Composites Science and Technology 186 (2020) 107920

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Composites Science and Technology

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A proposal to modify the Kelly-Tyson equation to calculate the interfacial

shear strength (IFSS) of composites with low aspect ratio fibers
Laura Aliotta, Andrea Lazzeri *
University of Pisa, Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering, Via Diotisalvi 2, 56122, Pisa, Italy

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The mechanical behavior of short-fiber composites generally differs from long-fiber composites. The mechanical
Adhesion response is influenced by the particular distribution of tensions and by the mechanism of load transfer from the
Mechanical Properties matrix to the fibers. The transfer load from the matrix to the fibers occurs through shear stresses at the surfaces of
Analytical modelling
the fibers (edges or ends effects). The end effects in long fiber composites, involving a small portion of fiber, are
Fiber/matrix bond
Fibers
negligible; nevertheless, for short and very short fibers composites these end effects cannot be neglected.
Interfacial adhesion between the reinforcement and the matrix plays an important role, in fact it influences
both physical and mechanical properties of the composites, but the experimental determination is often laborious
and analytical models are frequently used to evaluate the interfacial shear strength (IFSS).
In this paper a modification of the Kelly-Tyson model for the calculation of the interfacial stress for short
(aspect ratio < 20) and ultra-short fibers composites (aspect ratio < 10) has been proposed to take into account
the end effects that in the original model were not considered. Successively, the Bader and Bowyer model (that
derives from the Kelly-Tyson model) for the evaluation of the IFSS was also modified. A few examples of cal­
culations of the IFSS, using this modified Bader and Bowyer model, have been provided using published liter­
ature data. Furthermore, a mechanical characterization of flax fibers has been carried out and their adhesion to
poly(lactic) acid (PLA) matrix were evaluated for composites containing ultrashort fibers (aspect ratio < 10). The
IFSS value obtained was compared with that obtained from the single fiber fragmentation test (SFFT). It was
found that a very good estimation of IFSS can be done by using this analytical model that can be easily applied
with a limited number of experimental tests.

1. Introduction energy of the filler [12–17].

The increasing demand for low cost polymeric composites has led to
investigate new possibilities for developing composites materials with
short discontinuous fibers [1]. Short-fiber reinforced polymer (SFRP)
composites are attractive because of their ease of fabrication, economy,
and superior mechanical properties compared to the unreinforced ma­
trix [2–4].
The interface plays an important role in the physical and mechanical
properties of the resultant composites. In fact, usually, a surface fiber
treatment is often needed to improve the compatibility with the matrix
[5–11]. In particular, the ability to transfer the stresses across the
interface is often discussed in terms of ‘adhesion’ that in general is
related to the interfacial shear strength (IFSS or τ). This parameter is
correlated to a combination of different factors such as the interface
thickness, the interphase layer, the adhesion strength and the surface
In the case of continuous fiber composites several experimental
techniques were developed to characterize the interfacial properties
such as: single fiber pull-out test, single fiber fragmentation test,
microdebond test and fiber push-out test [18–22].
In the case of filled particles or very short fiber reinforced compos­
ites, the experimental calculation of the interfacial shear strength is
more complicated and there is not an easy extension of the above
mentioned techniques. Different analytical expressions were obtained to
derive, not only the IFSS values but also the Krenchel fiber orientation
factor (η0) [23,24]. In general, these analytical expressions are based on
modifications of the Kelly-Tyson equation [19,25].
Bader and Bowyer (B–B) [26,27] studied the deformation behavior
of short fiber reinforced composites in which a wide range of
non-oriented fiber lengths was present; they were able to determine
fiber/matrix bond strength in a glass/nylon 6.6 and glass polypropylene

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: andrea.lazzeri@unipi.it (A. Lazzeri).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2019.107920
Received 7 March 2018; Received in revised form 9 November 2019; Accepted 16 November 2019
Available online 20 November 2019
0266-3538/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
L. Aliotta and A. Lazzeri
Fig. 1. Fiber stress (a) and interfacial shear stress (b) varying the fiber length according to the classical Kelly-Tyson model and according to the “modified” version
(c) and (d) respectively.
composites. The model proposed by Bader and Bowyer, is an extension
of the original Kelly-Tyson equation; it derives the value of the inter­
facial shear strength, τ, from a combination of the stress-strain curve and
fiber length distribution.
Thomason [5] improved these methods and illustrated the applica­
bility to an injection molded glass-fiber-reinforced thermoplastic com­
posites. He extended the analysis, inserting the composite breaking
stress and strain into the originally Kelly-Tyson equation and obtained
the average fiber stress at composite failure (σuf).
Puka�nszky [28] developed a semi empirical equation to predict the
ultimate tensile properties of different particulate filled and short fiber
thermoplastic composites. The semi-empirical equation proposed by
Puka �nszky describes the effect of filler volume fraction, ϕf, and interface
interactions on yield stress and tensile strength of particulate-filled
polymers. In this equation, an interaction parameter, B, was intro­
duced to consider the stress transfer capacity of the composite. The
Puka �nszky’s equation was successfully applied to anisotropic fillers, for
example in layered silicate nanoparticles, wood fibers, carbon nano­
tubes, calcium carbonate, graphite fibers, calcium sulfate [29–33].
Recently Lazzeri and Phuong [12] established a direct link between
Puka �nszky’s parameter B with other parameters which are known to
2
Composites Science and Technology 186 (2020) 107920
have strong effects on the mechanical properties of composites, such as:
the tensile strength of matrix and fibers, the aspect ratio, the fibers
orientation factor and the IFSS.
In short fiber composites, the load applied to the material is trans­
ferred to the fibers by the matrix; the load transfer takes place not only
through the cylindrical surface of the fiber but also through the ends of
the fiber itself. When the length of the fiber is much greater than the
length over which the stress transfer takes place, the end effects can be
neglected; instead, in very short fiber composites the end effects influ­
ence the behavior and the mechanical response of the material [34].
In most analytical models for the calculation of elastic stresses and
strains in short fibers composites, the shear lag theory, proposed for the
first time by Cox, was often applied [35–38]. According to this theory no
stress is transferred across the fiber ends. This assumption has been
shown not realistic since the fiber stress does not fall to zero at the ends
[39]. In particular, the predictions of composite modulus and strength,
calculated by Cox model, are not sufficiently accurate when the fiber
aspect ratio is small [34,40]. The Cox model provides an underestima­
tion of the strength due to the neglect of stress transfer across the fiber
ends [34,41–43].
The original Kelly-Tyson model, instead, considered continuous and
L. Aliotta and A. Lazzeri Composites Science and Technology 186 (2020) 107920

long discontinuous fibers (seen as a cylinders), embedded in a ductile

matrix, undergoing multiple breakages while still bearing substantial
fractions of the applied stress until the critical length is attained [19].
In this paper the attention is focused on short (aspect ratio < 20) and
ultra-short (aspect ratio < 10) fibers composites. The Kelly-Tyson
model, widely used to calculate the composite interfacial shear
strength (IFSS), was analyzed and modified taking into account the end
effects. Adding the contribution of fiber stress (not only at the middle of
the fibers but also at their ends) were introduced: a new expression of
critical length and a new formulation of the Kelly-Tyson model. Suc­
cessively, the Bader and Bowyer model (B–B model ) was applied with
the new equations found in order to obtain a simple IFSS evaluation. A
few examples of calculation of the IFSS, τ, with this modified model have
been provided and discussed using published literature data.
However, an evaluation of the IFSS by experimental tests is funda­
mental. The characterization of the interfacial region is very complex
and can be performed at different scales [44]. Among the multiple test
methods (such as: fragmentation, pull-out and microbond), with their
relative advantages and disadvantages largely discussed in the literature
[21,45,46], the single fiber fragmentation test (SFFT) is very popular
and simple to use [21,47]. Consequently, in order to validate this new
model version, a comparison between the IFSS calculated by SFFT and
the modified B–B model was investigated. The experimental validation
was made on a biocomposite because for this class of materials often
Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the stress at the fiber edges. a) Classical
ultra-short fibers are used. These types of fibers derive from industrial
Kelly-Tyson model in which the fiber tensile stress is maximum in the middle of
and/or agriculture wastes and they can be valorized. For this type of
the fiber and the edge effect are negligible b) “Modified” version, for very short
composites, the experimental evaluation of interfacial shear strength is fibers composites, in which the edge effects are not negligible.
complicate and laborious. Moreover, in the case of ultra-short fiber
composites, if the fibers come from wastes, for example, it is difficult to
have fibers sufficiently long to perform these tests and analytical models
are frequently used. This why it is important to have an analytical model
that is able to estimate with good accuracy the IFSS without making
excessive experimental tests.
Very short flax fibers were used and chopped to obtain a very short
aspect ratio (<10), before being added to a PLA matrix in different
amounts. A comparison between the IFSS calculated by single frag­
mentation test (SFFT) and the modified Bader and Bowyer model has
been made.

2. Theorethical analysis

2.1. Critical length review

The main hypotheses of the Kelly-Tyson model are: perfectly plastic

behavior of the matrix and the complete adhesion between the matrix
and the fiber; it follows the assumption of a constant shear stress along
the entire fiber length.
In the original model, the fiber tensile stress is maximum at the
middle of the fiber and at the fiber ends the stresses are negligible
because the fiber is supposed detached from the matrix following fiber Fig. 3. Fiber force balance.
breakage. In the case of composites having very short fibers, the length
of the fibers is just above the critical length or even below this threshold
Maintaining the classical assumptions of the Kelly-Tyson model, in
value. Therefore, when fiber breakage occurs the remaining fragments
this work a particular case of well bonded fibers having relatively low
of the fiber are not capable of bearing substantial fractions of the applied
aspect ratio and a matrix with plastic behavior were considered. In this
stress.
case, it was assumed that debonding does not occur at the fiber ends.
According to the classical Kelly-Tyson model the profile of the fiber
Moreover, since the fibers are very short, not only the fiber ends effects
tensile stress and interfacial shear stress, as a function of the fiber length,
are not negligible, but these effects give a constant stress contribution
is reported in Fig. 1. The equation for the critical length is reported
(σ0) that affects the entire fiber strength distribution. According to these
below:
assumptions, the maximum value that σ0 can reach is equal to the yield
σ f ;b D stress of the matrix (exceeded this value in fact, the matrix and the fibers
Lc ¼ (1)
2τ undergo to detachment); hence, in first approximation, σ0 ¼ σ y,m.
A schematization of the ends fiber stress effects, compared to the
where D is the fiber diameter and σ f,b is the fiber breakage stress. For a classical Kelly-Tyson theory is represented in Fig. 2. Consequently, the
fiber length equals to the critical length, the maximum stress in the profile of the fiber tensile stress was modified, introducing the
middle of the fiber can reach the fiber breakage stress. σ 0 contribution (Fig. 1 (c)).

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L. Aliotta and A. Lazzeri Composites Science and Technology 186 (2020) 107920

Fig. 4. Schematic representation of theoretical composite strength with volume fraction at different fibers aspect ratio. Comparison between the classical Kelly-Tyson
model and the modified version.

Applying the classical fiber force balance (Fig. 3), the relationship � �
Lc
between the interfacial shear strength and the fiber tensile stress [48] σ f ðL > Lc Þ ¼ σf ;b ⋅ 1 (6)
was obtained: 2L
For L < Lc (Fig. 1 (c)):
π D2 � π D2
σf þ dσf ¼ σ f þ πτDdz (2) Z
4 4 1 τL
σ f ðL < Lc Þ ¼ σ f dL ¼ þ σ0 (7)
L D
where D is the fiber diameter, τ is the interfacial shear strength and σf is
the fiber tensile stress. In the Kelly-Tyson model, the boundary condi­ Also in this case, when the end stresses are negligible, Eq. (7) returns
tions to solve the differential equation were: σf ¼ 0 for z ¼ � L corre­ to the Kelly and Tyson solution.
sponding to a zero stress at the fiber ends; and σf ¼ σ f,max for z ¼ L/2
corresponding to a maximum fiber stress in its middle (coincident to the
fiber breakage stress, σ f,b). With the new assumption, the second 2.3. Composite tensile strength
boundary condition does not change while the first condition includes
the σ0 contribution and becomes: σ f ¼ σ 0 for z ¼ � L. Integrating and For a composite containing more than a minimum volume fraction of
solving Eq. (2) with the new boundary condition, a new definition of fibers, Vmin, the strength of a composite, according to Kelly-Tyson model
critical length was found (Eq. (4)). [12,49], is expressed by the following equation:
�
Z σf ;max Z
4τ Lc=2 σ c ¼ η0 Vf σ f ðL > Lc Þ þ σ’m 1 Vf (8)
dσ f ¼ dz (3)
D 0
where η0 is the fiber orientation factor; σ0 m is the stress borne by the
σ0

� matrix when the strain of the composite is such that the fibers are
σ f ;max σ0 D
Lc ¼ (4) strained to their ultimate tensile strain, εc. This value can be obtained
2τ
experimentally through the stress-strain curves or it can be assumed
approximately equal to Em*εc. The value of σf is the fiber tensile stress
2.2. Fiber tensile stress for L > Lc and L < Lc
before defined.
Refocusing the attention on Fig. 1(c), a new expression of the fiber On the other hand, for a composite containing a volume fraction
average tensile stress was obtained for the cases in which the fiber length below Vmin, the equation is:
is less or greater than the critical length. The new expressions obtained �
σ c ¼ η0 Vf σ f ðL < Lc Þ þ σm 1 Vf (9)
are reported below.
For the case L > Lc (Fig. 1 (c)): where σm is the stress at break of the matrix.
1
Z �
σf ;b σ0 Lc
� Introducing in Eq. (8) and Eq. (9) the new expressions of fiber tensile
σ f ðL > Lc Þ ¼ σf dL ¼ σ f ;b ⋅ 1 ⋅ (5) strength for L > LC and L < LC (Eq. (5) and Eq. (7) respectively) the
L σf ;b 2L
modified expressions of the Kelly-Tyson model have been obtained.
where: σf,max � σ f,b. It can be observed that this new expression for the Fixed the values of σ0 m, σ m, σ0, τ and η0, varying the fiber volume
fiber tensile stress, when σ 0 is negligible (as in the case of long fibers) fraction and the fiber aspect ratio, the composite tensile strength trends
returns to the classical Kelly-Tyson solution (Eq. (6)): have been plotted in Fig. 4. In particular, a comparison between the
classical Kelly-Tyson model and the new version was made.
First of all, it can be observed in Fig. 4 that the intersection point
between the equation referred to L > Lc and L < Lc provides the value of

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L. Aliotta and A. Lazzeri Composites Science and Technology 186 (2020) 107920

Table 1
Values recalculated from original experimental data from literature.
Material Aspect ratio τaccording to B–B model (MPa) Τexperimental – Pull-out Test (MPa) τaccording to modified B–B model (MPa) Reference

PP/Hemp treated 17 9 6 7 [53]

PP/Hemp untreated 17 7 3 5 [53]
PP/Hemp þ 5 wt% NaOH 24 14 – 8 [54]
PP/Hemp þ 7.5 wt% NaOH 28 15 – 8 [54]
PP/Hemp þ 10 wt% NaOH 30 15 – 11 [54]
PEEK/Glass Fiber 12 80 – 66 [57]
PEEK/Carbon Fiber 14 202 – 179 [57]

Vmin that is the minimum filler volume fraction for which the fibers, (EfεcD/4Lτ)). The final composite stress at any level of strain is reported
having a determined aspect ratio, will have a reinforcing effect on the below:
composite [49]. For a composite having Vf < Vmin the composite will �X� � X� � �� �
τLi Vi Ef ε c D �
undergo fracture without any fiber fragmentation. σ c ¼ η0 þ Ef εc Vj 1 þ Em εc 1 Vf (12)
D 4Lj τ
Increasing the fibers aspect ratio, the reinforcing effect will be i j

greater; it is known in fact, that long fibers reinforce better than short
fibers. Furthermore, it can be observed that the trend differences be­ where i and j indexes are referred to those fibers having L< Lε and L> Lε
tween the classical model and the new version are very marked when the respectively.
aspect ratio is very low (<10). When the aspect ratio increases, the two According to Bader and Bowyer, τ and eventually also η0 can be
models tend to overlap confirming the correct negligibility of fiber end obtained using, at two strain values (ε1 and ε2), the composite stress (σ 1
stresses when the fibers become long. and σ2). The matrix contribution Z at these two strains can be calculated
Also the difference of the intersection point (Vmin) tends to be equal from a tensile test on the pure matrix material and it is used to evaluate
for fiber aspect ratio above 10; below 10 the Vmin difference is very the ratio R of the fiber contributions at the two strains:
marked and classical model requires more fibers to reach the Vmin value. σ1 Z1 ’ X1 þ Y1
This is due to the fact that the starting assumption of the classical model R¼ ; R ¼ (13)
σ2 Z2 X2 þ Y2
and the new version are different. In fact, in the new version, the fibers
Assuming a value of τ, Eq. (12) is used to calculate ratio R0 . The value
having a fiber length under the critical length are not completely de­
of τ is adjusted until R’¼R [5].
tached from the matrix and they are able to bear a part of the load
Substituting in the Eq. (12) the new expressions of the average fiber
applied.
stress (Eq. (5) and Eq. (7)) and using the new expression of critical length
When the fiber aspect ratio is very low (in Fig. 4 is reported the case
(Eq. (4)), a new analytical expression can be obtained:
in which ar ¼ 3) the fibers are too short, all of them are under the critical
length and there is not an intersection point (Vmin). In this case the �X� �
τLi
�� X� �
Ef ε c σ 0 D
�2 �� �
composite stress trends for L > Lc have no significance and only the cases σ c ¼ η0 Vi þ σ0 þ Ef εc Vj 1
D 4Ef εc Lj τ
for L < Lc are considered. It can be observed that the new model pro­ i
�
j

vides better results; it diverges only for high filler volume fraction that
are impossible to reach in practice. The classical model diverges
immediately giving results that are not consistent with what is found in
literature. For composites with very low aspect ratio, the decrement/
increment of tensile composite stress is not so marked as the classical
model predicts. The results of the modified model seem to be better in
predicting decrement/increment of the tensile composite stress that
appears more realistic [30,50–52].
2.4. Reformulation of the Bader and Bowyer model
At this point, with the new stress expressions along the fiber length
and with the new critical length formulation, the analytical model of
Bader and Bowyer (B–B) [26] can also be modified. Bader and Bowyer,
presented an iterative approach for deriving the interfacial shear stress
and the fiber orientation factor η0 (if is not experimentally known) [26,
27].
The Kelly-Tyson model [19] can be simplified to:
σ c ¼ η0 ðX þ YÞ þ Z
where X is the sub-critical fiber contribution, Y is the super-critical fiber
contribution and Z is the matrix contribution. Bader and Bowyer
assumed that at any value of composite strain εc there is a critical fiber
length Lε that is defined as:
Ef ε c D
Lε ¼
2τ
Fibers that are shorter than Lε will carry an average stress, given by
the Kelly-Tyson expression, equal to τL/D; similarly, for the fibers that
are above the critical length the average fiber stress is equal to Efεc(1-
þ Em εc 1 Vf (14)
Eq. (14) is still iterative, according to the procedure mentioned
above, and when R’¼R the value of IFSS is obtained.
This new modified model should provide a better IFSS evaluation in
the case of short and/or ultra-short fibers composites. It is also expected
that, in the case of ultra-short fiber composites (ar < 10), the lengths
involved are so small that all the fibers are under the critical length; in
this case the model is simplified (the super critical fiber contribution
vanishes), leading to a direct and very simple expression of the IFSS (no
more iterative):
� � �
1 σc σ’m 1 Vf
τðL < Lc Þ ¼ σ0 (15)
ar η 0 Vf
3. Comparison with literature data
In the present section, the IFSS data for fiber composites reported in
literature are compared to the results obtained with these new modifi­
cations of the Kelly-Tyson and B–B models.
(10) Li et al. [53] determined the interfacial shear strength of short,
treated and untreated, hemp fibers composites. Industrial hemp
(Cannabis sativa L.) from Hamilton, New Zealand was used in this
investigation. The matrix used was polypropylene (PP) (Icorene® PP
CO14RM by Aldrich Chemical) and maleated polypropylene (MAPP)
(A-C 950P high molecular weight MAPP supplied by Honeywell Inter­
national Inc.). Single Fiber Pull-Out test and Bader and Bowyer model
(11) were performed to determine IFSS. Starting from data reported by Li
et al. [53], the IFSS was calculated for PP composites, according to Eq.
(14). The attention was focused on composites with PP matrix with a
volume fraction of fiber equal to 28.8% because all the necessary data

5
L. Aliotta and A. Lazzeri Composites Science and Technology 186 (2020) 107920

Table 2
Experimental data from literature used for the IFSS calculation according to the new approach.
Material PP/Hemp PP/Hemp PP/Hemp þ 5 wt% PP/Hemp þ7.5 wt% PP/Hemp þ10 wt% PEEK/Glass PEEK/Carbon
treated untreated NaOH NaOH NaOH Fiber Fiber

Reference [53] [53] [54] [54] [54] [57] [57]

Ef (GPa) 22 24 25.7 26.3 27.6 69 210
Df (μm) 29 30 23.7 24.5 24.6 15 7
Lf (μm) 512 515 569 689 719 175 100
Vf 0.288 0.288 0.301 0.301 0.301 0.179 0.231
ε1 (%) 1 1 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.5
ε2 (%) 2 2 1.6 1.6 1.6 1 1
σ1,c (MPa) 28.9 25.5 22.1 25.2 27.2 46 70
σ2,c (MPa) 44.5 34.7 37.6 41.9 44.7 82 140
σ0 (MPa) 22 22 18.8 18.8 18.8 91.4 91.4
η0 0.46 0.44 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.4 0.21

Fig. 5. IFSS difference and fibers aspect ratio for the literature cases examined.

for the IFSS calculation are provided in Ref. [53]. The yield stress of the
matrix (corresponding to σ0) is not reported and it has been taken from
the technical datasheet of the supplier whereas the matrix contribution,
at the two strain values chosen, was calculated as Em * εc because the
stress-strain curve of the matrix was not provided. The IFSS values ob­
tained using Eq. (14) and according to literature [53], for treated and
untreated hemp fibers are reported in Table 1; whereas, in Table 2 the
main data, extrapolated from literature, used for the IFSS calculation are
listed. It can be noticed that the IFSS values obtained with this new
approach, compared to the classic Bader and Bowyer method, are closer
to the experimental pull-out test.
Other sets of data suitable for this study were made available in the
work made by del Rey et al. [54]. They studied the mechanical and
interface properties of biocomposites with hemp core by-product fiber.
The polymeric matrix used, with and without coupling agent (a
maleic-grafted polypropylene (MAPP)), was PP ISPLEN 090 G2M
(Ressol-YPF, Tarragona, Spain). A treatment with NaOH (BASF, Tarra­
gona, Spain) to eliminate soluble lignin and extractives from the surface
of the fibers was proposed. A prediction of IFSS, using B–B calculation
was made and it was found that the values were very near to the von
Mises criteria, that is considered an upper bound for the theoretical
value that τ can assume. Based on the data available (Table 2), PP/hemp
core composites with different weight percentages of NaOH were
analyzed. The results, reported in Table 1 show, also in this case, that the
IFSS values obtained with the new model are lower than the classic
Bader and Bowyer model. However, these new data appear more real­
istic because they are not too close to the maximum possible value given
by the Von Mises criterion and also taking into account the well-known

Table 3
Percentages of fibers having length shorter and longer of the critical length and critical fiber length value. Comparison between the classical model and the modified
version.
Material Lc according to the classic model Lc according to the new model L < Lc old L < Lc new L > Lc old L > Lc new Reference
(μm) (μm) (%) (%) (%) (%)

PP/Hemp treated 1063.3 1321.6 86.8 91.4 13.2 8.6 [53]

PP/Hemp untreated 1542.9 2094 88.4 93 11.6 7 [53]
PP/Hemp þ 5 wt% 399.5 671.3 88.8 97 11.2 3 [54]
NaOH
PP/Hemp þ 7.5 wt% 447.5 810.3 88.6 97 11.4 3 [54]
NaOH
PP/Hemp þ 10 wt% 478.9 632 94 97 6 3 [54]
NaOH
PEEK/Glass Fiber 155.3 177.8 39.6 47.9 60.4 52.1 [57]
PEEK/Carbon Fiber 89.4 100.9 15.9 26.3 84.1 73.7 [57]

6
L. Aliotta and A. Lazzeri
Fig. 6. Bundle of raw flax fibers.
bad adhesion that natural fibers have with the polymeric matrices [7,55,
56]. In any case, the interfacial shear strength increases with the NaOH
treatment demonstrating an improvement of the interface quality with
the addition of the NaOH content.
Short glass (GF) and carbon fibers (CF) reinforced poly-ether-ketone
(PEEK) composites were studied by Sarasua et al. [57]. In this work
commercial 30 wt% of short glass and carbon fiber reinforced PEEK
composites were used (trade names: Victrex PEEK 450 GL30 and Victrex
PEEK 450 CA 30). The reinforcing effect of fibers, evaluated in terms of
interfacial shear strength, using the Bader and Bowyer theory was
examined. On the basis of the data obtained from literature and reported
in Table 2, it was found, also in this case, that the new model reduces
significantly the τ values. However, the IFSS values confirm the good
interface adhesion; in particular carbon fibers have a much higher
adhesion to PEEK matrix than the glass fibers.
The IFSS difference is more pronounced when the fiber aspect ratio is
low. In Fig. 5 the IFSS difference and the fiber aspect ratio for the
literature cases examined are reported. It is confirmed that for fiber
aspect ratio above 20 the difference with the classical Bader and Bowyer
model (and consequently with the classical Kelly-Tyson model) are not
relevant and thus not necessary. In fact, the new modified “model” is
tailored for short (aspect ratio < 20) and ultra-short (aspect ratio < 10)
fibers in which significant differences with the classical Bader and
Bowyer model can be encountered.
In Table 3 the differences obtained, using literature values, for the
critical length value and for the percentages of fiber having length
shorter and longer of the critical length are reported. The new model,
increasing the critical fiber length, decrease the percentage of fibers
having L > Lc; it can be observed that this decrement is significant, as
expected, for composites with ar < 20. Shorter are the fibers, more the
critical length increases and it will provide a greater decrease of the
percentages of fibers having L > Lc.
It will be expected that for composite having ar < 10, the composite
will have all the fibers below the critical length and Eq. (15) can be used
without the need of iterative calculations.
4. Validation with new experimental data
In order to validate the model, experimental tests were performed in
which a composite system made of PLA matrix and flax fibers was
analyzed. The results of the classical B–B model and the “modified”
version were compared with single fiber fragmentation test (SFTT) and
also the final critical length was compared to the experimental data.
The materials used were:
� Matrix: poly(lactic acid), PLA2003D purchased from NatureWorks
(grade for thermoforming and extrusion processes) [melt flow index
7
Composites Science and Technology 186 (2020) 107920
(MFI): 6g/10min (210 � C, 2.16 kg), nominal average molar mass:
200,000 g/mol, density: 1.24 g/cm3, content of D-lactic acid units
about 3–6%].
� Reinforcement: raw flax fibers (kindly provided by Professor Luigi
Torre of Perugia University) were used in the form of long heckled
fibers connected together in a roving bundle. The appearance of the
fibers can be seen in Fig. 6 The long fibers were used essentially for
their mechanical characterization in order to obtain the necessary
parameters (Young modulus and stress at break); whereas, for the
composites production, the fibers were chopped with a cutter in
order to obtain fibers having aspect ratio around 8. The fiber density
was taken equal to 1.5 g/cm3 according to literature data [58].
4.1. Fiber tensile tests
Axial tensile tests on single fiber filaments, randomly chosen and
extracted from the bundle, were performed at room temperature ac­
cording to ASTM D3379-89. An Instron universal testing machine 5500R
equipped with a 10 N load cell and interfaced with a computer running
MERLIN software (INSTRON version 4.42 S/N – 014733H) was used.
The support for mounting the fiber filament in the tensile testing ma­
chine was made of thin cardboard and a slot of length equal to the
clamps distance, was cut out in the middle of this support. A single
filament was pasted at both the ends using a suitable adhesive.
The axial Young’s modulus, the ultimate axial tensile strength of
single fiber and all related system parameters (system compliance Cs,
true compliance C) were calculated according to Ref. [59]. Along the
useful length of the fiber filament, different diameter measurements per
single fiber filament were carried out, using an optical microscope, and a
mean value was taken for the calculation of the cross sectional area. For
simplicity it was made the assumption that the fibers have cylindrical
shape and therefore a circular section was considered.
Natural fibers, due to defects and diameter variation along the entire
length, have a very wide scatter of mechanical properties that cannot be
determined on a limited number of samples. Consequently, a statistical
study was carried out at 3 different clamp distances (10, 20 and 30 mm)
in which at least 50 fiber filaments per distance were tested.
The Weibull analysis was proved to be suitable for several fibers and
also for flax fibers [60,61]. Owing to the varying severity of flaws along
the fibers, it was found that the fiber strength is statistically distributed.
The experimental fiber strength distribution, P(σf), under tension (the
fibers exhibit little diameter variation in the gauge lengths examined)
can be generally described by the standard Weibull distribution [62]:
� � �� � �
� l σf α
P σf ¼ 1 exp (16)
l0 β
where l is the fiber length, l0 is the reference length (chosen equal to 1
mm for mathematical convenience), α is the shape parameter and β is
the scale parameter. A modified Weibull distribution was proposed by
Watson and Smith [63]; they introduced an empirical exponential
parameter, γ, for improving the fitting with experimental data. How­
ever, in literature it was found that the two-parameter Weibull distri­
bution provided good agreement with flax fiber strength data [64].
Consequently, in this study, Eq. (16) was applied.
The cumulative probability of the fiber failure, P, was estimated as
median ranks assigned to the measured strength values at each gauge
length, σ f,i, using the following expression:
� i 0:3
P σf ;i ¼ (17)
n þ 0:4
where n is the number of data points (in this case correspond to the
strength measurements performed at a given gauge distance) and i is the
rank of the i-th number in the ascending ordered strength data point
[65].
L. Aliotta and A. Lazzeri Composites Science and Technology 186 (2020) 107920

Table 4
Weibull distribution parameters of flax fibers strength (l0 ¼ 1 mm).
Loading Gauge Shape Scale Predicted Measureda
rate length parameter parameter β Strength Strength
(mm/ (mm) α (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
min)

0.6 10 1.07 6989.17 794.47 734.79

0.6 20 1.03 9921 531.27 544.02
0.6 30 1.91 2782 414.54 410.75
a
average value of 40 results.

Fig. 8. Dependence of the flax fibers average strength on the test length.

Fig. 9. Flax fibers modulus as a function of fiber diameter.

The average strength was evaluated by the following equation:

� � α1 � �
l 1
< σf > ​ ¼ ​ β Γ 1þ (18)
l0 α

where Γ is the Gamma function evaluated at different gauge lengths.

Differently from the fiber stress at break, the elastic modulus (eval­
uated according to Ref. [59]) is independent from the fiber length.
Consequently, all data obtained for each fiber (tested at different gauge
distances) were combined in order to obtain an elastic modulus esti­
mation according to the following equation:
PN
Ei
Ef ¼ i (19)
N

Fig. 7. Weibull plots for tensile strength of flax fibers at different gauge
lengths: a) 10 mm; b) 20 mm; c) 30 mm.
where Ef is the average flax fibers elastic modulus, Ei is the value of the
elastic modulus of each single flax fiber and N is the total number of
tested fibers.
The values of Weibull distribution parameters and the Weibull plots
for tensile strength at different gauge lengths are reported in Table 4 and
Fig. 7. The comparison of the average strength values predicted by Eq.
(18) (at 10, 20 and 30 mm gauge lengths) are very close to the experi­
mentally average values confirming the validity of scaling model based
on standard Weibull analysis.
Plotting the values of the predicted average strength as function of
the gauge length into a log-log plot, a linear trend can be observed.
Interpolating these values with a straight line, it is possible to obtain the
“fibers working line” that predicts the strength at break of the flax fibers at
different lengths (Fig. 8). The average tensile strength is sensitive to
gauge lengths with a decrease in fracture strength with increasing gauge
length. This behavior is very common and it was reported in literature
for brittle fibers. This trend was attributed to the fact that increasing the
test length, there will be more flaws within the fibers and, consequently,
the probability of fiber failure will become larger [65,66].
The value of elastic modulus obtained from Eq. (19) is 36.94 GPa and
it falls within the range found in the literature for flax fibers [55,67].

8
L. Aliotta and A. Lazzeri
Fig. 10. Tensile tester apparatus for single fiber fragmentation test (SFFT) (left side) and test set-up under microscope (right side).
Plotting the fiber Young’s modulus as a function of fiber diameter
(Fig. 9) it seems that there is an inverse hyperbolic correlation between
the elastic modulus and the fiber diameter; this trend was already found
for other natural fibers [68–70]. The thin fibers are more homogeneous
in fact the microfibrils, being more packed, contain fewer defects and
voids. As a consequence, the thinner fibers have a more resistant cross
section at which is associated a higher elastic modulus. Another reason
for the inverse correlation could be in the random distribution of the
greater number of microfibrils. The probability is that in the thicker fi­
bers (having more microfibrils), the rupture will start earlier and this
will results in a lower stiffness [68].
4.2. Single fiber composite tensile tests
In order to investigate the adhesion between the fiber and the matrix,
single fiber fragmentation test (SFFT) was carried out. In this test, a
tensile load is applied on each single fiber embedded in a matrix spec­
imen. The specimens, having a dump-bell shape, were elongated in a
specific custom made tensile tester (Fig. 10). This tester is able to pull
slowly both the specimen ends applying a uniform tensile stress distri­
bution in the specimen gauge section.
The experiment was carried out under a light microscope in order to
observe and to measure in situ the fragmentation process. The fiber
inside the matrix starts to break into increasingly smaller fragments until
a critical length is reached. For the analysis of the fragments lengths,
only samples where the crack went completely through the fiber were
considered. Several specimens were broken in order to have at least 200
fragments. A fragments lengths distribution was evaluated and the
weighted average fiber fragment length, l, was calculated.
Fig. 11. Fragments length distribution.
9
Composites Science and Technology 186 (2020) 107920
Therefore, the critical fragment length was obtained applying the
following equation [22]:
4
lc ¼ l (20)
3
The average shear strength at the interface it was then estimated as:
σf lcÞ D
τ¼ (21)
2lc
where σ f(lc) is the fiber strength at the critical length, D is the mean fiber
diameter.
The specimens for fragmentation tests were prepared from granules
of pure PLA2003D kept in a circulating air oven at 60 � C for at least 24 h
to avoid water uptake. Sheets of PLA matrix were produced placing
about 5 g of PLA 2003D between two Teflon sheets and then compres­
sion molded by two steel plates in a NOSELAB ATS manual laboratory
heat press at 195 � C and 2.5–3 tons pressure for 6–8 min. To control the
thickness of the resulting sheets, a thin steel plate was placed between
the Teflon sheets. The thickness of the single PLA sheets produced was
about 0.8 mm. Subsequently, a single polymer sheet was placed again on
the Teflon sheet and a single flax fiber (manually selected from the fibers
bundle) was attached to the polymer sheet with an adhesive tape. At this
point, a second polymer sheet was positioned on the top of the first one
and the two resulting sheets with the fiber in the middle, were pressed
again in the laboratory press (180 � C, 3 tons, 1 min). The straight fibers
embedded in the polymer matrix were cut after cooling, using an Elas­
tocon cutting die, into dump-bell shaped tensile specimens (ISO 527–2
type A).
L. Aliotta and A. Lazzeri Composites Science and Technology 186 (2020) 107920

Fig. 12. Typical fragments of flax fibers in PLA matrix during fragmentation test.

Table 5 Table 6
Single fiber fragmentation test results. Tensile properties of PLA – Flax composites.
Weighted Mean Critical Flax fibers Interfacial shear Young Modulus Tensile Strength Elongation at break
average fiber fibers length average strength (IFSS), PLA/Flax (wt. (GPa) (MPa) (%)
fragment diameter according to strength at τ, according to %)
length (l) (mm) Eq. (11) critical Eq. (12) (MPa)
100/0 3.29 � 0.1 59.76 � 1.8 3.92 � 0.4
(mm) (mm) length (MPa)
90/10 4.69 � 0.5 63.56 � 0.7 2.8 � 0.2
1.84 0.073 2.46 950 14.10 80/20 4.75 � 0.3 66.6 � 0.3 3.04 � 0.2
60/40 6.30 � 0.2 59.37 � 1.3 1.82 � 0.3

A fragment length distribution, obtained according to the procedure

explained before, is reported if Fig. 11 whereas, some pictures of fiber
fragments recorded during the test are shown in Fig. 12.
The average strenth of flax fibers at critical length was evaluated
extrapolating from Fig. 8. The SFFT results and all related data are listed
in Table 5.
Generally good fiber/matrix adhesion leads to short fiber fragments
lengths; on the other hand, poor fiber/matrix adhesion leads to longer
critical fragmentation lengths.
On the basis of the results obtained it can be observed a high value of
critical fiber length (2.46 mm) at which corresponds a low IFSS value
(14.10 MPa) indicating that a weak but not null adhesion between the
fibers and the matrix is encountered. This value is in good accordance
with other experimental data present in literature in which a critical
length (measured by pull-out test) of 1.95 mm was calculated with an
IFSS value for PLA-flax system of 28.3 MPa [71]. It is necessary to take
into account that the IFSS values, measured by the pull-out test, are in
generally higher than those measured with fragmentation test as re­
ported by several authors in literature. The single-fiber fragmentation
test produces values of interfacial shear strength that are in good
agreement with the effective mechanical properties of the resulting
composites [11,46,55]; this is the reason why this test was chosen for the
model validation.
4.3. Composite tensile tests
All materials were dried in a circulating air oven at 60 � C for at least
24 h. Different composites were produced containing increasing amount
of flax fibers (10, 20 and 40 wt%). Blends were processed with a Thermo
Scientific MiniLab Haake conical twin screw extruder at a screw rate of
100 rpm/min and a cycle time of 60 s; after the extrusion the molten
materials were transferred, through a preheated cylinder (set at the
same temperature of the extruder), to a Thermo Scientific Haake MiniJet
II mini injection moulder (mould temperature set at 60 � C) for the
production of Haake type III dog-bone tensile bars (size: 25 x 5 � 1.5
mm). Extrusion and injection molding were carried out at 180 � C, at this
temperature PLA is at the molten state and contemporary the flax fibers
do not degrade. In fact, the thermal degradation of flax fibers takes place
at around 200 � C and it is not really significant in the first few minutes
[72].
After preparation and before thermal and mechanical tests, the
specimens were stored in a desiccator at room temperature, to avoid
water uptake.
Tensile tests were carried out at room temperature and at a crosshead
speed of 10 mm/min on an Instron universal testing machine 5500R
equipped with a 10 kN load cell. The machine is interfaced with a
computer running MERLIN software (version 4.42S/N–014733H). The
samples were tested not before 24 h from specimen extrusion. At least
five specimens for each blend were tested and the average values were
reported.
The fibers were extracted from the composites blends in order to
evaluate: the fiber length distributions and the mean aspect ratio and to
verify the absence of fiber twisting phenomena due to the extrusion
which may influence the composite IFSS calculation [73]. At least 8–10
g of each specimen’s blends were dissolved in chloroform and were
centrifuged, then the extracted fibers were dried at 80 � C for at least 24
h. Subsequently, the fibers were analyzed by SEM (JEOL JSM-5600LV).
At least 200 extracted fibers for each composite blends have been
examined and measured with Image J software.
In Table 6 are summarized the results of tensile tests for the different
fibers content. All specimens showed brittle failure with a stiffness in­
crease with the flax fibers amount. This behavior is very common and it
was encountered in literature for other similar systems [58,72,74]. Also
the tensile strength increases with the fiber content. A maximum is
reached at 20 wt% of fibers and a further fibers increment causes a drop
down of tensile strength. Increasing the fiber content in fact, the matrix
is not sufficient enough to wet the fibers and this produces a reduction of
the tensile strength [58]. The stiffness increment, moreover, provokes a
decrease of the elongation at break with fiber content.
Before to apply the analytical models, it is useful to pay attention on
the composites fiber length distributions showed in Fig. 13. It can be
noticed that for all composites, the fibers lengths involved are all below
the critical length value (calculated by SFFT); the maximum value of
length registered is 1100 μm.
An average weighted fiber length and a mean aspect ratio were
calculated for the composite blends (the results are listed in Table 7). It
can be observed that for all composites systems the aspect ratio is around

10
L. Aliotta and A. Lazzeri Composites Science and Technology 186 (2020) 107920

Fig. 13. Fiber length distributions: a) PLA þ10 wt% Flax; b) PLA þ20 WT.% Flax; c) PLA þ40 wt% Flax.

Table 8
Table 7
IFSS evaluation for PLA – Flax composites.
Mean (weighted) fiber lengths and mean aspect ratio for PLA – Flax composites.
PLA/Flax IFSS according to Bader and IFSS according to “modified”
PLA/Flax (wt. %) Mean fiber length (μm) Aspect ratio
(wt. %) Bowyer model (MPa) model (MPa)
90/10 530 7.3
90/10 42.82 33.90
80/20 620 8.5
80/20 20.65 13.03
60/40 593 8.2
60/40 19.91 11.94

orientation factor [75].

Fig. 14. IFFS trend for PLA – Flax composites.
8. Consequently, these composite systems belong to the class of ultra-
short fiber composites (aspect ratio < 10).
4.4. Model application and validation
Before the application of the analytical models some considerations
have to be done. The value of σ0 (fiber end stress) was taken, from the
tensile tests on pure PLA, as the maximum stress value that matrix can
reach (equal to 65 MPa). Due to their very short aspect ratio, a randomly
fiber disposition was considered, consequently 3/8 was taken as fibers
Being all fibers below the critical length, for all the analytical models,
the only contribution related to the fibers having L < Lc must be
considered. Consequently, for the classic Bader and Bowyer model and
for the modified version, the expressions (Eq. (12) and Eq. (14)) become
very simple and a direct calculation of the IFSS is possible not consid­
ering the contribution of L > Lc. The IFSS trends obtained from these
models are illustrated in Fig. 14.
The IFSS trends of the composites are in agreement with literature
data in which the IFSS was observed to slight decrease with increasing
fiber content [73,76]. The B–B model, extrapolating the data from the
experimental stress-strain curves (that change with the fibers content)
gives values of the IFSS that varies with the volumetric fibers amount.
However, IFSS is an interface property that is independent from the
volumetric filler fraction, as a consequence a mean value, among the
values obtained at different volumetric percentages, is taken [52,73,77].
It can be observed that with the “modified” version of Bader and
Bowyer model, the IFSS values (reported in Table 8) are lower and more
realistic. In particular, with the classic model at 10 wt% of fiber content,
τ overcomes the Von Mises threshold (35 MPa). This threshold, used to
discuss the fibre/matrix interfacial shear strength, is kept as conserva­
tive value. In fact, the maximum value that the shear strength can reach,
(that cannot be measured directly) can be estimated using the von Mises
relationship (τ ¼ σm/√3) [78].

11
L. Aliotta and A. Lazzeri
Table 9
Comparison of different critical lengths and IFSS values.
IFSS value IFSS value Lc according to Lc calculated
according to according to the classical according the
Bader and “modified” Kelly-Tyson “modified”
Bowyer model (MPa) model for version (mm)
model (MPa) classic Bader
and Bowyer
model (mm)
20.65 13.03 1.67 2.47
Generally, when the Bader and Bowyer approach is used, a mean
value of IFSS is considered. It is interesting to note that the classic Bader
and Bowyer model gives a mean IFSS of 20.65 MPa that it is still over­
estimated respect to the SFFT value (14.10 MPa).
On the other hand, the “modified” Bader and Bowyer model provides
an IFSS mean value (13.03 MPa) that is more realistic and very close to
the experimental result confirming that this modified model, tailored for
ultra-short fibers composites, fits better the experimental data providing
more realistic results.
To confirm further the validity of this new model version, consid­
ering the IFSS value obtained, the critical length was evaluated. The
standard Kelly-Tyson equation (Eq. (1)) was used for the classic B–B
model, whereas for the modified version the new critical length equation
(Eq. (4)) was applied.
The IFSS values and the critical lengths values are summarized in
Table 9. It is important to observe that the modified Bader and Bowyer
model provides a critical length value that is very close to the experi­
mental result. On the other hand, the classic model differs strongly and
provides an underestimation of the critical length value.
5. Conclusions
In this paper a modification of the Kelly-Tyson equation for short and
ultra-short fiber composites has been proposed. The starting hypothesis
is the non-negligibility of the fiber end stresses in the case of short and
ultra-short fibers composites. A new equation for the IFSS calculation
using the Bader and Bowyer approach was obtained.
A few examples of IFSS calculations, τ, have been provided using
published literature data. All results show a lowering of the IFSS values
obtained compared to the classic Bader and Bowyer calculation. The
new values appear more coherent and closer to experimental results.
It has been confirmed that the Bader and Bowyer model becomes
increasingly less accurate as the aspect ratio decreases and therefore, for
very low aspect ratio, it needs to be modified.
A validation with experimental data also confirmed the validity of
this new approach. The single fiber fragmentation test was used not only
to evaluate the IFSS value but also to calculate the critical fiber length.
The results obtained are very interesting because not only an improve­
ment in the IFSS estimation was reached with this new approach, but
also the new critical length expression gives results that are very close to
the experimental test.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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