DISASTER MANAGEMENT (GGB564)

B.A./B.Sc. (Hons) V Semester 2020-2021

Flood and its impacts

Origin of the word flood stems from the old English word Flōd, that is related to the dutch word
vloed and German Flut all of which means “to flow”. Flood is the overflow of water beyond a
normal level that submerges adjoining land areas which are usually dry. Floods are termed as
disasters when submergence in the adjoining areas affects human beings or animals with
associated loss.
Flood is a hydro-meteorological phenomenon having widespread occurrence across the globe
with varied severity and dimensions. Many of the disaster reports have highlighted the impacts
of flood with another high-profile disaster like earthquake and declares that flood incidences in
the world are nearly eight times more than that of earthquakes and the number of people affected
by floods is nearly 12 times more. There are different perceptions of flood for different
stakeholders. For common people, it means devastation, destructions, damage, starvation, loss of
lives, damage to properties and infrastructures, etc. Those living in urban areas may treat this
phenomenon as disruption in their normal functioning of society. The government machinery
and policy planners treat this situation as a factor of retardation in developmental planning with
additional overburden on economy and additional expenditure on rescue, relief, rehabilitation,
mitigation, etc.
The International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (1995) has defined “flood” as
“relatively high flow in a river markedly higher than the usual”. The World Meteorological
Organization (WMO)/UNESCO International Glossary of Hydrology (WMO 1974) defined
flood as “rise, usually brief in the water level of a stream or water body to a peak from which the
water level recedes at a slower rate” and “relatively high flows as measured by stage height or
discharge.”

Types of Floods
Floods are classified in various ways depending upon the nature, severity, and sources of
inundation-
Riverine flooding occurs due to various reasons but primarily due to heavy precipitation or
glacial melt with resultant runoff. The increased discharge in river channels with decreasing
carrying capacities leads to overflow causing inundation in the adjoining low-lying areas.
Flash flooding is an unprecedented situation that occurs in hilly regions and sloping lands where
torrential heavy precipitation, thunderstorm, or cloud burst commonly occurred without any prior
warning. This sometimes creates huge loss of lives and damage to properties.
Urban flooding occurs in regions, where developmental planning has not been in tune with the
geo-morphological, ecological, and environmental set up, that results in the increased
vulnerability of urban areas. Many urban agglomerations in India are suffering from the problem
of flooding even after moderate rainfall. The situation aggravates when rainwater mix up with
drain water causing additional problems including spread of epidemics.
Coastal flooding occurs due to a number of reasons like cyclones and associated storm surge,
high tides, tsunami, etc., wherein the low-lying areas in coastal tracts are inundated, as a result of
which losses occur on a larger scale. In addition, salinity increases in the coastal groundwater
and wells.
Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) occurs in the downstream of glacial regions, where
glaciers holding large quantities of water suddenly release them due to melting of ice jam.
Glacial outburst is one of the prime reasons of flash floods in some of the Himalayan Rivers.
Cloud Burst Flooding is the manifestation of climate change and hydrological imbalance that
primarily occurs in the form of sudden heavy rainfall. Cyclonic circulations in monsoon may
also lead to cloud burst. Cyclone and storm surge flooding mainly occurs in coastal areas due to
rainstorms associated with low-pressure systems. Movement of cyclonic storms in quick
succession leads to severe flooding, especially in low-lying coastal areas.

What affects floods?

Floods are affected by many factors which include: Extreme rainfall; Construction of
dams;Rivers behavior and embankments. The other significant reasons include congestion in the
drainage channels due to roads, railways, canals, The haphazard growth of industrial and urban
establishments may also create flood in a given location. Lack of forests (or deforestation), local
water systems, landslides, soil erosion, destruction and/or creation of natural dams, earthquakes,
glaciers, sea tides and climate change are some of the factors aggravating of creating flood
situation in the country. The flood protection in one area could also result in the floods of other
areas. For example, construction of embankments in few areas
can increase flood occurrences downstream or upstream. Embankments often act as flood
transfer mechanisms as they transfer floods from a given area to their downstream areas. The
floods that occur in a given area due to breach of embankments therefore are different to floods
in the absence of embankments. During embankment overtopping, the floods are usually sudden,
with greater speed, can have increased quantity of sand and could inundate for a longer time as
compared floods to during the absence of embankments. Natural dams created by landslides or
Glacial Lakes and their outbursts/ overflow may lead to a large quantity of water flowing in the
streams quickly leading to flash floods. In the Himalayan region, such natural dams/ glacial lake
overflows during the rainy season could also be aggravated by multiple landslides due to
decreased stability of soil.

Evolution of Flood Risk Management

Earliest civilization regarded floods as uncontrollable and therefore established their critical
infrastructures on highlands. Settlements were built on the artificial mounds. A system of flood
early warning was developed and flood-sensitive land use planning approaches were adopted. As
the demand for food increased and the need for greater agricultural production realized, fertile
floodplains were used for better farm produce and people began residing in the flood plains
making their permanent settlements. In due course of time, flood was treated as a challenge
rather than inconvenience. Engineering solutions like dykes and other control measures began
taking shape. Attempts were also made to “deal with floods” through structural protection and
diversion of flood, but flood damages continued to rise. Thus, the need of paradigm shift
emerged from adopting both structural and non-structural mitigation measures, thus the concept
of Flood Risk Management emerged. In recent years, the flood risk management has continued
to evolve into adaptive measures to manage flood risk, keeping in mind the ecosystem services
and the necessity to look beyond flood management to coastal or integrated basin watershed
management.

Flood Risk Management

Flood disaster refers to the occurrence of a catastrophic flood that brings about adverse impact to
humans, animals and the economy. Flood Risk of a particular geographic area or a community
refers to the possible consequences of all flood combinations in that particular area. Flood risk
management denotes the effort taken by various agencies in managing the risk of floods and the
process of reducing the adverse impacts of the flood events (disaster).
Flood Risk has two main components:
1) Probability of the occurrence of inundation taking into consideration the intervening
mechanisms like levees, floodwalls etc.
2) Impact/ Consequences that reflects the vulnerability (or the potential to experience harm) and
the exposure (quantifying the number of structures/ people/ area that could be exposed to the
flood event)In order to have an effective flood risk management in place, there is a need to adopt
Flood Risk Management Strategies, that consist of the following components:

Flood Risk Prevention aims to decrease consequences of flood event by decreasing exposure
of property and people by measures that discourage or prohibit development in flood prone/ high
flood risk areas. The focus of this strategy is to “keep people away from water” by restricting the
construction of buildings in flood prone areas.
Flood Defense mechanism includes measures to decrease probability of flooding incidents.
The measures could be structural or a blend of structural and non-structural measures such as
dykes, embankments, or increasing capacity of existing water channels, increasing up-stream
water retention and focusing on “keeping water away from people”.
Flood Risk Mitigation mechanisms decrease the magnitude or severity of impacts through
measures in the vulnerable areas that includes flood zonation, regulations for flood proof
buildings etc.
Flood Preparation and Response measures involve the development of early warning
systems, flood disaster management and response plans and effective preparedness and
utilization of resources to respond to floods to alleviate suffering during the flood event (disaster)
 Flood Recovery includes the reconstruction activities, compensation of losses through public
or private insurance schemes integrating flood risk prevention, defense and mitigation into the
activities.

Flood risk Management involves various processes in the four facets of Disaster Management. In
the mitigation stage, measures like assessment of flood risk, incorporating flood risk in land use
planning, planning and constructing measures like levees, embankments, reservoirs etc. and
adopting non- structural measures (flood zonation) for flood prevention and enhancing the
natural water retaining capacity of the flood plains/ urban area can be undertaken. The
preparedness activities include the strengthening of communities to deal the emergent situations
of floods as well as behavioral changes to adhere to flood zones as well as awareness generation
towards Do’s and Don’ts during floods. The response activities include undertaking rescue and
relief activities to alleviate sufferings of flood affected communities. The recovery after flood
incident must ensure resilient reconstruction and planning for budgeting reconstruction activities.

Figure: Flood Risk Management Cycle

Floods in India
In the entire Indian subcontinent, the flood gains the status of disaster, when normal channels of
rivers are breached or flow in excess of their carrying capacity. Flood is a recurrent phenomenon
in India that normally starts with the onset of monsoon; however, due to localized hydro-
meteorological aberrations, specific flooding occurs in the localized areas. The United Nations
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) Report 2015 observed that out of the
average annual loss of 9.8 billion USD in India, about 7.4 billion USD are accounted by the
damage caused by floods. In India the causes of flood are as follows:
• Heavy rainfall: heavy rain in the catchment area of a river causes water to over flow its
banks, which results in the flooding of the nearby areas
• Sediment Deposition: river beds become shallow due to sedimentation. The water carrying
capacity of such river is reduced. As a result the heavy rainwater over flow the river banks.
• Deforestation: Vegetation hampers the flow of water and forces it to percolate in the ground.
As a result of deforestation, the land becomes obstruction free and water flows with greater
speed into the rivers and causes flood
• Cyclones and typhoons: Cyclone generated sea waves of abnormal height spreads the water
in the adjoining coastal areas. In October 1994 Orissa cyclone generated sever floods and caused
unprecedented loss of life and property.
• Interference in drainage system: Drainage congestion caused by badly planned
construction bridges, roads, railway tracks etc. hampers the flow of water and result is flood.
• Change in the course of the river: Meanders and change in the course of the river cause
floods.
• Tsunami: Large coastal areas are flooded by rising sea water, when a tsunami strikes the
coast.

Other causes of floods are

• Ice jams or landslides blocking stream courses
• Heavy localized rainfall
• Streams flowing in excess of the transporting capacity
• Backing up of water in tributaries

Out of the total geographical area of 329 million hectares, about 40 million hectares is liable to
floods in India as estimated by RBA in 1980. Subsequently, the 11th five-year plan working
group has compiled the area liable to flood as 45.64 million hectare. It is estimated that about 25
out of 36 states and union territories are flood prone in the country. The areas stretching north to
south from the extra peninsular regions to the tip of the peninsula and from extreme desert
regions of the west to the east coastal regions and northeastern regions are all prone to floods in
varying magnitude and nature. There are about 22 major river basins in India, out of which four
major river basins are typically known as flood-prone basins:
1. Brahmaputra and Barak basin
2. Ganga basin
3. North West River basins
4. Central India and Deccan river basins

The Brahmaputra basin covering northeastern states, northern part of West Bengal, and Sikkim is
affected by severe and recurrent floods. The entire catchment area of this basin receives heavy
rainfall from June to September. The frequently occurring earthquakes and landslides in hills
upset the flow regime of rivers causing imbalance in flow dynamics. In addition, spilling of
rivers, drainage congestion and tendency of some of the rivers to change courses also cause
flooding. In Assam and Tripura, flooding primarily occurs due to inundation by spilling of
Brahmaputra and tributaries as well as bank erosion along the Brahmaputra.

Map showing flood prone areas

Consequence and Control of Floods

• Frequent inundation of Agricultural land and human settlement has serious consequences
on the national economy and society.
• Floods do not only destroy valuable crops every year but these also damage physical
infrastructure such as roads, rails, bridges and human settlement
• Millions of people are rendered homeless and are also washed down along with their
cattle in the floods.
 • Spread of diseases like cholera, gastro-enteritis, hepatitis and other water-borne diseases
spread in the flood-affected areas.
• Floods also make a few positive contributions. Every year, floods deposit fertile silt over
agricultural fields which is good for the crops.

Flood control measures

• Reservoirs: By constructing reservoirs in the courses of rivers could store extra water at
the time of flood. Such measures adopted till now however, have not been successful.
Dams built to control floods of Damodar could not control the flood.
• Embankments: By building flood protection embankments, floods water can be
controlled from overflowing the banks and spreading in nearby areas. Building of
embankments on Yamuna, near Delhi, has been successful in controlling the flood.
• Afforestation: the furry of flood could be minimized by planting trees in catchment areas
of the rivers.
• Restoration of original drainage system: Drainage system is generally choked by the
construction of roads, canals railway tracks etc. floods could be checked if the original
form of drainage system is restored.

Flood Management Initiatives –

Flood as a disaster has long been a matter of concern for policy planners in India as it brings
benefit as well as losses for communities. The annual floods in the Indo-gangetic plains maintain
the fertility of soil by depositing silt containing different minerals carried out from different parts
of the mountains. They bring additional water for irrigation, thereby contributing to enhanced
fertility in the region, whereas the same flood in larger dimension or in unprecedented situation
seriously affects communities living in the floodplain or low-lying areas. In other parts of the
country, the flooding occurs due to heavy torrential rainfall combined with poor drainage, that
causes disasters in the society resulting in the loss of lives populations and infrastructures. The
recent examples are Uttarakhand flood (2013) and J&K flood (2014). In order to prevent this
hydro-meteorological phenomenon attaining the status of disasters, there is a need to adopt a
comprehensive, integrated, and scientific approach.
Flood disaster management approach is essentially required in India because it affects the normal
functioning of societies or communities, but above all, the optimal utilization of land and water
resources is of vital importance to bring prosperity in the country. On the account of unique and
varied geo-climatic condition right from the extra peninsula in the north to peninsular tip in the
south and from Arunachal Pradesh in the east to the extreme western Thar Desert, the nature and
scope of flood risk varies greatly; therefore the risk management strategies and disaster
management plan during the flood disaster must address all the topographical, geographical, and
climatic conditions to effectively combat the potential threats. The “National Water Policy” has
suggested that there should be a master plan for flood control and management, for each flood-
prone basin. It is essential to promote watershed management practices through water
management, soil conservation, catchment area development, etc. to reduce the intensity of
floods. The systematic approach of flood management and mitigation in India at the policy level
was started by the Government of India in the year 1954 after the unprecedented floods in
different parts of the country. A policy statement by the Ministry of Planning, Irrigation, and
Power was placed before the parliament under two separate categories – “floods in India
(problems and remedies)” and “the floods in the country.” The objective was to suggest a
comprehensive framework for the management of flood disasters in the country. Since then,
various committees have been constituted from time to time to suggest recommendations,
strategies, and policies on various flood management and mitigation issues.
Though several good policy initiatives were taken by the government of India to minimize the
menace of floods in the country, the one which is of greater significance was the constitution of
Rashtriya Barh Ayog (RBA). In 1976, the government constituted RBA under the chairmanship
of Mr. Jaisukhlal Hathi, the then governor of Punjab/Haryana, to look into the contemporary
situation of floods in the country and to carry out in-depth study of the long term flood
management approach. This was the most comprehensive study of flood carried out by any
committee since independence. It looked into various flood problems and submitted its report in
1980 with 207 recommendations covering almost all the aspects of flood management. However,
the implementation of recommendations by different states remained mostly under the slow
pace. In order to review the progress of implementation of RBA, few committees were further
constituted including an expert committee setup in 2001 by the Ministry of Water Resources
under the chairmanship of Sri R. Rangachari. The committee reviewed each of the
recommendations of RBA and opined that its implementation has been slow which requires more
attention by the concerned stakeholders. The committee further suggested 40 out of 207
recommendations to be taken up on priority basis. In many of the recommendations listed in
previous pages by different committees/ commissions, it was strongly felt that practically it is not
possible to protect all areas against high flood and structural mitigation measures alone cannot be
considered as appropriate for flood management, there should be a combination of both
structural and nonstructural measures on flood mitigation, so that overall losses could be
minimized.

Do’s and Don’ts Before, During and after the flood

• Avoid building in flood prone areas unless you elevate and reinforce your home
• Listen to the radio for advance information
• Be aware the flash flooding can occur. If there is any possibility of flash flood, move
immediately to higher ground. Do not wait for the instructions.
• Disconnect all electrical appliances, move all valuable household goods out of reach of
flood water.
• Switch off electricity and gas, in case you have to leave the house.
• Lock all door and windows if you have to leave the house.
• Do not enter flood water on foot or in a vehicle as far as possible.
 LANDSLIDES

Introduction:

In many mountainous environments, the most common hazard is that of mass movement. This is
the displacement of surface materials down-slope under the force of gravity occurring in almost
any environment in which slopes are present. Both landslides and avalanches are types of mass
movements. Landslides consist mostly of rock and/or soil and snow avalanches are formed
predominantly from snow and/or ice. These movements vary greatly in size (ranging from a few
cubic metres to over 100 cubic kilometres) and in speed (ranging from millimetres per year to
hundreds of metres per second). They are responsible for large amounts of damage, with rapid
mass movements generally causing the greatest loss of life but slower movements cause most of
the long term costs. Most mass movements are triggered by the natural processes, such as an
earthquake; intense and/or prolonged rainfall; or rapid snowmelt. However, some of the most
damaging landslides occur in materials formed by humans such as mining waste, fill or garbage.
People often play key role in the creation and triggering of mass movements.

Landslides:
The term landslide describes down-slope and outward movement of soils and/or rocks under the
influence of gravity. Whilst many landslides do occur through the process of rock or soil sliding
on a distinct surface, this is not necessarily the case, and thus the term can be something of a
misnomer. In fact, there is a wide variety of the types of movement that includes falling, sliding
and flowing. The type of movement depends upon the angle of the slope, the nature of the
materials and the various stresses that act upon them.

Landslides mostly occur in five major types of terrain:

• Upland areas subject to seismic activities.
• Mountainous environments with high relative-relief.
• Areas of moderate relief suffering severe land degradation.
• Areas with high rainfall.
• Areas covered with thick deposits of fine grained materials.

On the basis of past experiences, frequency and certain causal relationships with the controlling
factors like geology, geomorphic agents, slope, land-use, vegetation cover and human activities,
india has been divided into number of vulnerability zones.
 Table: Landslide Vulnerability Zones
Very high vulnerability zone
High vulnerability zone
Moderate to Low vulnerability zone
Other Areas
Highly unstable, relatively young mountainous
areas in the Himalayas and Andaman and
Nicobar, high rainfall regions with steep slopes
in the western Ghats and nilgiris, the north-
eastern regions, along with areas that
experience frequent ground shaking due to
earthquakes, etc. and areas of intense human
activities, particularly those related to
construction of roads, dams etc. are included in
this zone.
Areas of almost similar conditions to those
included in very high vulnerability zone are
also included in this category. The only
difference between these two is the
combination, intensity and frequency of the
controlling factors. All the Himalayan states
and the states from north-eastern regions
except the plains of Assam are included in the
high vulnerability zone.
Areas that receive less precipitation such as
trans Himalayan areas of Ladakh and Spiti, low
precipitation areas of Aravali, rainshadow
areas of Western and Eastern Ghats and
Deccan plateau also experience occasional
landslides. Landslides due to mining and
subsidence are most common in states of
Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, A.P, T.N, Karnataka,
Goa, Kerala.
The remaining parts of India, particularly states
like Rajasthan, Haryana,U.P, Bihar, W.B, are
included in this region.
 Landslide Mapping in India
Causes of Landslides
While landslides are considered naturally occurring disasters, human-induced changes in
the environment have recently caused their upsurge. Although the causes of landslides are wide
ranging, they have 2 aspects in common; they are driven by forces of gravity and result from
failure of soil and rock materials that constitute the hill slope:
Natural Causes of Landslides
1. Climate
Long-term climatic changes can significantly impact soil stability. A general reduction
in precipitation leads to lowering of water table and reduction in overall weight of soil mass,
reduced solution of materials and less powerful freeze-thaw activity. A significant upsurge in
precipitation or ground saturation would dramatically increase the level of ground water. When
sloped areas are completely saturated with water, landslides can occur. If there is absence of
mechanical root support, the soils start to run off.
2. Earthquakes
Seismic activities have, for a long time, contributed to landslides across the globe. Any moment
tectonic plates move, the soil covering them also moves along. When earthquakes strike areas
with steep slopes, on numerous occasion, the soil slips leading to landslides. In addition, ashen
debris flows instigated by earthquakes could also cause mass soil movement.
3. Weathering
Weathering is the natural procedure of rock deterioration that leads to weak, landslide-susceptive
materials. Weathering is brought about by the chemical action of water, air, plants and bacteria.
When the rocks are weak enough, they slip away causing landslides.
4. Erosion
Erosion caused by sporadic running water such as streams, rivers, wind, currents, ice and waves
wipes out latent and lateral slope support enabling landslides to occur easily.
5. Volcanoes
Volcanic eruptions can trigger landslides. If an eruption occurs in a wet condition, the soil will
start to move downhill instigating a landslide. Stratovolcano is a typical example of volcano
responsible for most landslides across the globe.
6. Forest fires
Forest fires instigate soil erosion and bring about floods, which might lead to landslides
7. Gravity
Steeper slopes coupled with gravitational force can trigger a massive landslide.

Human causes of landslides

1. Mining
Mining activities that utilize blasting techniques contribute mightily to landslides. Vibrations
emanating from the blasts can weaken soils in other areas susceptible to landslides. The
weakening of soil means a landslide can occur anytime.
2. Clear cutting
Clear cutting is a technique of timber harvesting that eliminates all old trees from the area. This
technique is dangerous since it decimates the existing mechanical root structure of the area.

Effects of Landslides
1. Lead to economic decline
Landslides have been verified to result in destruction of property. If the landslide is significant, it
could drain the economy of the region or country. After a landslide, the area affected normally
undergoes rehabilitation. This rehabilitation involves massive capital outlay. For example, the
1983 landslide at Utah in the United States resulted in rehabilitation cost of about $500 million.
The annual loss as a result of landslides in U.S. stands at an estimated $1.5 billion.
 2. Decimation of infrastructure
The force flow of mud, debris, and rocks as a result of a landslide can cause serious damage to
property. Infrastructure such as roads, railways, leisure destinations, buildings and
communication systems can be decimated by a single landslide.
3. Loss of life
Communities living at the foot of hills and mountains are at a greater risk of death by landslides.
A substantial landslide carries along huge rocks, heavy debris and heavy soil with it. This kind of
landslide has the capacity to kills lots of people on impact. For instance, Landslides in the UK
that happened a few years ago caused rotation of debris that destroyed a school and killed over
144 people including 116 school children aged between 7 and 10 years. In a separate event, NBC
News reported a death toll of 21 people in the March 22, 2014, landslide in Oso, Washington.
4. Affects beauty of landscapes
The erosion left behind by landslides leaves behind rugged landscapes that are unsightly. The
pile of soil, rock and debris downhill can cover land utilized by the community for agricultural or
social purposes.
5. Impacts river ecosystems
The soil, debris, and rock sliding downhill can find way into rivers and block their natural flow.
Many river habitats like fish can die due to interference of natural flow of water. Communities
depending on the river water for household activities and irrigation will suffer if flow of water is
blocked.

Landslides and Avalanches in the Indian Context

India has the highest mountain chain on earth, the Himalayas, which are formed due to collision
of Indian and Eurasian plate, the northward movement of the Indian plate towards China causes
continuous stress on the rocks rendering them friable, weak and prone to landslides and
earthquakes. The Indian crust is moving slowly at about 5 cm/year which accumulates stress and
many natural disasters are attributed to this. Some landslides make unique and unparalleled
catastrophes. Besides the Himalayas, the North-eastern hill ranges, the Western Ghats, the
Nilgiris, the Eastern Ghats and the Vindhyas, in that order, covering about 15 % of the landmass
of India, is affected by landslides. (NDMA) The Himalayas alone count for the most number of
landslides per year which vary in size, speed, extent and every possible characteristics.
Landslides in the north eastern region of West Bengal and the hill states of Sikkim, Mizoram,
Tripura, Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh pose chronic problems, causing
recurring economic losses worth billions of rupees. A different variety of landslides,
characterized by a lateritic cap, pose constant threat to the Western Ghats in the South, along the
steep slopes overlooking the Konkan coast besides Nilgiris, which is highly landslide prone.
Major tragedies occurred in Varnavat landslide (Uttarkashi District) Malpa landslide
(Pithoragarh district) Okhimath landslide (Chamoli district) UK and Paglajhora (Darjeeling
district) as well as Sikkim, Aizawl sports complex, Mizoram.These are some of the more recent
examples of landslides.
Prevention and Management:
To provide protection against landslides, the design and construction of measures to prevent
slope failure is a routine task within geotechnical engineering. Methods of slope protection are
well developed and include the following:

➢ Drainage:As slope failures are generally linked to the presence of high water pressures
in a slope, drainage is a key technique for improving stability. The aim is to either
prevent water from entering a critical area of slope by installing gravel-filled trench
drains around that area or to remove water from within a slope by installing horizontal
drains. In most cases, drainage is effective but problems often arise due to lack of
maintenance. Drains can easily become blocked with fine particles or even by animals
using them as burrows. In addition, small amounts of movement in a slope can cause
drains to become cracked or broken and so leak water into a slope at critical locations.

➢ Regrading: In many cases, the landslide threat can be minimised by reducing the overall
slope angle. This can be achieved by excavating the upper parts of the slope or by placing
material at the toe, an approach often used during road construction in upland areas. In
some cases, good results can be achieved by removing the natural slope soil or rock and
replacing it with a lighter material. Whilst effective, such approaches are often
technically challenging and expensive.

➢ Supporting structures: Piles, buttresses and retaining walls are widely used for slopes
lying adjacent to buildings and transportation routes. Although effective, this is an
expensive and visually intrusive way to stabilise a slope. Increasingly there is a move
towards the use of measures that sit within the soil or rock rather than on the surface.
Examples include soil nails and rock bolts, both of which seek to increase stability by
increasing the resistance to movement. In addition, structures can be designed to deflect
landslides around vulnerable facilities. For example, diversion walls are often constructed
around electricity pylons in mountain areas in order to deflect small debris flows.

➢ Vegetation of slopes perform several functions. Plant roots help to bind soil particles
together and provide resistance to movement, the vegetation canopy protects the soil
surface from rain splash impact whilst transpiration processes reduce the water content of
the slope. In recent years, a new breed of ‘bioengineering’ has emerged. It is critically
important to ensure that the used plant species can maximize the beneficial effects and
thrive in the environment in which they are planted. Thus, the preference is to use local
species of trees and plants. Bioengineering is also considered to be more environmental
conscious than traditional engineering approaches and to provide better visual aesthetics.
NDMA guidelines for landslides and avalanches in India:
The main objectives of the NDMA guidelines are to institutionalize the landslide hazard
mitigation efforts, to make society aware of the various aspects of landslide hazard in the country
and to prepare the society to take suitable action to reduce both risks and costs associated with
this hazard. The recommendations include:
• Continuously updating the inventory of landslide incidences affecting the country.
• Landslide hazard zonation mapping in macro and meso scales after consultation with the
Border Roads Organization, state governments and local communities.
• Pilot projects to be taken up in different regions of the country to carry out detailed
studies and monitoring of select landslides to assess their stability status and estimate
risk.
• Setting pace setter examples for stabilization of slides and also setting up early warning
systems depending on the risk evaluation and cost-benefit ratio.
• Completion of site specific studies of major landslides and plan treatment measures, and
encourage state governments to continue these measures.
• Institutional mechanisms have to be set up for generating awareness and preparedness
about landslide hazard among various stakeholders.
• Training and capacity building measures to be taken up for professionals and
organizations working in the field of landslide management.
• New codes and guidelines to be developed on landslide studies and existing ones have to
be revised.
• An autonomous national centre for landslide research, studies and management has to be
established.
Implementation of the above action points would increase efficacy in the management of
landslides and avalanches in the country. The above measures should be duly backed by requisite
operational, legal, institutional, and financial support.

Measures for rehabilitation:

Landslides and avalanches can cause huge loss of life and property. Livelihoods of many people
are disrupted and many are displaced or become homeless. Thus, proper rehabilitation measures
are needed to be implemented. Measures for the rehabilitation of a community affected by
landslides or snow avalanches will depend very much on the extent of the damage done by the
disastrous event. If the damage is not severe, rehabilitation in the form of short-term relief is
provided to restart normal activities. Long-term measures are taken so that any future landslides
or snow avalanches do not harm the community or at least not in a great extent.
• Reduction in the risk of the site through technical (engineering) measures like “strengthening
or modifying the slopes, removing fragile and unstable portions, securing snow
accumulations by snow fences, snow nets or by cribbing, and improvement of drainage.”
• Prohibition of indiscriminate quarrying and mining in mountain areas.
• Afforestation in zones prone to landslides and "snow avalanches so that trees and vegetation
provide a binding force to prevent slippage of debris, rock, and snow.”
• Creation of a voluntary, community-based preparedness-system of watch, monitoring and
alert. This will not only be useful in times of a disaster but will provide enough self-
confidence (and thereby self-reliance) which is an essential objective of an effective
rehabilitation programme.
• Provision of assistance for economic rehabilitation by arranging work, employment, loans,
and grants.
In extreme cases where severe damage has occurred to a community by a landslide or snow
avalanche, the site can be marked as totally ‘unsafe and unusable’. In that case, rehabilitation in
the form of relocation and reconstruction occurs. In such an event, the new site is chosen to
minimize vulnerability and risks.

Do’s and Don’ts

We cannot stop disaster but minimize its impact by preparing ourselves better for landslides. The
Government of India has made plans to identify the areas where landslides occur repeatedly.
This is achieved through Landslide Hazard Zonation (LHZ) maps which shows or demarcates
areas by different colors. NDMA has published a guideline on Landslides and Snow Avalanches
as given on its website. Following are the precautionary measures for landslides in the form of
do's and don’ts as given below:

Do's
▪ Prepare tour to hilly region according to information given by weather department or
news channel.
▪ Move away from landslide path or downstream valleys quickly without wasting time.
▪ Keep drains clean,
▪ Inspect drains for - litter, leaves, plastic bags, rubble etc.
▪ Keep the weep holes open.
▪ Grow more trees that can hold the soil through roots,
▪ Identify areas of rock fall and subsidence of buildings, cracks that indicate landslides and
move to safer areas. Even muddy river waters indicate landslides upstream.
▪ Notice such signals and contact the nearest Tehsil or District Head Quarters.
▪ Ensure that toe of slope is not cut, remains protected, don't uproot trees unless re-
vegetation is planned.
▪ Listen for unusual sounds such as trees cracking or boulders knocking together.
▪ Stay alert, awake and active (3A's) during the impact or probability of impact.
▪ Locate and go to shelters,
 ▪ Try to stay with your family and companions.
▪ Check for injured and trapped persons.
▪ Mark path of tracking so that you can't be lost in middle of the forest.
▪ Know how to give signs or how to communicate during emergency time to flying
helicopters and rescue team.

Don'ts
▪ Try to avoid construction and staying in vulnerable areas.
▪ Do not panic and loose energy by crying.
▪ Do not touch or walk over loose material and electrical wiring or pole.
▪ Do not built houses near steep slopes and near drainage path.
▪ Do not drink contaminated water directly from rivers, springs, wells but rain water if
collected directly without is fine.
▪ Do not move an injured person without rendering first aid unless the casualty is in
immediate danger.
 DROUGHT

Drought is a slow onset disaster, which gradually evolves over months and years due to complex
interactions of environmental and anthropogenic factors. The impact of drought is also far-
fetched and can last for years. Due to its contextual nature, the prevention and mitigation of
drought also requires contextual solutions and no one solution fit for all approaches can be
undertaken for the purpose.

Reasons of Droughts
Typically, the reason behind drought is considered to be prolonged period of abnormally low
rainfall leading to shortage of water. But low rainfall is not the only contributing factor. Based on
the causative agent the India Meteorological Department (IMD) had classified drought in four
broad categories as under –

1. Meteorological Drought over an area is defined as a situation when the seasonal rainfall
received over an area is less than 75% of its long term average (LTA) value. It is further
classified as "moderate drought" if the rainfall deficit is between 26-50% and "severe drought"
when the deficit exceeds 50% of the normal. Major causes of meteorological droughts include,
lean monsoon, late monsoon, untimely monsoon, prolonged break between two spells.

2. Hydrological Drought can be defined as the period during which the stream flows are
inadequate to supply established use of water under a given water management system. Major
causes of hydrological drought include drying up of surface water resources, anthropogenic
activities leading to disruption of streams and water bodies, diversion of water for commercial
purposes in upstream areas, deforestation, over exploitation of ground water etc.

3. Agricultural Drought occurs when available soil moisture is inadequate for healthy crop
growth and cause extreme stress and wilting. It is to be noted that agricultural drought is relative,
as drought condition for rice cultivation is different than the drought condition for millet
cultivation.

4. Socio Economic Drought occurs as a result of the above three types. Abnormal water
shortage affects all aspects of established economy of a region. This in turn adversely affects the
social fabric of the society creating unemployment, migration, discontent and various other
problems in the society. Apart from the above types, there can be one more category, Ecological
Drought that is considered as a condition where environmental degradation reduces the
productivity of the natural eco system significantly. In many cases more than one reason
contributes to the emergence of droughts.

Famines
Famines and droughts are often interlinked though they are two distinct phenomena, often
occurring in a cause effect relationship, with famine succeeding a prolonged drought period.
Famine is a severe scenario where extreme scarcity of food is experienced leading to mass
malnutrition, starvation, increased mortality and epidemic scare. It may result from droughts
leading to crop failure, low food availability or poor access to food. But more often, rather than
actual food scarcity, socio economic complexities may also plays major role in the occurrence of
famines.

Desertification
It is a condition which often occurs as a result of extreme soil water deficit. It results in the
degradation of land, loss of water bodies, flora and fauna.

Impacts of droughts
Drought impacts are often multifaceted and non-linear due to the complexities associated with
their occurrence. They can be classified into three major categories-

1. Economic impacts – These include the aspects which directly or indirectly impact the well-
being of a person of the society. The main factors of economic impacts are :
• Reduced agricultural production leading to reduced harvest and thereby reduction in the
earning
• Increased cost of farm maintenance due to the additional costs of water provisions and
other resources to the farm products (including the reduced usage of fertilizers/ chemicals
leading to lesser output)
• Loss of livelihood for marginal farm workers
• Increasing cost of maintaining livestock due to shortage of fodder and drinking water.
often livestock’s are sold to earn extra income during lean months or drought situations.
• Loss in income of people related indirectly to agricultural practices like agricultural
transporters, pesticide and fertilizers retailer etc.
• Increase in the price of food production due to shortage of supply.
• Economic impacts on other industries dependent on water resources like hydro-electric
generation companies, waterways operators and transporters, tour operators etc.
• Unpaid loans, provision of relief to the affected and the subsequent burden on
government exchequer.
• In severe cases, export is affected significantly and increasing dependency on external
countries for food aid or import maybe required endangering the food sovereignty of a
nation.
• Flow of taxes.

2. Social Impacts
Drought has serious impacts on health and social safety. Lack of water resources often leads to
gradual conditions of water deficit and in its extreme form results in long drawn conflicts. It also
affects psychosocial well-being significantly. The major impacts of droughts include:
 • Nutritional concerns due to poor quality diet and allied health problems, loss of human
lives in the extreme scenario.
• Increasing outmigration in search of alternate jobs to urban areas, which in turn increase
the vulnerability of migrants as they settle/ squat in risky areas/ unhygienic conditions.
• Increasing child drop-out rates and child labor.
• Early marriage of daughters to reduce financial burden and the linking of nonmarriage of
daughters to the drought occurrence
• Increased stress and anxiety resulting in increasing incidences of farmer suicide
• Conflicts over water resources

3. Environmental impacts
The most severe impact of drought is upon the environmental resources. Often droughts result in
extensive damage to flora and fauna of a region. The significant impacts include:
• Increased animal attacks in farm areas due to lack of food in their own habitats
• Loss or destruction of fishes and aquatic organisms
• Lack of adequate food and drinking water in forests and in extreme cases resulting in loss
of wildlife
• Migration of wild animals thereby increasing human-animal conflicts
• Weak and diseased animals
• Loss of wetlands and increasing incidences of wildfires
• Degradation of soil quality and soil productivity
• Increased erosion and desertification rates.

These direct impacts have multiplier effect and results in the indirect impacts that are often
diffuse and complicated to be gauged appropriately.

Drought Prone Areas in India

The term ‘drought’ is applied to an extended period when there is a shortage of water availability
due to inadequate precipitation, excessive rate of evaporation and over-utilization of water from
the reservoirs and other storages, including the groundwater. It is a prolonged period of
abnormally low rainfall, leading to a shortage of water.
Indian agriculture has been heavily dependent on the monsoon rainfall. Droughts and floods are
the two accompanying features of Indian climate. According to some estimates, nearly 19
percent of the total geographical area of the country and 12 percent of its total population suffer
due to drought every year. About 30 percent of the country’s total area is identified as drought-
prone affecting around 50 million people. It is a common experience that while some parts of the
country reel under floods, there are regions that face severe drought during the same period.
Moreover, it is also a common sight to witness that one region suffers due to floods in one
season and experiences drought in the other. This is mainly because of the large-scale variations
and unpredictability in the behavior of the monsoon in India. Thus, droughts are widespread and
common phenomena in most parts of the country, but these are most recurrent and severe in
some and not so in others. On the basis of severity of droughts, India can be divided into the
following regions:

Map Showing Drought Prone Areas

Extreme Drought Affected Areas: Most parts of Rajasthan, particular areas to the west of the
Aravali hills, i.e. Marusthali and Kachchh regions of Gujarat fall in this category. Included here
are also the districts like Jaisalmer and Barmer from the Indian desert that receive less than 90
mm average annual rainfall.

Severe Drought Prone Area: Parts of eastern Rajasthan, most parts of Madhya Pradesh, eastern
parts of Maharashtra, interior parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka Plateau, northern parts of
interior Tamil Nadu and southern parts of Jharkhand and interior Orissa are included in this
category.
Moderate Drought Affected Area: Northern parts of Rajasthan, Haryana, southern districts of
Uttar Pradesh, the remaining parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra except Konkan, Jharkhand and
Coimbatore plateau of Tamil Nadu and interior Karnataka are included in this category. The
remaining parts of India can be considered either free or less prone to the drought.

India and Droughts

On account of dependence over monsoonal rainfall, crop failure cases have been mostly reported
from different parts of India. As per the rough estimates about 19 percent of the total
geographical areas of India are drought prone and approximately 50 million people are annually
affected by droughts. About 68 percent of the total sown area of the country is drought prone;
which amounts to 329 million hectares. The Deccan plateau regions and the Ghats, the arid
regions of Rajasthan, Haryana, Gujarat and semi arid regions of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Haryana, Punjab etc. are predominantly drought prone. It is also significant to note that droughts
in India are having seasonal characteristics. Drought conditions often arise due to prolonged dry
spells across years. For instance, from 1985 – 87 there was progressive lack of rainfall which
finally resulted in drought in 1987. Surprisingly, even in areas which receive significant rainfall,
lately droughts have been observed, for instance Palakkad and Thrissur districts of Kerala in
2017. In the past, famine incidents have been very common, recurring often at a regular interval.
There were around 14 famines in India between 11th and 17th centuries. For example, during the
great famines in India in the year 1022–1033 the entire provinces were depopulated. Famine in
Deccan killed at least two million people in 1702–1704. The famines during the earlier period
were highly localized. During the British era, approximately 25 major famines occurred across
India. The first Bengal famine of 1770 is estimated to have taken around 10 million lives which
equaled one third of the population of Bengal. In the famines of 1876-78 and 1899- 1900 again
millions perished. The last major famine occurred in 1943 during the World war killing an
estimated 2.1million. The famines were resulted due to the lack of rainfall and poor economic
and administrative policies of the colonial rulers. Change from traditional subsistence cropping,
levying heavy taxation, incompetent distribution system and other issues led to increased price of
food which resulted in the tragic drought incidents of 19th century.

Drought Prevention and Mitigation Measures

Multiple measures are proposed to mitigate and prevent the impact of droughts which include but
are not limited to:
Water Harvesting and Conservation – Includes both technical and traditional methods.
Technical processes include development of percolation tanks, Injection wells, farm ponds,
contour trenching etc. Traditional methods include promotion of Tankas, Kunds, Baolls, Spring
water harvesting etc.
Utilization of Water Saving Technologies – Drip and Sprinkler Irrigation
System
Long Term Irrigation Management
Afforestation
 Crop Insurance
Community Participation in Drought Mitigation
o Build on micro level experiences
o Innovate community based institutions
o Organize community based consultations through gram sabha
o Strengthen self-help groups
o Empowering Panchayati Raj Institutions
Adaptation to Climate Variability
Drought mitigation programmes are currently underway that includes-
The National Rainfed Area Authority- aims to address the issue of drought in
the long term perspective.
Drought Prone areas Programme
Desert Development Programme
Integrated Watershed Management Programme

Capacity Building Measures –The NDMA guidelines provide detailed inputs on national
training and capacity building measures for drought management. It suggests training in drought
management through identification of training needs, training of trainers, development of
training manuals, training of professionals, strengthening training and research institutes etc.
Apart from such institutional measures, it also focuses on developing community awareness,
documentation and community participation for holistic development of capacity utilizing a
bottom up approach.