deploymentstructure for thepermittivity
for continuous unit cells invariation
each layer to mechanical
and realize layers with
stability
derived relative permittivity. The honeycomb structure is suitable for lens design, provid-
and durability. Polylactic acid filament (dielectric constant of εr = 2.2, dielectric loss of tanδ
ing efficient
= 0.05) unit to
was used cell3Ddeployment forwith
print the lens continuous permittivity
the honeycomb variation
structure. and permittivity
Effective mechanical
stability and durability.
for the honeycomb unit Polylactic acid
cell size was filament (dielectric
investigated constantofoffilling
by two methods ɛr = 2.2, dielectric
ratio method
loss
andof tanδ = 0.05)line
transmission wasmethod.
used to 3D print the
Following lens
the with the
equation honeycomb
from the formerstructure.
technique,Effective
we can
permittivity for the honeycomb unit cell size was investigated by two methods
calculate the effective permittivity of the honeycomb cell based on the ratio of unfilled of filling
and
filled portions in the cells [11], as shown in Equation (2). Meanwhile, the latter technique
examines the S-parameters of structures that contain the honeycomb cells and uses the
curve-fitting method to determine its effective permittivity [29]. Effective permittivity can
 ratio method and transmission line method. Following the equation from the former tech-
nique, we can calculate the effective permittivity of the honeycomb cell based on the ratio
of unfilled and filled portions in the cells [11], as shown in Equation (2). Meanwhile, the
Fractal Fract. 2022, 6, 551 4 of 12
latter technique examines the S-parameters of structures that contain the honeycomb cells
and uses the curve-fitting method to determine its effective permittivity [29]. Effective
permittivity can be derived from the following simple equation using the filling ratio of
be
thederived frommaterial
3D printing the following
[11]. simple equation using the filling ratio of the 3D printing
material [11].
−i
V0 − V V
ε reɛ= ε=r ɛ ++ i (2)
V0 V0
where permittivity, V
where εɛrr is the 3D-printed material permittivity, V0o is the overall volume of the 3D-printed
honeycomb cell filled with with PLA, and V
PLA, and Vi is the inner volume of 3D-printed honeycomb cell
filled with air.
air. For the transmission
transmission line method, we examined the scattering parameters
within 24 − 32 GHz by electromagnetic
within 24−32 GHz by electromagnetic (EM) (EM) simulation
simulation assuming
assuming that
that two
two different
different length
length
dielectrics
dielectrics consisting of the honeycomb unit cells are inserted into the waveguide. EM
consisting of the honeycomb unit cells are inserted into the waveguide. EM
simulations
simulations werewereperformed
performed using the ANSYS
using the ANSYS high-frequency structure
high-frequency simulator
structure (HFSS).
simulator
Figure
(HFSS).2Figure
shows2 effective permittivity
shows effective for thefor
permittivity honeycomb
the honeycomb unit cell
unitwith respect
cell with to the
respect to
diagonal
the diagonallength (Lh ).(LhHoneycomb
length ). Honeycomb cell thickness
cell thickness(T(T h )h)was
wasfixed
fixedtoto11 mmmm to
to reduce
reduce thethe
filament
filament dielectric
dielectric loss
loss andand print
print easily.
easily. When
When the the honeycomb
honeycomb cell cell diagonal
diagonal length
length (L(Lhh))
increased from 1.25 to 4 mm, the effective permittivity obtained
increased from 1.25 to 4 mm, the effective permittivity obtained using the filling ratiousing the filling ratio
method
method decreased
decreased fromfrom 1.811.81 to
to 1.23,
1.23, whereas
whereas the the effective
effective permittivity
permittivity obtained
obtained using
using the
the
transmission line method decreased from
transmission line method decreased from 1.85 to 1.2. 1.85 to 1.2.

Figure 2. Effective
Figure 2. Effective permittivity (left axis)
permittivity (left axis) and
and dielectric
dielectric loss
loss (right
(right axis)
axis) of
of honeycomb
honeycomb cell
cell versus
versus
different size of honeycomb cells L
size of honeycomb cells Lhh .

The
The effective
effectivepermittivity
permittivityestimated
estimatedfrom
fromthese
these two methods
two methodsshows
showsa slight difference
a slight differ-
since the honeycomb cell geometry is used in the filling ratio method, and the
ence since the honeycomb cell geometry is used in the filling ratio method, and the large large area
honeycomb-shaped dielectric is used in a specific frequency range for the transmission
area honeycomb-shaped dielectric is used in a specific frequency range for the transmis- line
method. The fitted curve for the honeycomb cell size effective permittivity was
sion line method. The fitted curve for the honeycomb cell size effective permittivity wasestimated as
estimated as
ε r = 0.019L2h − 0.3119Lh + 2.1767 (3)
ɛ = 0.019 − 0.3119 + 2.1767 (3)
using data from both methods, with the honeycomb cell size for each layer = 1.03, 1.85,
usingand
2.85, data3.99
from
mm. both
Themethods,
dielectricwith
lossthe
for honeycomb cell size for
each layer decreased fromeach layer
0.045 to =0.025
1.03,when
1.85,
2.85,honeycomb
the and 3.99 mm.cellThe
sizedielectric
increasedloss
fromfor1.03
each
to layer decreased
3.99 mm, from 0.045
as indicated with tothe0.025
greenwhen
line
theFigure
in honeycomb cellbe
2. It can size increased
observed from
that the 1.03 to 3.99
smaller the mm, as indicated
honeycomb withthe
cell size, thehigher
green line
the
in Figure 2. Itthat
permittivity cancan
be be
observed that However,
achieved. the smaller the honeycomb
when the honeycomb cell size, the higher
cell size the
decreases,
creating the unfilled
permittivity area
that can be with higher
achieved. accuracy
However, whenis considerably
the honeycomb challenging. In addition,
cell size decreases, cre-
decreasing the unfilled
ating the unfilled area higher
area with also means increasing
accuracy the weight
is considerably of the designed
challenging. GRIN lens.
In addition, de-
Due to this
creasing the reason,
unfilleddifferent
area alsowith
meansother designs,the
increasing theweight
center of
concentric
the designedlayerGRIN
(n = 1) in
lens.
the proposed GRIN lens has a much wider area and does not follow the gradient rule.
Although there will be a slight trade-off with the radiation gain, the weight and fabrication
complexity can be considerably reduced.
Fractal Fract. 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 12

Due to
Due to this
this reason,
reason, different
different with
with other
other designs,
designs, the
the center
center concentric
concentric layer
layer (n
(n == 1)
1) in
in the
the
proposed GRIN
proposed GRIN lens
lens has
has aa much
much wider
wider area
area and
and does
does not
not follow
follow the
the gradient
gradient rule.
rule. Alt-
Alt-
Fractal Fract. 2022, 6, 551 5 of 12
hough there
hough there will
will be
be aa slight
slight trade-off
trade-off with
with the
the radiation
radiation gain,
gain, the
the weight
weight and
and fabrication
fabrication
complexity can
complexity can be
be considerably
considerably reduced.
reduced.

2.2. Source
2.2.Source
2.2. Antenna
SourceAntenna Design
AntennaDesignDesign
Toremain
To
To remainaaalight
remain lightweight
light weightand
weight andcompact
and compactstructure
compact structurewhile
structure whilestill
while stillsatisfying
still satisfyingthe
satisfying theconditions
the conditions
conditions
ofofhigh
of highgain,
high gain,high
gain, highdirectivity,
high directivity,and
directivity, andwideband,
and wideband,the
wideband, theYagi
the Yagiantenna
Yagi antennawas
antenna waschosen
was chosenas
chosen asthe
as thesource
the source
source
antennafor
antenna
antenna forverifying
for verifyingthe
verifying theperformance
the performance of of the
theproposed
of the proposed3D-printed
proposed 3D-printedGRIN
3D-printed GRINlens.
GRIN lens.Yagi
lens. Yagiantennas
Yagi anten-
anten-
areare
nas
nas suitable
are suitable
suitable to integrate
to integrate
to integrate with a honeycomb-shaped
with
with aa honeycomb-shaped
honeycomb-shaped GRIN lenslens
GRIN
GRIN because
lens theythey
because
because provide
they wide
provide
provide
bandwidth
wide bandwidth and end-fire
and radiation
end-fire with
radiation compact
with size
compact
wide bandwidth and end-fire radiation with compact size [30]. Figure 3 shows the top [30].
size Figure
[30]. 3
Figure shows
3 the
shows top
the and
top
bottom
and bottom
and geometry
bottomgeometry
geometryof of the
of theYagi
the Yagi antenna.
Yagiantenna. The
antenna. The antenna
The antenna
antenna waswas designed
wasdesigned on a
designed on aa DuroidDuroid
Duroid RT5880RT5880
RT5880
substrate(ɛ
substrate
substrate (ɛ(ε r==
rr =
2.2,tanδ
2.2,
2.2, tanδ===0.0009)
tanδ 0.0009)with
0.0009) withaaathickness
with thicknessof
thickness ofof0.51
0.51mm.
0.51 mm.Nine
mm. Ninedirectors
Nine directorswith
directors withlength
with length
length
LLL
ddd=== 2.5
2.5
2.5 mm
mmmm andand
and width
width
width WWW dd =
= 0.6
=d 0.6
0.6 mm
mm mm were
werewere used
used
used to achieve
to achieve
to achieve high
high
high gain.
gain.
gain. Different
Different
Different L1 and
LL11 and
and LL22
L
were used on the top and bottom of the Yagi antenna for impedance matching. Due to itsto
were
2 were
used used
on on
the the
top top
and and
bottom bottom
of of
the the
Yagi Yagi antenna
antenna for for impedance
impedance matching.
matching. Due Due
to its
its polarization
polarization
polarization characteristic,
characteristic,
characteristic, the the E-plane
the E-plane
E-plane and and
and H-plane H-plane
H-plane of the
of ofdesigned
the the designed
designed YagiYagi
Yagi antenna
antennaantenna are
are the
are the
the
YZ and
YZ YZ
and XZand XZ
XZ planes, planes, respectively.
planes, respectively.
respectively. The The
The simulatedsimulated
simulated half-power half-power
half-power beamwidth beamwidth
beamwidth (HPBW) (HPBW)
(HPBW) was was 45.6° was
45.6°
◦ and 54.5◦ in the E-plane and H-plane, respectively, at 28 GHz, as shown in Figure 4a.
45.654.5°
and
and 54.5° in the
in the E-plane
E-plane and and H-plane,
H-plane, respectively,
respectively, at at 28
28 GHz,
GHz, as as shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 4a. 4a. The
The
The simulated
simulated
simulated peak peak
peak gaingain of gain
of Yagi
Yagi of antenna
Yagi
antennaantenna was 6.8−
was 6.8−11.4
was 6.8−11.4 11.4
dBi
dBi dBi
for
for for 24
24−32
24−32 −32The
GHz.
GHz. GHz.
The The simulated
simulated
simulated frac-
frac-
fractional
tional impedance
impedance bandwidthbandwidth ofthe of
theYagi theantenna
Yagi Yagi antenna
wasfound wastofound
found to beThe
be35.7%.
35.7%. 35.7%. The
Yagiantenna
antennaYagi
tional impedance bandwidth of antenna was to be The Yagi
antenna
was was designed
designed with sufficient
with sufficient
sufficient bandwidth bandwidth gainand
and gain gain to validate
to validate
validate the proposed
the proposed
proposed fractal
fractal GRIN
GRIN
was designed with bandwidth and to the fractal
GRIN
lens in lens
in the in
the mm-wave the mm-wave
mm-wave frequency frequency
frequency band. band. band.
lens

Figure
Figure
Figure3. 3.3.Yagi
Yagi antenna
Yagiantenna
antenna geometry
geometry
geometry with
with
withdesign
design parameters
parameters
design (units:
(units:
parameters mm):
mm):
(units: WggW
W
mm): == 20,
g20,
=LL20,
gg ==L
22,
22,
g =W22,
W 11 ==W
0.6,
0.6,
1 =LL110.6,
==
5,LLL33===5,
5, 2.5,
2.5, L
L 2 == 2.5,
2.5, W
W d == 0.6,
0.6, L
L d== 2.5,
2.5, D
D =
= 1.2.
1.2.
L3 = 2.5, L2 = 2.5, W d = 0.6, Ld = 2.5, D = 1.2.
2 d d
1

Figure
Figure4.
Figure 4.4.Simulated
Simulated Yagi
SimulatedYagi antenna
Yagiantenna parameters:
antennaparameters: (a)
parameters:(a) radiation
(a)radiation pattern
radiationpattern atat28
patternat 28 GHz,
28GHz, and
GHz,and (b)
and(b) return
(b)return loss
returnloss
loss
(left
(left axis)
(leftaxis) and
axis)and gain
andgain (right
gain(right axis).
(rightaxis).
axis).

2.3. Source Antenna Integrated with Fractal GRIN Lens Using Honeycomb Cells
Figure 5 demonstrates the proposed honeycomb-shaped GRIN lens fed by the Yagi
antenna. The lens was designed by placing four honeycomb cells of different size in a
circular cylinder made of PLA. The four layers comprised the hollow honeycomb cells
with Lh1 = 1.03 mm, Lh2 = 1.85 mm, Lh3 = 2.85 mm, Lh4 = 3.99 mm to realize the de-
 2.3. Source Antenna Integrated with Fractal GRIN Lens Using Honeycomb Cells
Figure 5 demonstrates the proposed honeycomb-shaped GRIN lens fed by the Yagi
Fractal Fract. 2022, 6, 551 antenna. The lens was designed by placing four honeycomb cells of different size6 of in12a
circular cylinder made of PLA. The four layers comprised the hollow honeycomb cells
with Lh1 = 1.03 mm, Lh2 = 1.85 mm, Lh3 = 2.85 mm, Lh4 = 3.99 mm to realize the desired
relative
sired permittivity
relative of the of
permittivity lens.
theEach
lens.layer
Eachwas connected
layer by a 0.5by
was connected mm thick
a 0.5 mm ring (Figure
thick ring
5b, dashed
(Figure line) inserted
5b, dashed on the top
line) inserted andtop
on the bottom of the layers.
and bottom of the layers.

Figure 5. (a) Source antenna integrated

Figure 5. integrated with
with GRIN
GRIN lens;
lens; (b)
(b) fractal
fractal GRIN
GRIN lens
lens with
with honeycomb
honeycomb cells
cells
top and
top and side
side view.
view.

The
The source
sourceantenna
antennawas
wasaligned
alignedwith thethe
with center of the
center lenslens
of the inx–y
in the theplane and Dand
x–y plane f from
Df
the lens in the z plane. Focal length Df between source antenna and lens was investigated
from the lens in the z plane. Focal length Df between source antenna and lens was inves-
by simulation to achieve optimal gain and minimal sidelobe levels (SLL) while retaining
Fractal Fract. 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 12
tigated by simulation to achieve optimal gain and minimal sidelobe levels (SLL) while
wide bandwidth. Figure 6a,b show that the antenna gain and the sidelobe level depend
retaining wide bandwidth. Figure 6a,b show that the antenna gain and the sidelobe level
on the lens thickness T1 and the lens focal length Df after loading the honeycomb-shaped
depend on the lens thickness T1 and the lens focal length Df after loading the honeycomb-
GRIN lens. As T1 increased from 5 to 20 mm, the antenna gain enhanced from 13.1 to
integrated
shaped GRIN withlens.
the As
proposed lens achieved
T1 increased high
from 5 to 20 gain,
mm, narrow gain
the antenna beamwidth,
enhancedand wide
from 13.1
19.1 dBi. The sidelobe level of the antenna decreased from −9.7 to −14.5 and from −8.6 to
bandwidth
to 19.1 dBi.with
Thethe optimized
sidelobe levellens focal
of the lengthdecreased
antenna and thickness.
from −9.7 to −14.5 and from −8.6
−13.5 dB for the E-plane and H-plane, respectively.
to −13.5 dB for the E-plane and H-plane, respectively.
A thicker lens will improve the lens focusing ability, increasing gain and reducing
sidelobe level. However, the antenna efficiency degrades due to the dielectric loss from
PLA. Thus, the lens thickness was set to 12 mm. Figure 6a shows the antenna gain and
sidelobe level with respect to the focal length when the lens thickness was 12 mm. The
antenna gain increased from 9.98 to 17.7 dBi as the focal length increased from 10 to 70
mm, and the optimal sidelobe level occurred at −14.7 dB and −13.3 dB for the E-plane and
H-plane, respectively, for the lens focal length = 60 mm. The lens antenna gain and side-
lobe level are significantly affected by the phase distribution at the lens surface, and the
phase distribution depends on the focal length. Therefore, although the structure was in-
itially calculated with the focal length Df of 8.87λ0, we set the focal length between the
source antenna and the lens to 60 mm for optimizing both the higher antenna gain and
lower sidelobe level.
Figure 6c,d shows the simulated radiation pattern, gain, and return loss when the
honeycomb-shaped GRIN lens was fed by the Yagi antenna. The half-power beamwidth
reduced from 42.6° to 10.8° and from 50.5° to 9.8° for the E-plane and H-plane, respec-
tively, with the peak gain of 16.9 dBi at 28 GHz. The fractional impedance bandwidth for
the Yagi antenna combined with the honeycomb-shaped GRIN lens was 36.8%. The an-
tenna peak gain was from 15.57 to 18.09 dBi within 24−32 GHz. Thus, the Yagi antenna

Figure Simulatedgain
Figure6.6.Simulated gain(left(leftaxis)
axis)andandsidelobe
sidelobelevel
level(right
(rightaxis)
axis)ofofproposed
proposedstructure
structureatat2828GHz
GHz
versus
versus(a)
(a)focal
focallength
lengthDDf, fand
, and(b)(b)lens
lensthickness
thicknessTT 1; (c)
1 ; Simulated
(c) Simulated 2D2D radiation patterns
radiation patternsof
ofproposed
proposed
structure
structureatat2828GHz;
GHz;and
and(d) (d)return
returnlossloss(left
(leftaxis)
axis)and
andgaingain(right
(rightaxis).
axis).

3. Experimental Investigation and Discussion

Figure 7a shows the fabricated proposed honeycomb-shaped GRIN lens using 3D
printing technology, to demonstrate the proposed concept. A commercial desktop 3D
Fractal Fract. 2022, 6, 551 7 of 12

A thicker lens will improve the lens focusing ability, increasing gain and reducing
sidelobe level. However, the antenna efficiency degrades due to the dielectric loss from
PLA. Thus, the lens thickness was set to 12 mm. Figure 6a shows the antenna gain and
sidelobe level with respect to the focal length when the lens thickness was 12 mm. The
antenna gain increased from 9.98 to 17.7 dBi as the focal length increased from 10 to 70 mm,
and the optimal sidelobe level occurred at −14.7 dB and −13.3 dB for the E-plane and
H-plane, respectively, for the lens focal length = 60 mm. The lens antenna gain and sidelobe
level are significantly affected by the phase distribution at the lens surface, and the phase
distribution depends on the focal length. Therefore, although the structure was initially
calculated with the focal length Df of 8.87λ0 , we set the focal length between the source
antenna and the lens to 60 mm for optimizing both the higher antenna gain and lower
sidelobe level.
Figure 6c,d shows the simulated radiation pattern, gain, and return loss when the
honeycomb-shaped GRIN lens was fed by the Yagi antenna. The half-power beamwidth
reduced from 42.6◦ to 10.8◦ and from 50.5◦ to 9.8◦ for the E-plane and H-plane, respectively,
with the peak gain of 16.9 dBi at 28 GHz. The fractional impedance bandwidth for the Yagi
antenna combined with the honeycomb-shaped GRIN lens was 36.8%. The antenna peak
gain was from 15.57 to 18.09 dBi within 24−32 GHz. Thus, the Yagi antenna integrated
with the proposed lens achieved high gain, narrow beamwidth, and wide bandwidth with
the optimized lens focal length and thickness.

3. Experimental Investigation and Discussion

Figure 7a shows the fabricated proposed honeycomb-shaped GRIN lens using 3D print-
ing technology, to demonstrate the proposed concept. A commercial desktop 3D printer
(Sindoh 3DWOX 2X) using fused filament fabrication was used to print the honeycomb-
shaped GRIN lens. The diameter of the 3D printer filament extrusion nozzle was 0.4 mm,
and the layer resolution was provided from 0.05 to 0.4 mm. For the prototype fabrication,
we set the layer resolution = 0.2 mm, the printing speed = 60 mm/s and the nozzle moving
speed = 100 mm/s. Due to the simple printing conditions for the PLA filament, the lenses
can be easily and rapidly manufactured at low cost. The Yagi antenna was fabricated by
conventional PCB processing with the RT5880 substrate. We combined the honeycomb-
shaped GRIN lens and Yagi antenna with a 3D-printed PLA supporting structure to ensure
alignment. Figure 7b shows the simulated and measured return loss for a Yagi antenna and
the Yagi antenna with honeycomb-shaped GRIN lens. The return loss for the fabricated
sample was measured using a Keysight N5227B. The simulated and measured fractional
impedance bandwidth for the Yagi antenna was 35.7% and 41.8%, respectively; by contrast,
the simulated and measured fractional impedance bandwidth for the Yagi antenna inte-
grated with the honeycomb-shaped GRIN lens was 36.7% and 40.7%, respectively. The
simulated
Fractal Fract. 2022, 6, x FORand measured return loss shows good agreement, and the proposed
PEER REVIEW 8 of lens
12 antenna
provided sufficient operating bandwidth in mm-wave frequency band including 28 GHz.

Figure 7. (a) Fabricated prototype fractal GRIN lens using honeycomb cells fed by Yagi antenna. (b)
Figure 7. (a) Fabricated prototype fractal GRIN lens using honeycomb cells fed by Yagi antenna.
Simulated and measured return loss for Yagi antenna and Yagi antenna with proposed fractal GRIN
(b) Simulated andlens.
measured return loss for Yagi antenna and Yagi antenna with proposed fractal
GRIN lens. Figure 8a shows the setup to measure the radiation performance for the fabricated
sample using a commercial ORBIT/FR far-field measurement system in a shielded milli-
meter-wave anechoic chamber room. The standard gain horn antenna HO42S was used
for the frequency range from 24−26.5 GHz, and HO28S was used for the frequency range
from 26.5−32 GHz [7]. Figure 8b,c compare the measured and simulated Yagi antenna ra-
diation pattern at 28 GHz. The measured peak gain was 9.03 dBi, and the measured HPBW
was 41.6° and 51.38° in the E and H-plane, respectively.
 Figure 7. (a) Fabricated prototype fractal GRIN lens using honeycomb cells fed by Yagi anten
Fractal Fract. 2022, 6, 551 8 of 12
Simulated and measured return loss for Yagi antenna and Yagi antenna with proposed fracta
lens.

Figure 8a showsFigure 8a shows

the setup the setup
to measure to measure
the radiation the radiation
performance performance
for the for the fabr
fabricated sam-
sample using a commercial ORBIT/FR far-field measurement
ple using a commercial ORBIT/FR far-field measurement system in a shielded millimeter- system in a shielded
meter-wave anechoic chamber room. The standard gain
wave anechoic chamber room. The standard gain horn antenna HO42S was used for the horn antenna HO42S was
frequency rangeforfrom
the frequency rangeand
24−26.5 GHz, from 24−26.5
HO28S wasGHz,
usedand
forHO28S was used
the frequency for the
range fromfrequency
from
26.5−32 GHz [7]. 26.5−32
Figure 8b,cGHz [7]. Figure
compare 8b,c compare
the measured the measured
and simulated and simulated
Yagi antenna radiationYagi anten
diation
pattern at 28 GHz. Thepattern at 28peak
measured GHz.gain
The was
measured peak
9.03 dBi, gain
and thewas 9.03 dBi,HPBW
measured and thewas
measured H
◦ ◦
was 41.6°
41.6 and 51.38 in the E and 51.38° in the E and
H-plane, respectively.H-plane, respectively.

Figure radiation
Figure 8. (a) Far-field 8. (a) Far-field radiation
pattern pattern measurement
measurement setup;
setup; simulated andsimulated andradiation
measured measured radiati
tern for Yagi antenna at 28 GHz in (b) E-plane
pattern for Yagi antenna at 28 GHz in (b) E-plane and (c) H-plane. and (c) H-plane.

Figure 9 shows simulated and measured radiation patterns for the combined Yagi
antenna and the fractal GRIN lens using the honeycomb cells on the E and H-planes. The
measured peak gain for the proposed honeycomb-shaped GRIN lens antenna was 15.49,
16.86, and 17.66 dBi at 24, 28, and 32 GHz. The cross-polarization level was 26.5, 20.5, and
18.2 dB at 24, 28, and 32 GHz. The sidelobe level was −14.7 and −13.9 dB for the E and
H-plane at 28 GHz, respectively. Figure 10 shows that the measured peak gain increased
7.5–8.84 dB over 24−32 GHz. The measured peak gain was relatively flat at approximately
16.86 ± 0.5 dBi within 25−31.5 GHz, corresponding to 1-dB gain bandwidth of 23%. The
HPBW decreased to 9.87◦ –11.68◦ and 8.07◦ –10.79◦ in the E and H-plane for 24–32 GHz.
The proposed lens antenna achieved radiation efficiency of 85.6−92.5% for 24–32 GHz,
as indicated by the purple line in Figure 10. The hollow honeycomb structure reduced
the dielectric loss from the 3D printing material and the overall lens weight. Hence, the
proposed antenna exhibits stable gain with high efficiency in the mm-wave frequency band
24–32 GHz.
 16.86 ± 0.5 dBi within 25−31.5 GHz, corresponding to 1-dB gain bandwidth of 23%. The
HPBW decreased to 9.87°–11.68° and 8.07°–10.79° in the E and H-plane for 24–32 GHz.
The proposed lens antenna achieved radiation efficiency of 85.6−92.5% for 24–32 GHz, as
indicated by the purple line in Figure 10. The hollow honeycomb structure reduced the
dielectric loss from the 3D printing material and the overall lens weight. Hence, the pro-
Fractal Fract. 2022, 6, 551 9 of 12
posed antenna exhibits stable gain with high efficiency in the mm-wave frequency band
24–32 GHz.

Simulated and
Figure9.9. Simulated
Figure and measured
measuredradiation
radiationpattern
patternforfor
Yagi antenna
Yagi withwith
antenna the proposed fractalfractal
the proposed GRIN
Fractal Fract. 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 12
GRIN
lens inlens
(a) in (a) E-plane
E-plane and
and (b) (b) H-plane
H-plane at 24(c)
at 24 GHz; GHz; (c) E-plane
E-plane and (d)and (d) H-plane
H-plane at 28and
at 28 GHz; GHz;
(e) and (e)
E-plane,
E-plane,
and (f) H-and (f) H-
plane atplane at 32 GHz.
32 GHz.

Figure
Figure10.
10.Simulated/measured
Simulated/measured gaingain
(left axis) of Yagi
(left axis) ofantenna with/without
Yagi antenna proposedproposed
with/without fractal GRIN
fractal GRIN
lens
lensand
andradiation efficiency
radiation (right
efficiency axis)axis)
(right of final structure.
of final structure.

Table 2 compares the proposed lens antenna and other GRIN lens antennas. High-
gain lens antennas with wide bandwidth in the mm-wave band using GRIN lenses have
been reported previously [12–15]. However, the antennas required complicated manufac-
turing processes such as PCB and metal machining. GRIN lens antennas fabricated using
3D printing technology have also been presented previously [23,24,28]. However, the lens
Fractal Fract. 2022, 6, 551 10 of 12

Table 2 compares the proposed lens antenna and other GRIN lens antennas. High-gain
lens antennas with wide bandwidth in the mm-wave band using GRIN lenses have been
reported previously [12–15]. However, the antennas required complicated manufacturing
processes such as PCB and metal machining. GRIN lens antennas fabricated using 3D
printing technology have also been presented previously [23,24,28]. However, the lens
antennas used a high-end 3D printer due to the complicate lens unit structure required for
elaborate fabrication. In contrast, the proposed fractal GRIN lens antenna is constructed
from honeycomb cells produced by inexpensive FDM 3D printing using the PLA filament.
Therefore, the proposed honeycomb-shaped GRIN lens provides a simple and cost-effective
manufacturing process compared to the previous reported lenses. On the other hand,
compared with other reported GRIN lens antenna, the proposed structure provides a
widest 1-dB gain BW of 23%, the highest radiation efficiency of 92%, and a relatively wide
impedance BW while remaining a simple and light weight overall structure.

Table 2. Comparison of proposed fractal GRIN lens antenna and other millimeter-wave lens antenna.

[28] [24] [15] [23] This work

Source Antenna Horn antenna Patch antenna Patch antenna WG Yagi
Lens volume
6λ0 × 6λ0 × 0.925λ0 6.7λ0 × 6.7λ0 × 2.2λ0 5λ0 × 5λ0 × 1.1λ0 10λ0 × 10λ0 × 1.25λ0 6λ0 × 6λ0 × 1.12λ0
(W × L × H) (mm)
Frequency band
12–18 24–28 13.4–13.6 28–40 24–32
(GHz)
1dB gain BW (%) N/A <7.7 <4.7 <8% * 23
Impedance
N/A 15.4 1.48 42.4 41
bandwidth (%)
SLL (dB) −14 * −11 −18.5 20 * −17
Radiation Efficiency
N/A 84.5 67.3 N/A 92
(%)
ABS1200,
ABS1000,
Lens material PLA Plastic resin RO4350B ABS650, PLA
ABS440,
ABS300
Fabrication method FDM SLA PCB FDM FDM
Cost Low High Medium High Low
Weight Light Medium Medium Light Very Light
* The data are estimated from the figure.

4. Conclusions
This paper proposed a 3D-printed fractal GRIN lens antenna with stable gain for
mm-wave frequency band applications. The fractal GRIN lens was realized with different
sized hollow honeycomb cells printed by a cost-effective FDM 3D printer. The proposed
lens antenna exhibited relatively flat gain 16.86 ± 0.5 dBi due to the decreased dielectric
loss in the 3D printing material from the hollow honeycomb structure. In addition, owing
to the structure of the proposed GRIN lens with only four concentric layers and a relatively
wide center concentric layer, the weight of the proposed GRIN lens antenna is significantly
reduced, although there is a slight trade-off in the maximum radiation gain. The fabricated
prototype lens has the weight of only 23 g while maintaining high mechanical strength.
In addition, the proposed fractal GRIN lens antenna provides easy fabrication and low
cost using commercial 3D printing technology. The proposed concept was successfully
demonstrated and could be extended into a beam-reconfigurable lens antenna with high
gain, wide bandwidth, and lightweight by introducing flexible or smart material to achieve
a reconfigurable physical structure.

Author Contributions: Y.K. and S.L. conceived the idea. Y.K designed, simulated, and experimen-
tally verified the proposed concept and proposed designs. Y.K., D.A.P. and R.P. contributed to the
fabrication and experiment processes. S.L. directed and supervised the project. All authors have
contributed to writing the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Fractal Fract. 2022, 6, 551 11 of 12

Funding: This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant
funded by the Korea government (MSIT) (2021R1A4A2001316).
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge the funding from the National Research
Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (MSIT), under the Grant No.
2021R1A4A2001316.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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