NATURAL DRIVE MECHANISM IN OIL RESERVOIR

By

Blind Maher

Sarbaz Mohammad

Zheen Kawa

Yousef Khalil

Ali Majed

Supervisor

Ms. Sara Jamal

A project submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Diploma

Gasha Institute

Petroleum

Erbil, Kurdistan

May 2024
Declaration
We hereby declare that this research project is our original work and hereby certify that
unless stated, all work contained within is our independent research and has not been
submitted for the award of any other degree at any institution, except where due
acknowledgment is made in the text.

Blind Maher Sarbaz Mohammad

Zheen Kawa Yousef Khalil

Ali Majed

i
Supervisor’s Certificate
This research project has been written under my supervision and has my approval as
supervisor.

Supervisor:

Name: Ms. Sara Jamal

Signature:

I confirm that all the requirements have been fulfilled.

ii
Examination Committee Certification
We certify that we have read this project/research and the student has defended the
project/research in the presence of the examining committee. We approve that it meets the
standards of a project/research for the degree of Diploma.

_______________________________ ______________________________
Committee member signature Committee member signature

Name: Name:

Date: Date:

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Dedication
We would be happy to dedicate this work that we have done to our generous and helpful
families and also to our kind and incredible supervisor Ms. Sara Jamal.

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Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Almighty Allah and we would like to express our deepest gratitude to
our teacher and supervisor Ms. Sara Jamal for his guidance, kindness, supporting us in any
way required and always reviewing our latest work.

It was our honor to study under some of the most talented lecturers, and we would also like to
thank our head of department and his/her staff.

We would also like to express our gratitude to our families, friends, and colleagues for
supporting us financially and spiritually throughout our academic years.

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Abstract

Oil reservoirs rely on internal energy sources, known as drive mechanisms, to propel oil
towards production wells. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for maximizing oil
recovery. This abstract explores the fundamental natural drive mechanisms present in oil
reservoirs. It delves into their operational principles, highlighting both their strengths in
propelling oil and their inherent limitations. The abstract concludes by emphasizing the
importance of identifying the dominant drive mechanism for efficient reservoir management
and potentially implementing supplementary recovery methods.

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Table of Contents

Declaration.................................................................................................................................i
Supervisor’s Certificate...........................................................................................................ii
Examination Committee Certification..................................................................................iii
Dedication................................................................................................................................iv
Acknowledgments....................................................................................................................v
Abstract....................................................................................................................................vi
Table of Contents...................................................................................................................vii
Table of Figures....................................................................................................................viii
Chapter One: Introduction.....................................................................................................1
1.1..................................................................................................................... Introduction
................................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Aim of the Study.............................................................................................................2
Chapter Two: Literature Review...........................................................................................3
Chapter Three: Theoretical Background and Methodology...............................................4
3.1 Water Drive....................................................................................................................4
3.2 Dissolved Gas Drive.......................................................................................................6
3.3 Gas Cap Drive................................................................................................................8
3.4 Gravitational Segregation Drive...................................................................................9
3.5 Combination Drive.......................................................................................................10
3.6 General Problems with Natural Drive Mechanisms.................................................12
3.7 Role Of Natural Drive Mechanisms in Oil Reservoirs in Kurdistan.......................12
Chapter Four: Findings and Results....................................................................................12
Chapter Five: Conclusion and Recommendations..............................................................13
References...............................................................................................................................13

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Table of Figures

Figure 1. The chemical composition of typical crude oil and natural gas.....Error! Bookmark
not defined.
Figure 2. Some examples of API gravities of Iraqi oils ..........Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 3. Desalting...................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 4. A distillate hydrotreater............................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

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Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 Introduction
The natural energy of a reservoir can be used to move oil and gas toward the wellbore. Used
in such a fashion, these sources of energy are called drive mechanisms. Early determination
and characterization of the drive mechanism(s) present within a reservoir may allow a greater
ultimate recovery of hydrocarbons. Drive mechanisms are determined by the analysis of
historical production data, primarily reservoir pressure data and fluid production ratios.

Recovery of hydrocarbons from an oil reservoir is commonly recognised to occur in several

recovery stages. These are:
(i) Primary recovery
(ii) Secondary recovery
(iii) Tertiary recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery, EOR)
(iv) Infill recovery
Primary recovery This is the recovery of hydrocarbons from the reservoir using the natural
energy of the reservoir as a drive.
Secondary recovery This is recovery aided or driven by the injection of water or gas from
the surface.
Tertiary recovery (EOR) There are a range of techniques broadly labelled ‘Enhanced Oil
Recovery’ that are applied to reservoirs in order to improve flagging production.
Infill recovery Is carried out when recovery from the previous three phases have been
completed. It involves drilling cheap production holes between existing boreholes to ensure
that the whole reservoir has been fully depleted of its oil

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1.2 Aim of the Study

 The primary objective of this study is to deepen our understanding of the natural drive
mechanisms in oil reservoirs.
 We aim also to investigate how natural drive mechanisms influence the extraction of
hydrocarbons.
 Also to know each mechanism has a good effect on production.

1.3 Problem statement

The main problem with natural drive mechanisms in oil reservoirs is that they are not always
strong enough to efficiently recover all the available oil. These mechanisms rely on natural
forces within the reservoir to push oil towards the wellbore for extraction. While this can be
effective, it can leave behind a significant amount of oil trapped in the rock.
Here's a breakdown of the challenges:
 Limited energy: Natural drives rely on pressure from expanding gas or water influx.
These forces can weaken as production continues, reducing the flow of oil.
 Uneven recovery: Natural drives may not push oil uniformly throughout the
reservoir. Certain areas may be bypassed, leaving stranded pockets of oil.
 Inefficiencies: Some drive mechanisms, like gravity drainage, are inherently slow.
These limitations lead to engineers needing to employ additional methods, like artificial lift
techniques or enhanced oil recovery (EOR) methods, to improve oil extraction rates and
maximize the total amount of recoverable oil.

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Chapter Two: Literature Review
 At initial conditions, hydrocarbon fluids in a reservoir may exist as a single phase or as
two phases. The single phase may be a gas phase or a liquid phase in which all of the gas
present is dissolved in the oil. When there are hydrocarbons vaporized in the gas phase
which are recoverable as liquids at the surface, the reservoir is called gas-condensate, and
the produced liquids are referred to as condensates or distillates. For two-phase
accumulations, the vapor phase is termed the gas cap and the underlying liquid phase is
called the oil zone. In the two-phase ease, recovery of hydrocarbons includes the free gas
in the gas cap, gas evolving from the oil (dissolved gas), recoverable liquid from the gas
cap, and crude oil from the oil zone. If an aquifer or region of high water saturation is
present, a transition zone can exist in which the water saturation can vary as a function of
vertical depth and formation permeability. Water that exists in the oil- or gas-bearing
portion of the reservoir above the transition zone is called connate or interstitial water. All
of these factors are important in the evaluation of the hydrocarbon reserves and recovery
efficiency
(William C. Lyons et al.,2011).

 In-situ Crude oil can be produced through several drive mechanisms of which the choice
of specific drive mechanism is dependent on several key performance tools. This study
examines the Alwyn North field and presents a comparative analysis for producing crude
oil using water drive, gas drive and natural drive or depletion drive. ( J. U. Akpabio and
B. E. Jackson ., 2019).
 In order to efficiently produce those hydrocarbons, reservoir engineers must understand
the reservoir drive the mechanism that moves hydrocarbons out of the rock pore spaces
and into the wellbore. ( Etten. , 2006)
 Gas-cap reservoirs are not normally good waterflood prospects because the primary
mechanism may be quite efficient without water injection. In these cases, gas injection
may be considered in order to help maintain pressure. Smaller gas-cap drives may be
considered as waterflood prospects, but the existence of the gas cap will require greater
care to prevent migration of displaced oil into the gas cap. This migration would result in
a loss of recoverable oil due to the establishment of residual oil saturation in pore volume,
which previously had none. If a gas cap is repressured with water, a substantial volume

3
 may be required for this purpose, thereby lengthening the project life and requiring a
higher vol ( Ahmed, T., 2018).
 One of the most prevalent natural drive mechanisms is gas drive. This occurs when a gas
cap, composed primarily of methane, exists above the oil layer. As pressure depletes
during production, the expanding gas cap displaces oil towards the wellbore (Ahmed,
2010).

 Water drive is another significant natural drive mechanism. In this case, an aquifer, a
water-bearing formation adjacent to the reservoir, provides a source of water that
displaces oil as production progresses (Economides et al., 2016). The effectiveness of
water drive depends on factors like aquifer strength and reservoir characteristics. Strong
aquifers with good connectivity to the reservoir can maintain pressure and enhance oil
recovery.

 Rock and fluid expansion drive contribute minimally compared to gas and water drive. As
pressure declines, both the rock matrix and the reservoir fluids (oil and water) expand,
exerting a small force that pushes oil towards the wellbore (Fan et al., 2008).

 In many real-world reservoirs, a combination of these natural drive mechanisms operates

simultaneously. The relative contribution of each mechanism depends on the specific
geological setting and reservoir properties. Identifying the dominant drive mechanism is
crucial for optimizing production strategies, such as well placement and pressure
maintenance techniques (Dake, 1978).

Chapter Three: Theoretical Background and Methodology

3.1 Water Drive

The greatest natural source of energy available to produce oil today traces its source back to
the ancient seas in which the present-day rock formations were formed as sedimentary
deposits, the same ancient seas in which present day oil deposits originated as organic
substances. This source of energy is the great quantity of salt water existing in the porous
channels of rock associated with present-day oil deposits. One must visualize the rock layer

4
occurring over a very large area, with the oil reservoir being a relatively small structural
feature into which oil migrated. Therefore, water occurs over a large area compared to the oil
in the rock. Although water is considered incompressible, the total compressed volume is
quite large when such great quantities of total water volume are involved. Even the great
volume of rock in which the water exists is influenced by water pressure. As oil is produced,
pressure declines at the point where oil is withdrawn from the reservoir. Water then moves in
to replace the oil as it is produced because of expansion of the minutely compressed water; a
reservoir producing in this manner is termed a "water drive reservoir"

Figure 1 Water drive reservoir (King, 2001)

Many of the most important reservoirs in the world are producing by energy supplied by
water drives. Notable examples are the East Texas field; Leduc field, Alberta, Canada;
Burgan field, Kuwait; Gela field, Sicily; and the Wafra field, Neutral Zone, Arabia. The gas-
oil ratio remains about the same in a water drive reservoir because pressure, remaining high,
prevents gas from evolving to form high gas saturation.

Water production begins first in wells completed low on the structure because the water, in its
displacing action on oil, arrives at these wells first. Water production in these wells increases
continuously until the wells must be abandoned because oil production is insufficient to

5
economically justify their continued operation. A much larger portion of oil originally in the
reservoir is produced by energy and action of a water drive than by either dissolved gas drive
or gas cap drive. Such recovery normally will be approximately 35 to 75 per cent of original
oil in place. Water drive has an important difference from other types of reservoirs drives
the degree to which reservoir pressure is maintained in a water drive reservoir depends upon
the relation between rate of oil, gas and water production and rate at which the water can
advance through the sands into the reservoir. At low rates of production, reservoir pressure
remains nearly as high as pressure in the oil when discovered. At fast rates of production, the
reservoir pressure is pulled down. When the rate is once again reduced, however, pressure
will increase It is common to speak of edge water or bottom water in discussing water influx
into a reservoir. Bottom water occurs directly beneath the oil and edge water occurs off the
flanks of the structure at the edge of the oil. Regardless of the source of water, the water drive
is the result of water moving into the pore spaces originally occupied by oil, replacing the oil
and driving it to the producing wells. Water drive may come about as a result of artesian flow
from an outcrop of the formation in which the reservoir occurs at some short distance from
the reservoir. Surface water is gathered at the outcrop and feeds down into the formation,
replenishing the water as it moves into the reservoir to replace the produced oil(King, 2001).

3.2 Dissolved Gas Drive

Solution gas drive is a mechanism by which dissolved gas in a reservoir will expand and
become an energy support to produce reservoir fluid. Solution gas drive has other name such
as dissolved gas drive or depletion drive. When reservoir pressure is more than the bubble
point, no free gas presents in a reservoir and this is called “under saturated reservoir.” At this
stage, the drive comes from oil and connate water expansion and the compaction of reservoir
pore space. Because compressibility of oil and rock is very low, only a small amount of fluid
can be produced and typically the volume is around 1-2% of oil in place. When reservoir
pressure reaches a bubble point, oil becomes saturated and free gas will present in a reservoir.

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The expansion of gas is a main energy to produce reservoir fluid for the solution gas drive. At
the beginning, the produced gas oil ratio will be slightly decline because free gas in a
reservoir cannot move until it goes over the critical gas saturation. Then gas will begin to
flow into a well. In some cases, where vertical permeability is high, gas may migrate up and
become a secondary gas cap, which helps oil production.
When pressure gets lower, more gas will be produced and oil production will decline. This
will lead to a high producing gas oil ratio. This is not a good sign because reservoir pressure
declines sharply with gas production and eventually energy sources in a reservoir will drop
and oil cannot be produced. Figure 1 shows general profiles of reservoir pressure, oil
production, and Gas Oil Ratio (GOR) over a period of production.

When pressure gets lower, more gas will be produced and oil production will decline. This
will lead to a high producing gas oil ratio. This is not a good sign because reservoir pressure
declines sharply with gas production and eventually energy sources in a reservoir will drop
and oil cannot be produced. Figure 1 shows general profiles of reservoir pressure, oil
production, and Gas Oil Ratio (GOR) over a period of production.

7
 Figure 2 Dissolved gas drive reservoirs ( Abhijit Y. Dandekar, 2013) .

This is very critical to perform the secondary recovery as water injection to maintain
reservoir pressure above the bubble point so as to improve the oil recovery factor. Typical
recovery factor from the solution gas drive reservoir is about 5 – 30% ( Abhijit Y. Dandekar,
2013) .

3.3 Gas Cap Drive

In petroleum reservoir engineering, a gas cap drive is a mechanism where the energy for
producing oil comes from the expansion of natural gas trapped above the oil layer in a
reservoir. This gas cap acts like a natural piston, pushing down on the oil and forcing it
towards the producing wells.

Figure 3 Gas cap drive reservoir (Dake, 1983)

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 Gas cap drive reservoir

Here are some key characteristics of a gas cap drive:

 The reservoir has a distinct gas cap above the oil column.

 The gas cap is mostly composed of natural gas, but may also contain some oil and
water.

 As the oil is produced, the gas cap expands, maintaining pressure and driving the oil
towards the wells.

 Gas cap drive is a relatively efficient recovery mechanism, as it utilizes the natural
energy of the gas(Dake, 1983).

3.4 Gravitational Segregation Drive

Gravitational segregation drive, also known as gravity drainage, is a natural phenomenon

in oil reservoirs where the inherent density differences between reservoir fluids (oil, gas,
and water) cause them to separate vertically over time. This process plays a crucial role in
oil production, impacting recovery factors and influencing reservoir management
strategies.

Fundamentals of Density Segregation:

The key principle behind gravitational segregation is the interplay between fluid density
and gravity. Oil, being typically less dense than water, floats up within the reservoir,
while the denser water settles below. Gas, with the lowest density, occupies the
uppermost zone. This stratification facilitates the displacement of oil by water as
production commences.

Several factors influence the effectiveness of gravitational segregation:

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 ● Density differences: Larger disparities between fluid densities accelerate
segregation. Lighter oil and heavier water enhance the driving force.
● Reservoir thickness: Thicker reservoirs provide a greater distance for vertical fluid
movement, promoting efficient segregation.
● Permeability: High vertical permeability allows fluid to flow more readily
between layers, facilitating separation.
● Angle of dip: Tilted reservoirs, with a dip angle exceeding 10-15°, expedite
drainage due to gravity's aiding effect.
● Fluid viscosity: Lower viscosity of both oil and water enables faster movement
and segregation.
● Presence of barriers: Shale layers or impermeable zones can hinder vertical fluid
flow, impeding segregation.

Mechanism and Recovery Enhancement:

As oil is produced from the reservoir, the pressure decline triggers two key effects:

● Expansion of remaining oil: The reduced pressure allows dissolved gas within the
oil to come out of solution, expanding the oil volume and generating some
additional reservoir drive.
● Water influx: The pressure imbalance draws water from the underlying aquifer
into the reservoir, displacing oil towards production wells.

Gravitational segregation complements both pressure expansion and water drive by

facilitating oil movement along the pressure gradient towards the producing wells. It can
significantly enhance recovery factors, potentially exceeding 50% in ideal scenarios.

Limitations and Considerations:

While an important drive mechanism, gravitational segregation comes with limitations:

● Slow process: Oil displacement by gravity is inherently slow and requires

extended production periods.

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 ● Reservoir dependence: Thick, permeable, and tilted reservoirs are best suited for
effective segregation.
● Gas cap interaction: Gas caps can impede oil drainage depending on their size and
mobility.
● Monitoring and management: Careful monitoring of fluid contacts and reservoir
pressure is crucial to optimize production and prevent early gas or water
breakthrough (Clark, N.J., 1969).

3.5 Combination Drive

Reservoirs of oil can be typed according to their geological configuration or according to

their producing mechanism, but reservoirs are seldom found which can be made to fit exactly
into either type of classification. The producing mechanism most commonly encountered is
one in which both water and free gas are available in some degree to enter the reservoir and
displace the oil toward the wells as production occurs.

Figure 4 Combination drive reservoir (Salleh, 1980)

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The most common type of drive encountered, therefore, is a combination drive. Production
problems are exceedingly complicated because of the infinite number of combinations
characterizing the various reservoirs occurring naturally. Differences between the three basic
drive mechanisms resolve into those which occur between a depletion and a displacement
mechanism. The depletion mechanism applies where energy comes principally from the small
amount of gas originally dissolved in the reservoir oil. Only by exhausting this supply of gas
through liberation, expansion and depletion is oil produced. The displacement mechanism
applies to both gas cap and water drives where either gas or water as the displacing material
originates outside the oil zone, moves into the oil zone through the interconnecting pore
channels and pushes oil ahead to the wellbore. The depletion mechanism is inherently
inefficient because large percentages of oil are left in such reservoirs that depend on
dissolved gas for their driving energy. Although large amounts of oil are left behind in most
reservoirs having a displacement type drive (gas cap or water drive), such drives are
inherently more efficient. The first great task facing the oil industry, therefore, is to minimize
the inefficient drives by substituting more efficient ones to obtain better recoveries from
known petroleum deposits(Salleh, 1980).

3.6 General Problems with Natural Drive Mechanisms

Certainly. Natural drive mechanisms in oil reservoirs, such as solution gas drive, gas cap drive, and water drive,
face several challenges that can affect reservoir performance and ultimate recovery:

1. Limited Ultimate Recovery:

 Natural depletion relies on reservoir pressure decline to push oil towards the wellbore. However,
pressure loss eventually diminishes its effectiveness . Studies by (Ahmed,2001) show that relying
solely on depletion drive typically results in 30-70% of original oil in place (OOIP) remaining
unrecovered.
 Gas cap drive, where an overlying gas cap expands to displace oil, suffers a similar fate. As pressure
depletes, the gas cap's driving force weakens . (Dooley et al., 2014) highlight the importance of
maintaining reservoir pressure in gas cap drive scenarios to maximize recovery.

2. Water Influx:

 In water-drive reservoirs, water influx can occur due to the natural movement of aquifer water into the
reservoir, displacing oil and reducing oil saturation. Water influx can lead to early water breakthrough,
increased water production, and decreased oil recovery efficiency(Feng, X et al.,2015).

3. Gas-Oil Ratio (GOR) Issues:

 Solution gas drive, where dissolved gas released from oil aids in flow, can lead to high GOR. This
means unwanted gas production along with the oil, increasing separation costs and potentially limiting

12
 pipeline capacity. Economides, (M. J., & Nolte, K. G.,2000) discuss strategies for managing GOR in
solution gas drive reservoirs.

4. Dependence on Reservoir Properties:

 The effectiveness of all natural drives is impacted by rock properties. Low permeability (resistance to
fluid flow) hinders oil movement, while heterogeneity (variations in rock properties) can create
preferential flow paths, bypassing oil zones (Fan et al., 2006].

5. Geological Challenges:

Faults, fractures, and thief zones (highly permeable zones) act as preferential pathways for fluids, diverting oil
away from production wells and reducing recovery . Schlumberger provides a good resource on characterizing
and addressing geological challenges in reservoir production (Wu, Z, et al.,2022]

3.7 Role Of Natural Drive Mechanisms in Oil Reservoirs in Kurdistan

The role of natural drive mechanisms in oil reservoirs in Kurdistan/Iraq is crucial for understanding production
dynamics and optimizing extraction methods. Natural drive mechanisms, such as solution gas drive, water drive,
and gas cap expansion, play a significant role in facilitating oil recovery from reservoirs in this region.

1.Solution Gas Drive: In many reservoirs in Kurdistan/Iraq, solution gas drive is a dominant mechanism. As oil
is produced, the pressure within the reservoir decreases, causing dissolved gas to come out of solution and
expand, driving the oil towards the production wells (Ahmed et al., 2017).

2.Water Drive: Water drive is another important mechanism, especially in mature reservoirs where water
encroachment occurs. Water displaces oil towards production wells, enhancing oil recovery (Al-Bazali et al.,
2018).

3.Gas Cap Expansion: In reservoirs with a gas cap, gas cap expansion can significantly contribute to oil
recovery. As oil is produced, the gas cap expands, maintaining reservoir pressure and pushing oil towards
production wells (Ahmed et al., 2017).

Understanding the dynamics of these natural drive mechanisms is essential for reservoir management and
optimizing production strategies in Kurdistan/Iraq.

Chapter Four: Findings and Results

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Chapter Five: Conclusion and Recommendations

Natural drive mechanisms are the forces that push oil out of a reservoir and towards a well
for extraction. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for maximizing oil recovery. There
are four main types:

 Water Drive: Water from an adjacent aquifer pushes into the reservoir, displacing the
oil.
 Solution-Gas Drive: Dissolved gas in the oil comes out of solution as pressure drops
during production, expanding and pushing the oil.
 Gas-Cap Drive: An existing free gas zone above the oil zone expands as pressure
declines, forcing oil downwards.
 Gravity Drainage: In tilted reservoirs, oil naturally flows down due to gravity,
displacing water or gas below it.

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Many reservoirs have a combination of these drives, and understanding which ones are
dominant is vital for efficient production.

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