Introduction to Environmental Studies

Lithosphere

RABEEA ZAFAR
Lecturer Environmental Design
AIOU, Islamabad
LITHOSPHERE
Layers of the Earth
The Earth is made up of 3 main
layers:
Crust

Mantle

Core
Think of the layers of the Earth like
the layers of a cake.
 Ocean Land

Crust
Crust
Ocean Land

• Thinnest layer of the Earth that ranges from only 2

miles in some areas of the ocean floor to 75 miles deep
under mountains
• Made up of large amounts of silicon and aluminum
• Two types of crust: oceanic crust and continental crust
• Composed of plates on which the continents and oceans
rest
 Upper Mantle

Convection
Middle
Currents
Mantle

Lower Mantle

Mantle
 Upper Mantle

Convection
Mantle Currents
Middle
Mantle
Lower Mantle

• Solid but capable of flow (like hot asphalt or

fudge)
• Thickest layer of the Earth (making up 70% of
the Earth’s mass)
• The hot material (magma) in the mantle rises to
the top of the mantle, cools, then sinks, reheats,
and rises again. These convection currents cause
changes in the Earth’s surface
Outer
Core

Inner
Core

Core
 Outer
Core
• Molten (liquid) metal that is about 4,700°C
(8,500°F)
• Located about 1,800 miles beneath the crust
and is about 1,400 miles thick
• Composed of the melted metals nickel and
iron
 Inner
Core
• Solid sphere composed mostly of iron
• It is believed to be as hot as 6,650°C (12,000°F)
• Heat in the core is probably generated by the
radioactive decay of uranium and other elements
• It is solid because of the pressure from the outer
core, mantle, and crust compressing it
tremendously
 Crust

Mantle
Outer Core Lithosphere – Crust and
Upper Layer of the Mantle
Liquid
Layer of the Mantle
(asthenosphere) that
consists of hot rock of tar-
like consistency, which
slowly moves

Inner Core
Solid
The lithosphere (crust and upper mantle) is
divided into separate plates which move
very slowly in response to the “convecting”
part of the mantle.
 Temperature
increases as depth increases
Look at the information in the graph and
table below. What’s the relationship
between depth and density/pressure?
 Density and Pressure
increase as depth increases
 Temperature,
Density and
Pressure
increases as depth
increases
Which layer of the Earth has the greatest
temperature, pressure, and density?

Core
 Summary
The earth is layered
with a lithosphere (crust
and uppermost mantle),
convecting mantle, and
a dense metallic core.
Pressure,
temperature, and
density increases as
http://www.learner.org/interactives/dynamiceart
depth increases. h/structure.html
Lithosphere

• Comprises the Earth’s

crust and part of the
upper mantle
 Rocks and minerals
• A rock is a
heterogeneous blend of
various grains (each
grain is a mineral)

• A mineral is a pure,
natural and inorganic
substance
Formation of rocks
THEHowROCK CYCLE
are rocks classified?
 What Rocks Tell Us
Rock Type How Classified What it Tells Us
Composition Tectonic Setting
Igneous
Texture Cooling History
Chemical Surface
Composition Environment
Sedimentary
Energy of
Grain Size
Environment
Composition Original Rock Type
Temperature,
Metamorphic Mineral Makeup
Pressure
Texture Degree of Change
Fossil Fuels
Coal Seams, Utah
 Coal
• Delta, continental environments
• Carbonized Woody Material
• Often fossilized trees, leaves present
Plant Fragments Are Often Visible in
Coal
 Petroleum
A hydrocarbon molecule
 Petroleum
• Lots of organisms make these, however

• Fatty Acids
• Probable source: Marine plankton
Petroleum Traps
Faces Changes
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Rocks that form from other pre-existing rock

(sedimentary, igneous, or metamorphic) that have been changed
from high temperature and/or high pressure
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks Formation
 Conditions that cause rock to undergo
metamorphism include:
• Heat - Under conditions of high temperature from
magma contacting pre-existing rock.
• Pressure - Deep burial and pressure from mountain
formation.
 Land/soil (chemicals) pollution
Why does it matter?

• Pollution remains a massive challenge – threatens to

intensify as a result of rising consumption, living standards
and population growth.
• Pollutants, including human-made chemicals and emissions
and domestic and industrial waste streams, are impairing air,
water (fresh and marine) and soil quality.
• WHO estimates (2012): 23% of deaths worldwide - 12.6
million people are due to environmental causes
• middle-income countries bear the brunt of pollution-related
illnesses, with a disproportionate impact on children.
 Pollution challenges: The land/soil pollution
perspective
Key concerns:
• Complex pollution leachate mixtures from mismanaged
and uncontrolled dumpsites; includes mercury, arsenic,
organic compounds, heavy metals and other hazardous
substances
• Pesticides and antimicrobial drugs in crop and livestock
productions are among pollutants of key concern
• Pollution from abandoned industrial sites, armed conflict
zones, nuclear power stations, pesticide stockpiles, waste
landfills - part of a longer-term legacy
Managing soil pollution to achieve sustainable development
Combating
desertification, drought
Environment and and encouraging
sustainaible rangelands
Sustainable Health
consumption and pastoralism
and production
Innovation Air pollution
Air quality

Soil pollution resolution

Global Environment
Prevention, Armed Water Monitoring
reduction and conflicts pollution System/Water
reuse of food Programme
waste

Lead (paint Marine litter and Marine plastic

Chemicals and batteries) microplastics litter and
and waste microplastics
 Pollution challenges: The land/soil pollution
perspective
Critical gaps
• Implementation gaps: lack of resources; inadequate capacities or political will
• Knowledge gaps: inadequate awareness of key information, insufficient
disclosure of information, limited understanding of pollution’s social and gender
dimensions
• Infrastructure gaps: monitoring and management of wastes; recycling
• Limited leadership - financial institutions and industry: challenges in
information disclosure; compliance/due diligence; access to ‘green financing’
• Mispricing, the invisibility of ecosystems services: treatment of ecosystems as
waste dumps and sinks; choices made without awareness of full consequences
• Lack of recognition of consequence of consumer choices: limited
understanding of behaviors and incentives; limited empowerment to influence
choices, limited information on alternative (affordable options)
 What is Land
Pollution?
• Land pollution is caused by
man-made actions.
• Land Pollution affects the soil
on the Earth.
• also affects the health of
humans, animals, and plants.
• Land pollution can contribute
and help contaminate the air
and water.
Causes
Caused by trash and toxic wastes
humans leave on the land.
Lack of recycling which leads to
filling up landfills.
Chemical plants and coal-fired
plants cause land pollution.
Another cause is acid rain and
trash that washes ashore from
boats and sewage outlets.
Disposing resources too quickly.
 How does land pollution
affect
• Land pollution pollutes the us?
environment and our ecosystems.
• It causes health problems like birth defects, cancer, and respiratory
problems.
• It can harm wildlife like plants and animals.
• Land will become unreliable for life and our agriculture.

• Land pollution becomes hazardous to our health.

• Landfills and waste dump increase in size. Which takes up a lot of land
and space from wildlife and humans.
 How to reduce land
pollution?
Using the 3 R’s: Reduce, Re-use, and Recycle.

• Recycle and dispose of the trash correctly.

• Help clean up the environment by cleaning parks and roads.
• Recycle so that the items you recycle can be made into bridges,
cars, freezers, and benches.
THANK YOU