International Journal of Thermal Sciences 87 (2015) 215e227

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International Journal of Thermal Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijts

Recyclic double pass packed bed solar air heaters

Prashant Dhiman, Satyender Singh*
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur, H.P. 177005, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In the present work, analytical models to predict the thermal and thermohydraulic efficiencies of two
Received 3 April 2014 different designs of double pass packed bed solar air heater under external recycle have been proposed. It
Received in revised form is predicted that Model A with the single air pass through the first channel as well as the recycle of the air
26 August 2014
exiting from the second channel through the third channel can enhance the heat transfer rate more as
Accepted 26 August 2014
compared to Model B. The wire mesh screen as an absorbing media above the absorber plate is used in
Available online 28 September 2014
both of the solar air heater models. The recycle ratio and the mass flow rate are varied from 0.1 to 1 and
0.01e0.025 kg/s, respectively. The results of the study depict that the recycle ratio and the mass flow rate
Keywords:
Heater
substantially increases the heaters efficiencies by increasing the fluid velocity. The maximum value of the
Porosity thermal efficiency of Model A is found to be about 6.6% higher than that of Model B. The optimum values
Recycle of the recycle ratio and the mass flow rate, at which the heaters yield maximum values of thermo-
Thermal efficiency hydraulic efficiencies, are identified and presented. In addition, the effect of the channel depth ratio
Wire mesh matrix on the thermal performance improvement is also delineated.
© 2014 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The heat-transfer enhancement in the packed bed type of solar
air heaters is found to be higher as compared to the conventional
type of solar air heaters under similar operating conditions and
working dimensions as reported by several investigators. A review
of the literature shows that there is a substantial rise in the heat
transfer coefficient depending upon the porosity and porous ma-
terial used in the solar air heaters [1e4]. This is because, the voids
that exist within the porous packed-bed material increases the
convective heat transfer coefficient between the packed-bed ma-
terial and the flowing air. Several experimental and theoretical
studies in the past have attempted to obtain detailed information
on the heat transfer mechanism by using a porous packing in an air
duct and it was reported that the addition of the porous media in
the upper and lower channels increases the performance of the
double pass collector [5e9]. A unique study on double-pass channel
solar air heater through least-squares support vector machines and
artificial neural network approach was proposed by Esen et al.
[10,11]. Ozgen et al. [12] experimentally investigated the thermal
performance of double flow solar air heater by inserting an
absorber plate made of aluminum cans.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ91 9418662007; fax: þ91 01972 254736.
E-mail address: satyender.nith@gmail.com (S. Singh).
During past few years several methods have been proposed for
the thermal performance improvement of solar air collectors. The
use of porous packing material in the double pass collector
employing recycle operation is one of the methods. The various
models of the solar air collector have been developed and proposed
to improve the performance of double pass solar air heaters under
recycle operation. The recycle operation enhances the thermal ef-
ficiency, heat- and mass-transfer rates of double-pass flat-plate
solar air collectors instead of single-pass collectors by increasing
the fluid velocity with same flow rate [13,14]. Moreover, the heat
transfer characteristics and the thermal performance of the double
pass packed bed solar air collectors can be improved by using fins
[15,16] and fins with baffles [17,18] as a heat transfer extended
surface. The application of the internal and external recycle oper-
ations on the thermal efficiency of the different designs of solar air
heaters have been investigated theoretically [19e21]. It was re-
ported that increasing fluid velocity by using recycle in the double
pass heat exchangers enhances the heat-transfer coefficient,
resulting in improved performance. The thermal performance of a
double-pass collector with wire mesh as porous media in the lower
channel has been evaluated theoretically and experimentally under
external recycles [22]. It was reported that the considerable per-
formance improvement was obtained by operating the double-pass
collector with porous media under external recycle.
As delineated in the literature, the recycle operation substan-
tially improves the collector efficiency by increasing the fluid ve-
locity. The recycle operation have two conflicting effects: The first is

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2014.08.017
1290-0729/© 2014 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
216 P. Dhiman, S. Singh / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 87 (2015) 215e227

Nomenclature Subscripts
a ambient
A area (m2) b back plate
Ac collector surface area (m2) c convective, channel
Cp specific heat (kJ/kg K) f fluid, flow
d depth of the channel (m) g glass
D channel depth ratio i inlet, grid point
Dh hydraulic diameter (m) m packed bed material
dw wire diameter of screen (m) o outlet
G recycle ratio p absorber plate
Go mass velocity (kg/sm2) r radiative
h heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K) th thermal
I global solar radiation (W/m2) the thermo-hydraulic
k thermal conductivity (W/m K) w wind
L length of the heater (m) 1 first channel
M mass (kg) 2 second channel
m_ mass flow rate (kg/s) 3 third channel
Nu Nusselt number
pt pitch of wire mesh (m) Greek symbols
Pr Prandtl number a absorptivity
Qu thermal power output (W) t transmissivity
Re Reynold's number 4 porosity
T temperature ( C) h efficiency
u velocity of air (m/s) d thickness (m)
V volume (m3) r density (kg/m3)
Ub back loss coefficient (W/m2 K) m dynamic viscosity (kg/ms)
w width of the collector (m)

the desirable effect of increasing the convective heat transfer rate
and the second is the undesirable effect of extra inlet fluid heating
by mixing with the hot outgoing air leads to the temperature
driving force decrement and further heat loss increment from the
top glass covers.
In the present study, two different models of the double pass
packed bed type of solar air heaters for the thermal performance
improvement under external recycle are considered. The main
objective of this study is to reduce the undesirable effect of extra
inlet fluid heating by mixing with the hot outgoing air that has been
produced by the recycle operation and improve the heaters effi-
ciencies. An attempt has been made especially by providing the air
pass through the first channel of each model. The analytical model
capable of providing solution to predict the thermal and thermo-
hydraulic performance for these models are developed and
solved by using a constructed computer program that uses an
iterative solution procedure. The porous material such as wire
mesh is considered as a packed bed material. Interactions of pa-
rameters such as the recycle ratio and the air mass flow rate with
the thermal and thermo-hydraulic performances of these solar air
collectors are investigated. In addition, the effect of channel depth
ratio on the thermal and thermo-hydraulic performances is also
discussed.
2. Analytical study
The mathematical models of the double pass packed bed solar
air heater are categorized into two different cases such as Model A
and Model B. The schematic drawings and various heat transfer
coefficients are presented in Fig. 1. The present solar air heater
models are provided with two types of the air pass i.e. the single
and the double pass as shown in Fig. 1. The double-pass operation
for each model is provided by introducing the airflow with mass
flow rate, m_ and inlet airflow temperature, Ta through the second
channel. Before entering the channel, air with mass flow rate, m_
mix with the fluid exiting from the second channel of the mass
flow rate, m_ G as shown in Fig. 1. It is supposed that a conventional
blower regulates the recycle of the mass flow rate, m_ G situated at
the beginning of the third and first channel of the each model,
respectively. The experimental set-ups of the proposed solar air
heater models consist of an absorber plate, two glass covers and a
back plate. Several layers of the wire mesh as a packed bed ma-
terial were placed one above the other on the upper side of the
absorber plate. Two blowers were used to regulate the inlet air
flow as well as the recycled air flow through the heaters ducts,
which were calculated by measuring the pressure difference
through the orifice using an inclined tube manometer filled with
water. The pressure drop across the heaters ducts was measured
using a digital micro manometer. K-type thermocouples were
employed to measure the temperature of the glass covers, the wire
mesh, the absorber and back plates at various locations within the
heaters ducts and the flowing air at the inlet and outlet. The effect
of ambient wind was provided by a fan. The ambient air temper-
ature was maintained by using an air conditioner. The incident
solar radiations were simulated using an artificial simulator. A
digital radiation Pyranometer was used to measure the incident
radiations. The heat balance is accomplished across each compo-
nent of the given air heater models, i.e., the glass covers, the air
streams in the first, the second and third channels, the packed bed
and the absorber and back plates. The following assumptions are
made [2,22]: (i) The system operates under steady state condi-
tions. (ii) The heat capacities of the glass covers, the absorber and
back plates and insulation are negligible. (iii) The flow is one
dimensional i.e. the temperature of the flowing air varies only in
the direction of flow (x-direction). (iv) Thermo physical properties
of the flowing air are assumed to be varying linearly with tem-
perature. (v) There is no temperature gradient across the thickness
of the glass covers and the absorber and back plates. (vi) Heat loss
 P. Dhiman, S. Singh / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 87 (2015) 215e227 217

Fig. 1. Various heat transfer coefficients for (a) Model A and (b) Model B.

from the sides and recycling channel of the duct is very small, The upper glass cover:
hence neglected.

 

Igu agu ¼ hrðguaÞ þ hw Tgu  Ta þ hrðguglÞ Tgl  Tgu
2.1. The energy balance equations for the various elements of

 (1)
Model A þ hcðguf 1Þ Tgu  Tf 1

On the basis of above assumptions the energy balance equations

for the various elements of Model A may be written as [23]: The lower glass cover:
218 P. Dhiman, S. Singh / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 87 (2015) 215e227

       


Igl agl tgu ¼ hrðglguÞ Tgl  Tgu þ hcðglf 1Þ Tgl  Tf 1 m_ 1 þ G Cp dTf 2
    (2) ¼ hcðglf 2Þ Tgl  Tf 2 þ hcðmf 2Þ Tm  Tf 2
w dx
þ hrðglmÞ Tgl  Tm þ hcðglf 2Þ Tgl  Tf 2

þhcðpf 2Þ Tp  Tf 2 (13)
For air flowing in the first channel:
 

 The absorber plate:
_ p dTf 1
mC
¼ hcðguf 1Þ Tgu  Tf 1 þ hcðglf 1Þ Tgl  Tf 1 (3)    

w dx
hrðpbÞ Tb  Tp ¼ hrðpmÞ Tp  Tm þ hcðpf 2Þ Tp  Tf 2
For the porous matrix:
 (14)
þ hcðpf 3Þ Tp  Tf 3

  
Am Im am t2g ¼ hrðmglÞ Tm  Tgl Agl þ hrðmpÞ Tm  Tp Ap
For air flowing in the third channel:

 (4)
þ hcðmf 2Þ Tm  Tf 2 Am  


_ p dTf 3
mC
¼ hcðpf 3Þ Tp  Tf 3 þ hcðbf 3Þ Tb  Tf 3 (15)
For air flowing in the second channel: w dx
   

 The back plate:
m_ 1 þ G Cp dTf 2
¼ hcðglf 2Þ Tgl  Tf 2 þ hcðmf 2Þ Tm  Tf 2

w dx  
hrðpbÞ Tp  Tb ¼ hcðbf 3Þ Tb  Tf 3 þ Ub ðTb  Ta Þ (16)


þhcðpf 2Þ Tp  Tf 2 (5) The meanings of all symbols and notations are given in
nomenclature and various heat transfer coefficients of the different
The absorber plate: elements of the solar air heater are calculated using following

 correlations [6,23,24] as:
   
hrðpbÞ Tb  Tp ¼ hrðpmÞ Tp  Tm þ hcðpf 2Þ Tp  Tf 2
 

 (6) 2 þ T2
s Tgu a Tgu þ Ta
þ hcðpf 3Þ Tp  Tf 3 hrðguaÞ ¼  (17)
1
εgu  1
For air flowing in the third channel:
 




_ p dTf 3
mGC 2 þ T2
¼ hcðpf 3Þ Tp  Tf 3 þ hcðbf 3Þ Tb  Tf 3 (7) s Tgu gl
Tgu þ Tgl
w dx hrðguglÞ ¼ " # (18)
1 þ ε1gl  1
The back plate: εgu

 

hrðpbÞ Tp  Tb ¼ hcðbf 3Þ Tb  Tf 3 þ Ub ðTb  Ta Þ (8)


2 þ T2
s Tgl Tgl þ Tm
m
hrðglmÞ ¼ " # (19)
1 þ 1 1
εgl εm
2.2. Energy balance equations for various elements of Model B may
be written as
 
s Tp2 þ Tm2 Tp þ Tm
The upper glass cover: hrðpmÞ ¼  (20)
1 1

 
 εp þ εm  1
Igu agu ¼ hrðguaÞ þ hw Tgu  Ta þ hrðguglÞ Tgl  Tgu

 (9)

 
þ hcðguf 1Þ Tgu  Tf 1
s Tp2 þ Tb2 Tp þ Tb
hrðpbÞ ¼  (21)
The lower glass cover: 1 1
εp þ εb  1



Igl agl tgu ¼ hrðglguÞ Tgl  Tgu þ hcðglf 1Þ Tgl  Tf 1 The convective heat transfer coefficient for air flowing over the


 (10) outside surface of the glass cover is proposed by McAdams [25] as
þ hrðglmÞ Tgl  Tm þ hcðglf 2Þ Tgl  Tf 2 follows:
For air flowing in the first channel: hw ¼ 5:7 þ 3:8 V (22)
 


_ p dTf 1
mGC For wire mesh screen matrix bed, packing to air heat transfer
¼ hcðguf 1Þ Tgu  Tf 1 þ hcðglf 1Þ Tgl  Tf 1
w dx coefficient hc(mf2) is calculated by correlations given in Refs. [1,2]:
(11)    2:104
1 Pt
For the porous matrix: jH ¼ 0:647 Re0:55
m (23)
n4 dw

  
Am Im am t2g ¼ hrðmglÞ Tm  Tgl Agl þ hrðmpÞ Tm  Tp Ap The ‘jH’ factor is related to Stanton number and calculated as:

 (12)
þ hcðmf 2Þ Tm  Tf 2 Am jH ¼ Stm ðPrÞ2=3 (24)

For air flowing in the second channel: and Stanton number can be expressed by
 P. Dhiman, S. Singh / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 87 (2015) 215e227 219

.
Stm ¼ hcðmf 2Þ Go Cp (25) (c) Turbulent flow system (Re > 6000)

The convective heat transfer between the air flowing in the Nu ¼ 0:018Re0:8 Pr0:4 (35)
packed second channel and lower glass cover, hc(glf2) may be ob- The convective heat transfer coefficient for the air flowing in the
tained as. third channel as follows.
Num kf
hcðglf 2Þ ¼ (26) hcðbf 3Þ ¼ Nuk=Dh3 (36)
4Dh2

where Dh2, is the hydraulic diameter of the second channel, and is where, Dh3 is the hydraulic diameter for the third channel,
given as respectively, and are given as

4Af 2 4ðwd2 Þ 2ðwd2 Þ 4Af 3 4ðwd3 Þ 2ðwd3 Þ

Dh2 ¼ ¼ ¼ (27) Dh3 ¼ ¼ ¼ (37)
p 2ðw þ d2 Þ ðw þ d2 Þ p 2ðw þ d3 Þ ðw þ d3 Þ

Num is the Nusselt number for the packed bed and is given by. The convective heat transfer coefficient for the air flowing in the
first channel as follows.
Num ¼ 0:2Re0:8
m Pr
1=3
(28)
hcðglf 1Þ ¼ Nuk=Dh1 (38)
where, Rem is Reynold's number for the wire mesh packed bed
where, Dh1 is the hydraulic diameter of the first channel, and is
channel and is calculated as Thakur et al. [2]
given as
4rH Go
Rem ¼ (29)
m 4Af 1 4ðwd1 Þ 2ðwd1 Þ
Dh1 ¼ ¼ ¼ (39)
p 2ðw þ d1 Þ ðw þ d1 Þ
4dw
rH ¼ (30)
4ð1  4Þ The energy balance equations for the upper and lower glass
covers, the porous media and the absorber and back plates are same
rH is hydraulic radius and is related to the packing size and the for both models. Therefore, Eqs. (1), (2), (4), (6) and (8) or (9), (10),
void space. Go is the mass velocity, kg/sm2 is given by. (12), (14) and (16) are solved simultaneously to give the following
expressions for average temperatures, Tm, Tgu, Tgl, Tp and Tb for both
m_
Go ¼
 (31) models as.
Afu 4
Tm ¼ Z1 þ Z2 Ta þ Z3 Tf 1 þ Z4 Tfu þ Z5 Tfl (40)
Af2 is the frontal area of the second channel of the solar air
heater. Tgu ¼ Z6 þ Z7 Ta þ Z8 Tf 1 þ Z9 Tfu þ Z10 Tfl (41)
4 is the porosity of the packed bed and is given by Thakur et al.
[2]
h i Tgl ¼ Z11 þ Z12 Ta þ Z13 Tf 1 þ Z14 Tfu þ Z15 Tfl (42)
Pt2 d  pðd Þ2 P n
2 w t
4¼ (32)
Pt2 d TP ¼ Z16 þ Z17 Ta þ Z18 Tf 1 þ Z19 Tfu þ Z20 Tfl (43)

The convective heat transfer coefficient from the absorber plate

Tb ¼ Z21 þ Z22 Ta þ Z23 Tf 1 þ Z24 Tfu þ Z25 Tfl (44)
to the air flowing in the second channel hc(pf2) is assumed to be
equal to hc(glf2) [4]. Equations from (40)e(44) consist of coefficients of Z's which are
The flow is assumed to be hydro-dynamically fully developed at functions of solar radiation intensity, ambient temperature and
the collector inlet. The inner surface convective heat transfer co- different heat transfer coefficients, and are given in Appendix.
efficients were modeled according to the flow system [9], Guass elimination technique is used to solve the equations from
(40)e(44) to give Tm, Tgu, Tgl, Tp and Tb as given in Boyce et al. [26].
(a) Laminar flow system (Re < 2300):
2.3. Formulation of the air stream temperature for Model A
  1:17
0:00190 Re Pr DLh3 To provide the solution for the outlet air temperature of the
Nu ¼ 5:4 þ   1:17 (33) various channels of Model A, Eqs. (3), (5) and (7) may be simplified
1 þ 0:00563 Re Pr DLh3 as.
For the air stream temperature in the first channel, the analyt-
ical solution may be obtained as:

(b) Transition flow system (2300 < Re < 6000) dTf 1

þ K2 Tf 1 ¼ K0 Tgu þ K1 Tgl (45)
dx
"  2=3 # 0:14

 Dh3 m
Nu ¼ 0:116 Re2=3  125 Pr1=3 þ 1 þ where the meaning of K0, K1 and K2 are given in the Appendix. After
L mw some mathematical manipulations, the solution of the analytical
(34) Eq. (45) may be obtained as

K0 K
where, m is evaluated at film temperature and mw is evaluated at Tf 1 ðxÞ ¼ Tgu þ 1 Tgl þ C3 eK2 x (46)
wall temperature. K2 K2
220 P. Dhiman, S. Singh / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 87 (2015) 215e227

The average air temperature of the stream in the first channel X

2
x0
may be obtained as follows. Tf 2 ðxÞ ¼ Ci emi x þ (63)
i¼1
x2
ZL  
1 K0 Tp K1 Tb C3 eK2 L  1 The average temperature of the heated air stream flowing in the
Tf 1avg ¼ Tf 1 ðxÞdx ¼ þ  (47)
L K2 K2 LK2 second channel may be obtained as follows:
0
ZL
For flowing air temperature in the second and third channel, the 1 X2
Ci
mi L  x
Tf 2avg ¼ Tf 2 ðxÞdx ¼ e 1 þ 0 (64)
analytical solution may be obtained as: L i¼1
mi L x2
0
dTf 2 The air stream temperature in the third channel can be obtained
¼ R0 þ R1 Ta þ R2 Tf 2 þ R3 Tf 3 þ R4 Tf 1 (48)
dx by substituting the value Tf2(x) from Eq. (63) into Eq. (48) and we
get.
and
X
2
ðmi  R2 ÞCi em1 x R2 x0 R
dTf 3 Tf 3 ðxÞ ¼   (65)
¼ S0 þ S1 Ta þ S2 Tf 2 þ S3 Tf 3 þ S4 Tf 1 (49) R3 R3 x2 R3
dx i¼1

where, The average temperature of the heated air stream flowing in the
third channel ðTf 3avg Þ may be obtained as follows:
hcðglf 2Þ Z11 þ hcðpf 2Þ Z16
R0 ¼ ; (50) ZL  
v 1 X
2
ðmi  R2 ÞCi emi L  1 R x R
Tf 3avg ¼ Tf 3 ðxÞdx ¼  2 0
L Lmi R3 R3 x2 R3
i¼1
hcðglf 2Þ Z12 þ hcðpf 2Þ Z17 0
R1 ¼ ; (51)
v (66)

hcðglf 2Þ Z14 þ hcðpf 2Þ Z19  hcðglf 2Þ  hcðmf 2Þ  hcðpf 2Þ

R2 ¼ ; 2.4. Formulation of the air stream temperature for Model B
v
(52)
For the air stream temperature in the third channel, the
hcðglf 2Þ Z15 þ hcðpf 2Þ Z20 analytical solution may be obtained as:
R3 ¼ ; (53)
v
dTf 3
þ Y2 Tf 3 ¼ Y0 Tp þ Y1 Tb (67)
hcðglf 2Þ Z13 þ hcðpf 2Þ Z18 dx
R4 ¼ ; (54)
v
where the meaning of Y0, Y1 and Y2 are given in the Appendix. After
some mathematical manipulations, the solution of the analytical
hcðpf 3Þ Z16 þ hcðbf 3Þ Z21
S0 ¼ ; (55) Eq. (67) may be obtained as
y
Y0 Y
Tf 3 ðxÞ ¼ Tp þ 1 Tb þ C3 eY2 x (68)
hcðpf 3Þ Z17 þ hcðbf 3Þ Z22 Y2 Y2
S1 ¼ ; (56)
y The average air temperature of the stream in the third channel
may be obtained as follows.
hcðpf 3Þ Z19 þ hcðbf 3Þ Z24
S2 ¼ ; (57) ZL  
y 1 Y0 Tp Y1 Tb C3 eY2 L  1
Tf 3avg ¼ Tf 3 ðxÞdx ¼ þ  (69)
L Y2 Y2 LY2
hcðpf 3Þ Z20 þ hcðbf 3Þ Z25  hcðpf 3Þ  hcðbf 3Þ 0
S3 ¼ ; (58)
y For flowing air temperature in the second and first channel, the
analytical solution may be obtained as:
hcðpf 3Þ Z18 þ hcðbf 3Þ Z23
S4 ¼ (59) dTf 2
y ¼ E0 þ E1 Ta þ ETf 1 þ E3 Tf 2 þ E4 Tf 3 (70)
dx
After some mathematical manipulations, analytical formula for
the temperature of the air stream in the second channel, Tf2(x) may and
be obtained as.
dTf 1
¼ F0 þ F1 Ta þ F2 Tf 1 þ F3 Tf 2 þ F4 Tf 3 (71)
d2 Tf 2 dTf 2 dx
þ x1 þ x2 Tf 2 ¼ 40 (60)
dx2 dx
where,
where; x1 ¼ ðR2 þ S3 Þ; x2 ¼ ðS3 R2  R3 S2 Þ; x0 ¼ R3 S  S3 R hcðglf 2Þ Z11 þ hcðmf 2Þ Z1 þ hcðpf 2Þ Z16
(61) E0 ¼ ; (72)
v
with R ¼ R0 þ R1 Ta þ R4 Tf 1 ; S ¼ S0 þ S1 Ta þ S4 Tf 1 (62)
hcðglf 2Þ Z12 þ hcðmf 2Þ Z2 þ hcðpf 2Þ Z17
E1 ¼ ; (73)
The solution of the analytical Eq. (60) may obtained as. v
 P. Dhiman, S. Singh / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 87 (2015) 215e227 221

hcðglf 2Þ Z13 þ hcðmf 2Þ Z3 þ hcðpf 2Þ Z18 with E ¼ E0 þ E1 Ta þ E2 Tf 1 ; F ¼ F0 þ F1 Ta þ F2 Tf 1 (84)

E2 ¼ ; (74)
v
The solution of the analytical Eq. (82) may obtained as.
hcðglf 2Þ ðZ14  1Þ þ ðZ4  1Þhcðmf 2Þ þ ðZ19  1Þhcðpf 2Þ X
2
E3 ¼ ; j0
v Tf 2 ðxÞ ¼ Ci emi x þ (85)
j2
(75) i¼1

The average temperature of the heated air stream flowing in the

hcðglf 2Þ Z15 þ hcðmf 2Þ Z5 þ hcðpf 2Þ Z20 second channel may be obtained as follows:
E4 ¼ ; (76)
v
ZL
1 X2
Ci
mi L  j
Tf 2avg ¼ Tf 2 ðxÞdx ¼ e 1 þ 0 (86)
hcðguf 1Þ Z6 þ hcðglf 1Þ Z11 L i¼1
mi L j2
F0 ¼ ; (77) 0
y

hcðguf 1Þ Z7 þ hcðglf 1Þ Z12

F1 ¼ ; (78)
y

hcðguf 1Þ Z8 þ hcðglf 1Þ Z13  hcðguf 1Þ  hcðglf 1Þ

F2 ¼ ; (79)
y

hcðguf 1Þ Z9 þ hcðglf 1Þ Z14

F3 ¼ ; (80)
y

hcðguf 1Þ Z10 þ hcðglf 1Þ Z15

F4 ¼ (81)
y
After some mathematical manipulations, analytical formula for
the temperature of the air stream in the second channel, Tf2(x) may
be obtained as.

d2 Tf 2 dTf 2
þ j1 þ j2 Tf 2 ¼ j0 (82)
dx2 dx

where; j1 ¼ ðE3 þ F2 Þ; j2 ¼ ðE2 F3  E2 F3 Þ; j0 ¼ E2 F  E2 F

(83)

Table 1
Design and operation parameters.

Input parameters and constants Model A Model B

Length of solar air heater, L 2.2 m 2.2 m

Width of solar air heater, w 0.45 m 0.45 m
Depth of the first channel, d1 0.02 m, 0.04 m, 0.06 m
0.06 m
Depth of the second channel, d2 0.06 m 0.06 m
Depth of the third channel, d3 0.06 m 0.02 m, 0.04 m,
0.06 m
Channel depth ratio, D 1.0, 1.5, 3 ð¼ d2 =d1 Þ 1.0, 1.5, 3 ð¼ d2 =d3 )
Transmissivity of the 0.95 0.95
glass covers, tgu ; tgl
Absorptivity of the 0.05 0.05
glass covers, agu ; agl
Absorptivity of the absorber 0.95 0.95
plate, matrix, ap ¼ am
Emissivity of glass covers, εg 0.92 0.92
Emissivity of absorber 0.90 0.90
plate and matrix, εp ¼ εm
Emissivity of back plate, εb 0.94 0.94
Air mass flow rate, ðmÞ _ 0.01e0.025 kg/s 0.01e0.025 kg/s
Recycle ratio, G 0.1e1 0.1e1
Porosity of the porous media, 4 95% 95%
Inlet air temperature, Ti 27  C 27  C
Fig. 2. Comparisons of collector efficiency obtained from the different models as a
Solar intensity, I 600 W/m2 600 W/m2
function of recycle ratio, when mass flow rate ranging from.m_ ¼ 0:01  0:025kg=s.
222 P. Dhiman, S. Singh / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 87 (2015) 215e227

The air stream temperature in the first channel can be obtained For Model A
by substituting the value Tf2(x) from Eq. (85) into Eq. (70) and we
get.

_ p Tf 1;o  Tf 1;i
Qu1 ¼ mC (94)
X
2
ðmi  E3 ÞCi em1 x E j E
Tf 1 ðxÞ ¼  3 0 (87)

E2 E2 j2 E2
i¼1 _ þ GÞCp ðDTsecond Þ þ mGC
Qu2 ¼ mð1 _ p ðDTthird Þ ¼ mC
_ p Tf 2;o  Tf 2;i
The average temperature of the heated air stream flowing in the (95)
first channel ðTf 1avg Þ may be obtained as follows:
For Model B
ZL  
1 X2
ðmi  E3 ÞCi emi L  1 E j E
Tf 1avg ¼ Tf 1 ðxÞdx ¼  3 0
L i¼1
Lm i E 2 E2 j2 E2

0
_ p Tf 3;o  Tf 3;i
Qu1 ¼ mC (96)
(88)


The following boundary conditions (B.C.) were applied for _ þ GÞCp_ ðDTsecond Þ þ mGCp DTfirst ¼ mC
Qu2 ¼ mð1 _ p Tf 2;o  Tf 2;i
Model A:
(97)
(i) For the single pass
The thermal efficiency of each model is calculated as:

Tf 1 ¼ Ta (89) Qu
x¼0 hth ¼ (98)
IAC

(ii) For the double pass The thermo-hydraulic efficiency of each model is calculated as:

.
hthe ¼ Qu  Pfan IAC (99)
GTf 3 þ Tin
x¼L
Tf 2 ¼ ; Tf 2 ¼ Tf 3 (90)
x¼0 1þG x¼L x¼0 The fan power required for forcing the air through channels, is
calculated as.
The following boundary conditions (B.C.) were applied for
Model B: _ flow
mP
Pfan ¼ (100)
hfan hmotor
(i) For the single pass
where, fan (hfan) and electric motor (hmotor) efficiency are assumed
to be 70% and 90%, respectively [27]. The flow pumping power, Pflow
Tf 3 ¼ Ta (91) required for forcing the air through the channels of Model A and
x¼0
Model B is calculated as


mð1 _
_ þ GÞ DPpackedduct þ mGðDP _
smoothduct Þ þ mðDPsmoothduct Þ
Pflow ¼ (101)
r

(ii) For the double pass The pressure drop across the packed duct (DPpacked-duct) can be
expressed as follows:

GTf 1 þ Tin ! 
x¼L
Tf 2 ¼ ; Tf 2 ¼ Tf 1 (92) ru22 L
x¼0 1þG x¼L x¼0 DPpackedduct ¼ fp ðfor wire mesh packed bedÞ
2 rh
(102)
3. Performance parameters
where, fp, is the friction factor for packed duct and is calculated as
The main parameters affecting the performance of solar air [3]
heaters are the useful energy gain and the thermal and thermo-
hydraulic efficiencies [23]. Properties of the air are evaluated at    0:699
1 pt
the average value of the inlet and outlet temperatures of the fp ¼ 2:484 Re0:44
p (103)
flowing air under steady state condition. nf dw
The useful thermal output power, Qu (W) for each model is given The pressure drop across the smooth duct (DPsmooth-duct) can be
as. expressed as follows:
Qu ¼ Qu1 þ Qu2 (93)
2rfu2j L
where the meaning of Qu1 and Qu2 is different for each model and DPsmoothduct ¼ ðj ¼ 1; 3Þ (104)
Dh
given as follows:
 P. Dhiman, S. Singh / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 87 (2015) 215e227 223

Table 2 and channel depth ratio from 1 to 3. Various input parameters and
Theoretical predictions of thermal efficiency, thermo-hydraulic efficiency and useful constants considered in the study are presented in Table 1.
energy gain as a function of mass flow rate and recycle ratio.

m_ (kg/s) Recycle Model A Model B %I

ratio, G
4.1. Effect of the recycle ratio on the thermal performance of solar
hth ð%Þ hTHE ð%Þ %Dh hth ð%Þ hTHE ð%Þ %Dh air collectors
0.01 0.1 53.87 53.64 0.43 49.21 49.04 0.35 9.38
0.5 57.23 56.98 0.44 52.58 52.36 0.42 8.82 Performance comparison of the two air heating systems is
1 58.21 57.91 0.52 54.49 54.19 0.55 6.86
represented in Fig. 2 and Table 2. It is predicted that the thermal
efficiency of Model A is varying from 53% to 74.6% whereas it is
0.015 0.1 61.99 61.70 0.47 55.22 55.00 0.40 12.18
0.5 64.50 64.17 0.51 59.09 58.77 0.54 9.19 49%e69% for Model B for the investigated range of recycle ratio and
1 65.81 65.37 0.67 61.04 60.61 0.71 7.85 mass flow rate. The thermal efficiency of each model increases with
increasing recycle ratio and mass flow rate. This is due to fact that
0.025 0.1 70.79 70.40 0.55 63.82 63.42 0.63 11.00 increasing recycle ratio and mass flow rate increases the velocity of
0.5 71.87 71.33 0.76 67.85 67.23 0.92 6.10
the fluid flowing in the heaters ducts, whereas the heat removal
1 74.58 73.64 1.28 69.51 68.58 1.36 7.38
1.5 74.41 72.38 2.80 69.92 68.64 1.86 5.45 rate depends directly on the velocity of the fluid. Although, the
2 74.21 70.42 5.38 69.78 68.11 2.45 3.39 recycle effect increases the convective heat-transfer coefficient
owing to the enlargement of the mass flow rate, resulting signifi-
cant rise in the heat transfer rate. The maximum value of the
thermal efficiency of Model A is obtained as 74.6% at a mass flow
where, subscript j, designate a particular air flow channel and f, is rate of 0.025 kg/s and recycle ratio of 1 which is about 7.2% higher
the friction factor for smooth duct, and is calculated as (for turbu- than that of Model B as indicated in Fig. 2c and Table 2.
lent flow) The recycle operation has one undesirable effect of increasing
the heat losses through the glass covers by decreasing the tem-
f ¼ 0:059 Re0:2 (105) perature driving force. This study shows that the recycle operation
itself compensate for the undesirable effect whereas, the single air
4. Results and discussion pass improves the heaters thermal efficiencies. Also, the air flowing
through the first channel picks most of the heat lost through the
The theoretical predictions of heat-transfer characteristics and top glass covers and further, enhancement in the heaters effi-
performances for two types of double pass packed bed solar air ciencies by reducing the undesirable effect. The improvement in
heater are investigated at a fixed bed porosity of 95%. The mass flow the performances of the heaters may be illustrated numerically
rate is varied from 0.01 kg/s to 0.025 kg/s, recycle ratio from 0.1 to 1 using Table 2.

Fig. 3. Comparison of hth, Qu and DT obtained from the different models as a function of recycle ratio and mass flow rate.
224 P. Dhiman, S. Singh / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 87 (2015) 215e227

Table 2 also presented the percentage increase in the thermo- Table 3

hydraulic performance, %I of Model A compared to the Models B Theoretical predictions of air stream temperature and temperature of various ele-
ments of Model A as a function of recycle ratio and mass flow rate.
with recycle ratio and mass flow rate. It is obtained that the Model
A gives 12.1% higher thermo-hydraulic efficiency with respect to m_ (kg/s) Recycle Model A
Model B at lower mass flow rate and recycle ratio, whereas at ratio, G       
Tf1o ( C) Tf2o ( C) Tgu ( C) Tgl ( C) Tm ( C) Tp ( C) Tb ( C)
higher mass flow rate and recycle ratio the maximum percentage
0.01 0.1 13.26 18.86 21.65 50.81 82.33 71.51 64.04
enhancement is about 7.85%. The maximum percentage enhance- 0.5 12.31 21.82 19.74 47.56 77.89 64.41 55.93
ment in the thermo-hydraulic performance has been obtained at 1 11.49 23.22 18.04 44.79 74.18 58.78 49.70
recycle ratio of 0.1 and a mass flow rate of 0.015 kg/s.
0.015 0.1 10.22 14.42 17.06 42.72 74.60 62.76 55.40
0.5 9.33 16.32 15.19 39.37 69.74 54.87 46.44
1 8.56 17.60 13.54 36.52 65.61 48.14 39.10
4.2. Effect of the recycle ratio on the thermo-hydraulic performance
of solar air collectors 0.025 0.1 6.97 9.92 11.77 32.71 64.11 51.82 44.79
0.5 6.24 10.90 10.18 29.60 59.98 43.39 35.18
An important parameter that has to be considered while using 1 5.59 12.20 8.76 26.82 55.24 34.55 26.24
the porous material for the purpose of heat transfer rate augmen-
tation is the penalty arising from the increased pressure drop [3].
The high heat transfer rate and the low mechanical pumping power with further increase in the mass flow rate and the recycle ratio.
are the exigencies of good heat exchanger designs. It was reported Moreover, it is noticed that the percentage increase in the thermal
in the literature that the thermal performance criteria does not efficiency, %Dh increases with the increasing mass flow rate and
account for pumping power losses, therefore, it is necessary to recycle ratio. This is due to the fact that at the rate of increase of
consider a thermo-hydraulic efficiency criteria for the optimum thermal energy gain is lower at higher mass flow rate in compari-
design of the packed bed solar air heater. Table 2 summarized the son to the rate of increase of friction losses, i.e. region where the
results of thermo-hydraulic efficiencies of these two different air actual thermal energy gains are not commensurate with the
heaters as a function of mass flow rate and recycle ratio. It is expenditure in power losses. In case of Model A, the optimum
observed that the thermo-hydraulic efficiency of each model in- values of the recycle ratio and the mass flow rate for the maximum
creases with an increase in the mass flow rate and the recycle ratio, thermo-hydraulic efficiency are 1 and 0.025 kg/s, respectively,
attains a maximum value and then starts decreasing subsequently whereas they are 1.5 and 0.025 kg/s, respectively, for Model B. Fig. 3
shows the comparison of thermal efficiency, useful energy gain and
air stream temperature as a function of recycle ratio and mass flow
rate. It is noted that thermal efficiencies of each model increases
with the increasing mass flow rate for a specified value of recycle
ratio, while the useful energy gain of each model increases with
increasing recycle ratio as well as mass flow rate as indicated in
Fig. 3aec, respectively. Whereas the air stream temperatures of
both models increases with increasing the length of the heaters as
shown in Fig. 3d. It is found that the maximum value of the thermal
efficiency, the useful gain and the air stream temperature rise is
obtained for model A.

4.3. Effect of the recycle ratio and the mass flow rate on the outlet
air temperature

Fig. 4 presents the variation of the air stream temperature along

the length of solar air heaters for the mass flow rate of 0.025 kg/s at
varying values of the recycle ratio. It is seen from Fig. 4a and b that
the air stream temperatures of both solar air heater models

Table 4
Theoretical predictions of air stream temperature and temperature of various ele-
ments of Model B as a function of recycle ratio and mass flow rate.

m_ (kg/s) Recycle Model B

ratio, G       
Tf3o ( C) Tf2o ( C) Tgu ( C) Tgl ( C) Tm ( C) Tp ( C) Tb ( C)

0.01 0.1 13.82 15.54 23.40 51.71 75.00 52.95 40.15

0.5 13.16 18.20 21.22 47.82 72.24 50.53 38.14
1 12.58 19.93 19.50 44.57 69.79 48.37 36.35

0.015 0.1 10.09 11.87 19.88 45.75 68.09 43.70 30.77

0.5 9.47 14.02 17.32 41.02 64.92 41.14 28.79
1 8.95 15.32 15.45 37.29 62.24 38.95 27.12

0.025 0.1 7.24 7.97 15.02 37.11 57.87 28.64 16.18

0.5 6.70 9.48 12.32 31.71 54.61 26.58 14.93
1 6.27 10.31 10.56 27.81 52.01 24.93 13.93
Fig. 4. Comparison of DT obtained from the different models as a function of recycle
1.5 5.96 10.72 9.51 25.26 50.16 23.73 13.21
ratio.
 P. Dhiman, S. Singh / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 87 (2015) 215e227 225

increases with increasing recycle ratio along the length of heaters.

This is due to fact that the recycle ratio increases the heat transfer
coefficients, resulting increment in the air stream temperature
along the collector length, moreover, increasing fluid velocity may
leads to the heat removal rate enhancement, hence lowers the
temperature of the elements as shown in Tables 3 and 4. Fig. 4
indicated that Model A shows better air stream temperature rise
and useful energy gain than Model B. Fig. 5 shows the results of
pressure drop, DP/2 obtained along the length of solar air heaters
through the second channel i.e. from inlet to outlet and comparison
of thermohydraulic efficiencies. It is seen from Fig. 5(a) and (b) that
the pressure drop increases along the length of the heaters with
increasing mass flow rate and recycle ratio, respectively. Also, it is
found from Fig. 5(c) that the thermohydraulic efficiency of both air

Fig. 6. Effect of channel depth ratio, D on the thermal efficiency of the different
models.

heaters increases with increasing recycle ratio and attain a

maximum value, and then starts decreasing subsequently with
further increase in the recycle ratio. This is due to fact that lower
amount of energy is spent in overcoming the friction losses at lower
recycle ratio.

4.4. Effect of the channel depth ratio on the thermal and thermo-
hydraulic efficiencies

The effect of channel depth ratio on the thermal and thermo-

hydraulic efficiencies of both solar air heater models is presented
in Fig. 6 and Table 5. The channel depth ratio for both solar air
heater models is calculated as follows:

For Model A

fixed depth of second channelðd2 Þ

Channel depth ratioðDÞ ¼
varing depth of first channelðd1 Þ

For Model B

fixed depth of second channelðd2 Þ

Channel depth ratioðDÞ ¼
varing depth of third channelðd3 Þ

For each model, the depth of the second channel remains fixed
while the depths of the first and third channels have been varied.

Table 5
Theoretical predictions of thermal and thermo-hydraulic efficiencies of the collec-
tors as a function of channel depth ratio and mass flow rate when G ¼ 1.

Channel depth ratio, D _

m(kg/s) Model A Model B

First channel Third channel

hth ð%Þ hTHE ð%Þ hth ð%Þ hTHE ð%Þ

3 0.01 66.44 66.15 59.7 59.46

0.015 73.3 72.86 65.72 65.21
0.025 80.82 79.89 70.93 68.18

1.5 0.01 62.16 61.86 56.57 56.29

0.015 69.63 69.2 63.4 62.95
0.025 77.98 77.05 70.76 69.54

1 0.01 58.21 57.91 54.49 54.19

Fig. 5. Pressure drop, DP/2 obtained along the length of solar air heaters through the
0.015 65.81 65.37 61.04 60.61
second channel (inlet to outlet) and thermohydraulic efficiencies as a function of
0.025 74.58 73.64 69.51 68.58
recycle ratio and mass flow rate.
226 P. Dhiman, S. Singh / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 87 (2015) 215e227

Table 6
Theoretical performance prediction and percentage performance increment of the double pass packed bed solar air heater compared with theoretical and experimental results
of the wire mesh packed double-pass solar air heater proposed by Ho et al. [22] (I ¼ 830 W/m2).

m_ (kg/s) G Ho et al. [22] Model A

hth hex hth %Ith %Ith %Iex %Iex

d1 ¼ 0:06 m d1 ¼ 0:02 m d1 ¼ 0:06 m d1 ¼ 0:02 m d1 ¼ 0:06 m d1 ¼ 0:02 m

0.0107 0.25 0.422 0.404 0.578 0.710 36.919 68.128 43.069 22.837
0.5 0.452 0.435 0.580 0.713 28.341 57.810 33.333 22.931
0.75 0.474 0.466 0.586 0.716 23.692 50.970 25.751 22.184
1 0.491 0.527 0.590 0.717 20.244 45.927 11.954 21.525

0.0214 0.25 0.517 0.523 0.697 0.779 34.894 50.716 33.270 11.765
0.5 0.544 0.546 0.701 0.780 28.824 43.436 28.388 11.270
0.75 0.563 0.567 0.703 0.790 24.902 40.284 23.986 12.376
1 0.579 0.586 0.715 0.795 23.454 37.219 22.014 11.189

Both solar air heater models are operated at three different Appendix 1
channel depth ratios, D such as 3, 1.5 and 1, respectively. It is
indicated that the thermal efficiency of both these solar air heaters
increases with increasing channel depth ratio. The maximum rise
_ p
mGC _ þ GÞCp
mð1 _ p
mC
y¼ ; v¼ ; Y¼ ;
in the thermal efficiency is attained for Model A which is found to w w w
be 80.8% at a channel depth ratio of 3, whereas it is 70.9% for Model
B. hrðpbÞ hcðbf 3Þ
The outline of the literature survey in the area of double pass a1 ¼ ; a2 ¼ ;
hrðpbÞ þ hcðbf 3Þ þ Ub hrðpbÞ þ hcðbf 3Þ þ Ub
packed bed solar air heaters presented above reveals that no study
has been reported on the proposed air heating systems. Therefore,
the thermal performance comparison of the Model A is performed Ub
a3 ¼ ;
with that of the design proposed by Ho et al. [22] and the results hrðpbÞ þ hcðbf 3Þ þ Ub
are summarized in Table 6. The thermal performance of the Model a4 ¼ hrðpmÞ þ hcðpf 2Þ þ hcðpf 3Þ þ hrðpbÞ ;
A obtained is higher as compared to the system designed by Ho
et al. [22]. The maximum percentage increment, %I in the thermal
a5 ¼ hrðpmÞ ; a6 ¼ hcðpf 2Þ ; a7 ¼ hcðpf 3Þ ; a8 ¼ hrðpbÞ ;
performance of the collector is obtained as 68% at lower mass flow
rate and recycle ratio. Hence, it is observed that Model A proposed
h i
in the present study is thermo-hydraulically better and economi- a9 ¼ hcðglf 1Þ þ hrðglguÞ þ hrðglmÞ þ hcðglf 2Þ ;
cally feasible in the design of double pass packed bed solar air
heaters. a10 ¼ hcðglf 1Þ ; a11 ¼ hrðglguÞ ;

5. Conclusions a12 ¼ hrðglmÞ ; a13 ¼ hcðglf 2Þ ;

 Two different models of double pass packed bed solar air heater Igu agu
under external recycle have been analyzed for the thermal and a14 ¼ ;
hrðguglÞ þ hcðguf 1Þ þ hrðguaÞ þ hw
thermo-hydraulic performance improvement. The maximum
thermal efficiency of the Model A is found to be 80.8%, which is
13% higher than that of Model B at the mass flow rate of hrðguglÞ
0.025 kg/s, the recycle ratio of 1 and the channel depth ratio of 3, a15 ¼ ;
hrðguglÞ þ hcðguf 2Þ þ hrðguaÞ þ hw
respectively.
 The thermal performance of the collectors increases with
increasing recycle ratio, air mass flow rate and channel depth hcðguf 1Þ
ratio. It is concluded that the varying channel depth ratio with a16 ¼ ;
hrðguglÞ þ hcðguf 1Þ þ hrðguaÞ þ hw
single air pass has a significant effect on the performance of
these solar air heaters.

 The difference between the thermal and thermo-hydraulic ef- hrðguaÞ þ hw
ficiencies of each model is found to be in the range of 0.5e1.4%, a17 ¼ ;
hrðguglÞ þ hcðguf 1Þ þ hrðguaÞ þ hw
which is small and good from economical point of view.
 The optimum value of the recycle ratio, the mass flow rate and
the channel depth ratio for Model A is 1.0, 0.025 kg/s and 3, Igl agl tgu a10 a11 a12 a13
b1 ¼ ; b2 ¼ ; b3 ¼ ; b4 ¼ ; b5 ¼ ;
respectively, whereas it is 1.5, 0.025 kg/s and 3 for Model B, a9 a9 a9 a9 a9
respectively.
 Although, the present study is limited to a particular recyclic
air flow direction of respective Model; the theoretical model a14 þ a15 b1 Þ ða15 b2 þ a16 Þ ða15 b4 Þ
b6 ¼ ; b7 ¼ ; b8 ¼ ;
may also be used for predicting the thermal performance for ð1  a15 b3 Þ ð1  a15 b3 Þ ð1  a15 b3 Þ
other different recyclic air flow directions of the proposed a15 b5
b9 ¼ ;
designs. ð1  a15 b3 Þ
 P. Dhiman, S. Singh / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 87 (2015) 215e227 227

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[24] H.P. Garg, Advances in Solar Energy Technology, Reidel Publishing Company,
Model B Dordrecht, 1987.
[25] W.H. McAdams, Heat Transmission, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1954.
[26] W.E. Boyce, R.C. Diprima, Elementary Differential Equations and Boundary
hcðpf 3Þ hcðbf 3Þ Value Problems, second ed., Wiley, New York, 1969.
Y0 ¼ ; Y1 ¼ [27] B.M. Ramani, A. Gupta, R. Kumar, Performance of a double pass solar air
y y
collector, Sol. Energy 10 (2010) 1010e1016.
hcðpf 3Þ þ hcðbf 3Þ
Y2 ¼ ;
y