Suez Canal University ‫جـــــــامعـة قنــــاة الســـــــــــــــويس‬

Faculty of Engineering ‫كليـــــــة الهندســــــــــــــــــــة‬

Mechanical Engineering Department ‫قســـــــم الهندســــــــــــــــــــة الميكانـــــــيكية‬

Fall Semester 2023

MEC 422 – Basics of Industrial

Engineering
Report no. (1)

Lean Manufacturing
Submitted to:
Dr. Mokhtar Kamel

Submitted by:

Group (1)

itsahmdsyd@gmail.com ‫أحمد السيد عطية‬

ahmedali2572002@gmail.com ‫أحمد علي اسماعيل‬
iosama807@gmail.com ‫اسامه إبراهيم عبد الودود‬
rslanmuhmd7@gmail.com ‫رسالن محمد السيد‬
Soliman14aaa11ahmed@gmail.com ‫سليمان أحمد سليمان‬
‫عبد الرحمن زكي فايز‬
Mmohamedshaban342@gmail.com ‫محمد شعبان محمد‬
Mohsenmoahammed857@gmail.com ‫محمد محسن عبد العزيز‬

Date of Submission:
Tuesday, December 5, 2023
Table of Contents
1. Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................... 3
2. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 4
3. Literature review ............................................................................................................................................. 5
4. Manufacturing Cells........................................................................................................................................ 7
5. Just In Time (JIT) ............................................................................................................................................ 8
6. KANBAN ....................................................................................................................................................... 9
7. SMED ........................................................................................................................................................... 10
8. Value Stream Mapping.................................................................................................................................. 11
9. KAIZEN........................................................................................................................................................ 12
10. Jidoka ............................................................................................................................................................ 13
11. 5S .................................................................................................................................................................. 14
12. Poka-Yoke ..................................................................................................................................................... 14
13. Case Study .................................................................................................................................................... 16
14. Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................... 21
15. References ..................................................................................................................................................... 22

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1. Abstract
Lean manufacturing, a widely adopted production philosophy, focuses on maximizing value while
minimizing waste in manufacturing processes. Based on the principles of the Toyota Production System., lean
principles aim to enhance efficiency, reduce costs, and improve overall quality. This Report provides an overview
of the key elements of lean manufacturing, including just-in-time production, continuous improvement
(KAIZEN), and waste elimination. It explores the principles of lean, such as value stream mapping and KANBAN
methods, which collectively contribute to streamlining operations. improving workplace organization, efficiency,
and overall effectiveness by promoting a clean and well-organized environment. lean manufacturing remains a
transformative approach in today's dynamic and competitive industrial landscape.

3
2. Introduction
Lean manufacturing is a production process based on an ideology of maximizing productivity while
simultaneously minimizing waste within a manufacturing operation. The lean principle sees waste as anything
that doesn’t add value that the customers are willing to pay for.
The benefits of lean manufacturing include reduced lead times and operating costs and improved product
quality. Also known as lean production, the methodology is based on specific manufacturing principles that have
influenced production systems across the world as well as those of other industries including healthcare, software,
and various service industries. (4)

History
The lean concept is not a new one, originating from the end of the 19th
century and the beginning of the 20th century, with the development of the
production systems by Henry Ford and other producers.
A brief overview of the evolution of lean management over the years is
offered in (Figure 1). Key contributors to the evolution of the lean concept such
as Eli Whitney, Taylor, Gilbreth, Henry Ford, Shingo, and Ohno will be
mentioned and discussed in this report. (5)

The Great Thinkers in The History of Lean

Figure 1
Eli Whitney
Eli Whitney’s two crucial inventions had significant impacts on the U.S. as a great Business
Transformation in the 18th century and mid-19th century. Firstly, by the cotton gin transformation and secondly
by promoting the concept of “interchangeable parts” in the manufacturing process. The concept of the use of
interchangeable parts significant transformation in the arms manufacturing process. And acted as removal
of difficulty or impossibility in the production of new parts for old equipment. Adopting the usage of identical
parts; transformed the manufacturing industry. He contributed to a great extent to the victory of the U.S. in the
Civil War. The first use of this principle was in the manufacture of muskets.
Adam Smith
Specialization of labor. Called “division of labor” by Adam Smith , this principle asserts that when a large job is
divided into small tasks and each task is assigned to one worker, the worker becomes highly proficient at
performing the single task. Each worker becomes a specialist

Frederick Winslow Taylor

Frederick Winslow Taylor has made a great contribution to the history of lean timeline. His ideas focused
on individual workers and their methods of performing work at the factory level. As a result of overseeing,
Frederick W. Taylor brought up concepts of Standardized Work, Time Study, and Work Standards and transformed
these concepts into “Scientific Management”.
Frank Bunker Gilbreth
Frank Bunker Gilbreth and his wife Lillian Moller Gilbreth efficiently contributed to business
transformation. The Shape of Motion Study and Human Factors. His contribution is associated with Frederick
Winslow Taylor’s concept while Taylor was primarily focused on reducing process time. Frank Gilbreth focused
on making the process more improved by reducing the motions used in that which forego the development of
continuous quality improvement. This originated the doctrine of JIT and Lean Manufacturing i.e. “elimination
of waste”. His major contribution to lean transformation was dividing all human work up into several individual
motions, which he called Therbligs.
Henry Ford
At the start of the 20th century, Henry Ford made a huge contribution to lean history. He initiated the concept the
start of the 20th century, Henry Ford made a huge contribution to lean history. He initiated the concept of
4
Manufacturing Strategy; in which on the manufacturing site they used all the resources of the manufacturing
system (i.e., people, machines, tooling, and products). In such an arranged manner with a sequence of constant
motions in continuous flow and standardization that resulted in perfectly fitted components as mass production.
this method of Ford (i.e., Mass Production System) was adopted by the U.S. in World War II. But as the world
changed, Ford’s system was unable to go with the changing world and finally failed with the addition of a demand
for new systems or models in the manufacturing process. Ford is considered the principal expert of JIT and Lean
Manufacturing.
Sakichi Toyoda
Sakichi Toyoda established Toyoda Automation Loom Works. Which was an engineering manufacturing
company that implemented an automatic power loom. It was the best example of the principle of Jidoka
(autonomous automation). He was one of the earliest benefactors of the success of the Toyota Production System.
The concept of the 5 Why of lean manufacturing to solve problems improve qualities or reduce cost, was also
developed. After a lapse of time, his son Kiichiro Toyoda is taken ahead of the concept of Jidoka (which means
the machine stops itself when a problem occurs). And flourished his ideology about the Just in Time concept in
manufacturing. Kiichiro’s cousin i.e., Eiji Toyoda observed the mass production system implemented by Ford.
Taiichi Ohno
In post-war Japan, Taiichi Ohno was involved intensely in work on excess inventory of both work-in-progress
and finished goods in the manufacturing business. To create a sound and modern concept, Toyota collaborated
with Taiichi Ohno, and the results of they found, that right-sizing machines for the required quantity or volume,
set can produce faster in a qualitative way with low cost. His tests are driven to create novel thoughts that got to
be known as the “Toyota Production System”.
Taiichi Ohno’s work has contributed to today’s manufacturing mantra of maintaining quality, where quality has
always been a key component of lean transformation.
Developments of these concepts are known as “Toyota Way”; including the Kanban system used on assembly
lines and fine-tuning the concept of Kaizen is a process of incremental but steady improvements outlined to cut
labor costs while boosting overall product quality. This framework of transformation is largely utilized as the gold
standard of the implementation of lean manufacturing in an organization.
James Womack
James Womack integrated the concepts of the past and future manufacturing processes in the shape of the
book- “The Machine That Changed The World”; i.e. comprises thinking of automotive producers of Japanese,
American, and other European countries and named it with a new phrase- “Lean Manufacturing”.
There are presently numerous publications clarifying the concepts and process of Lean Manufacturing and its
lean tools in tremendous detail. James Womack’s former collaborator John Krafcik (who was the originator of
the phrase- Lean Manufacturing) upholds the process of automobile producers. Major credit is given to the
concept and processes of Taiichi Ohno as Toyota idealized the Toyota Production System perfectly. (6)

3. Literature review
The word « revolution » means a dramatic change, which is not necessary a fast and sudden The expression «
industrial revolution » could be identified as implying a transition from the pre-industrial to the industrial
society . To have an industrial revolution, the natural resources, the infrastructure and the money to invest,
etc., should exist.

Until today, the industrial environment has known four major revolutions. that could be seen as a series of
events.

Lean manufacturing till the first Industrial revolutions: lean primitive

In the 19th century, the population was growing faster than food production. Humankind has solved the
hunger problem. Britain focused first on improving the productivity of agriculture and then the productivity of

5
labor (no food goods) by using machinery and inventions. Therefore, the economic environment passed from
craft production to industrial production. It is about the first Industrial Revolution. Known also as the British
industrial revolution. It initiated the transition from human and animal labor technology into machinery and iron
production processes, the development of machine tools, improved efficiency of waterpower as well and the
increasing use of steam power. Otherwise, this period was characterized by the mechanization specialization, and
the division of labor the efficiency in market transactions, the increase of productivity), as well as scientific and
technological advances The division of labor, developed by Adam Smith, is a source of productivity increasing
and eliminating of the dead time. It is also among the basic items of work standardization and lean manufacturing.
the second Industrial revolutions: lean production
The Second Industrial Revolution began in the USA in the middle of the 19th century and later spread
throughout many other parts of the world. This is why it is called the US industrial revolution. It was characterized
by the invention of many new technologies such as electricity, the internal combustion engine, (telegraph,
telephone, and radio), and running water with indoor plumbing. In the Second Industrial Revolution, the existing
manufacturing and production methods of the First Industrial Revolution were improved. like the planning of the
plant process and the adoption of Taylor’s method. However, the most important achievement of the Second
Industrial Revolution was the adoption of continuous-flow production, allowing the control of the working speed
and minimizing wasted time. But the working conditions were inadequate with low wages and long working
hours.
During this revolution, Henry Ford developed in their automotive plants, a new model of mass production
based on work division, production lines, parts interchangeability as well and economy of scale by making huge
plants to reduce costs. At this time, Japanese producers experienced a shortage in terms of resources needed for
production, which prompted Toyota to provide it with the minimum possible resources. Toyota was only, partially,
able to develop the Ford production system in its first car factory «Koromo» created in 1937, due to funding
constraints, only paint, assembly, and foundry shops were able to benefit from conveyor systems for production.
For the other production shops, Toyota preferred to simplify the production process and obtain new flexible
machinery able to be adjustable to any model.
In 1949, Taiichi Ohno reorganized the production system of Toyota by implementing the principles of
just-in-time and autonomation (Jidoka in Japanese). Consequently, a new model of production was developed,
called TPS (Toyota Production System) that spread in the 1980s, The TPS, later named lean manufacturing or
lean production, began to invade the industrial world. With the publication of the book Machine That Changed
the World" by James Womack and Daniel Jones, the Western industry gradually began to converge towards the
adoption of lean manufacturing. It requires "half of the human effort, half of the manufacturing space, half of the
investment and half of the engineering hours for a new product in a half of the time" Thereby, it aims at banishing
all the types of waste. Taiichi Ohno, one of the pioneers of lean manufacturing, was the first to identify seven
types of waste: overproduction, unnecessary stock, unnecessary transport, unnecessary processing, unnecessary
movements, waiting times, and defective parts. Lean manufacturing is based on two pillars: just-in-time and
autonomation. Each pillar of lean manufacturing requires a set of tools and increased production flexibility. For
example, Just in Time requires SMED, Takt time, Kanban, and piece-to-piece flow. As for Jidoka, this pillar
requires many tools such as Andon, and poka-yoke.
The Third Industrial Revolution: lean automation
We talk about the third industrial revolution, called the digital revolution. It is based on the use of
electronics and information technology (IT) systems to further digital automate production. Therefore, automation
is the key element of the third industrial revolution. It was used first, in the 1960’s, for ergonomics reasons. It
includes the mechanization of the physical flow of goods and the computerization of the flow of information.
Afterward, it has been seen as a means to improve efficiency, productivity, quality, and safety as well as to reduce
costs in operation. Despite all the automation benefits, it is not always the best solution, and, in some cases, it is
not even a feasible one. Contrary to popular belief, lean Production does not exclude automation. it was
recommended by its founder Ono to automate repeating and value-adding tasks. Consequently, in a manufacturing
environment, the lean production system can use both manual and automated processes. The integration of
automation technology into lean principles brings out the concept of lean automation. This new concept appeared
for the first time in the 1990s, after the peak of Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM), to support and expand
the approaches and the concepts of lean manufacturing without changing their goals. While operators remain at
6
the heart of the new lean automation system. In the last decade, the scientific community did not pay much
attention to lean automation. However, lean and automation are already combined in the Jidoka pillar. since its
development.
the fourth Industrial revolutions: lean 4.0
the fourth industrial revolution. the industrial environment is being transformed to the fourth stage with
the rise of autonomous robots, contemporary automation, cyber-physical systems, the Internet of Things, the
Internet of services, and so on. In another way, it is moving from a physical process with IT support to an
integrated cyber-physical production system with radical. (11)
4. Manufacturing Cells
Cellular manufacturing is a type of layout in which machines are grouped into what is referred to as a
cell. The arrangement of machines is determined by the operations needed to perform work for a set of similar
parts. Effective cellular manufacturing must have groups of identified items or parts with similar geometric shapes
or processing characteristics. These groups of similar items are known as part families, this strategy is known as
Group technology.[1][2]
After defining the machine cells and part families, we can now
consider that the two major tasks to implement group technology and cellular
manufacturing are:
• Identifying the part families.
• Rearrange the machines into machine cells.

There are several methods to identify part families to identify part Figure 2 parts family (Grover, 2015)
families and machine cells, one of them is production flow analysis.
Production Flow Analysis
Production flow analysis (PFA) is an approach to identify the part families and form the machine cells
dependent on the information contained in production rout sheets and material flow charts. This method must
begin with defining the parts to be analyzed, therefore the subsequent steps in the Production Flow Analysis (PFA)
procedure are:
1. Data Collection: For the analysis, the essential data required includes the part number and the sequence
of operations.
2. Sortation of process routings: parts are grouped based on similarity in process routings, and all
operations or machines are presented as code numbers, then the parts are arranged into “packs”.
3. PFA Chart: this chart is a table of the process or machine code numbers needed for all parts (packs)
using 1 or 0 to show if the part goes through this process or not as shown in Table 1.
4. Cluster Analysis: From the data indicated in the PFA chart, related groupings are identified and
rearranged to bring together the part packs with similar machine sequences as shown in Table 2, in this
step there is a systematic technique called rank order clustering can be used to do the cluster analysis.
Table 1: simplified PFA chart Table 2: Rearranged PFA chart, including cell groupings
parts(i) parts(i)
Machines(j) A B C D E F G H I Machines(j) C E I A D H F G B
1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1
2 1 1 2 1 1
3 1 1 1 6 1 1
4 1 1 1 1 1 1
5 1 1 5 1 1
6 1 1 7 1 1 1
7 1 1 1 4 1 1

Types of machine cells

Machine cells can be categorized by the number of machines in the cell and the handling system of the
material, four common types of machine cells are: Single machine cell, group-machine cell with manual handling,
group-machine cell with semi-integrated handling, and flexible manufacturing system (FMS).

7
Machine cell Layouts
Choosing the appropriate cell layout depends on how parts move in the production system. there are
four types of parts moves in the cell shown in Figure 3, repeat operation, in sequence move, bypassing move,
and backtracking move.[1]
For applications with only sequential movements, an in-line layout
is suitable. A U-shaped layout is effective in such cases, promoting closer
interaction among cell workers. U-shaped is also appropriate When the
application includes repeated operations or multiple stations (machines) are
often required. In the case of backtracking, loop or rectangular layouts enable
recirculation within the cell. Figure 4 illustrates the four layouts of machine
cells.
Figure 3 move types in machine cells.

Figure 4 cell layouts (Grover, 2015)

Goals of implementing cellular manufacturing and group technology

The typical objectives of applying cellular manufacturing and group technology are:
• Shortening the lead times by reducing setup, work-part handling, waiting times, and batch sizes.
• Reducing work-in-process inventory: shorter lead times and smaller batches reduce work-in-process.
• Reducing setup times: This is achieved by employing group tooling (including cutting tools, jigs, and
fixtures) designed for processing the part family.
• Worker satisfaction usually improves when workers collaborate in a GT cell.
• Higher quality work is accomplished: after applying this methodology, the worker who is responsible
for the part family is now known, and each worker focuses on improving their output.
Cellular manufacturing is often associated with lean manufacturing principles, emphasizing the elimination of
waste, efficient use of resources, and a commitment to delivering high-quality products. This approach has been
successfully applied across various industries, offering a modular and adaptive solution to the challenges of
modern production environments.

5. Just In Time (JIT)

A just-in-time inventory system (JIT) is a management strategy that directly aligns suppliers' raw material orders
with production schedules. Companies use this inventory strategy to receive goods only when needed for the production
process, thereby increasing efficiency, and reducing waste, thus reducing inventory costs. This approach requires
manufacturers to accurately forecast demand. (3)

8
JIT is related to quality in three ways:
JIT reduces quality costs: This is because scrap, rework, inventory investment, and damage costs are
directly related to existing inventory. Since JIT has less inventory, the cost is lower. Furthermore, inventory masks
poor quality, while JIT immediately exposes poor quality.
JIT improves quality: Because JIT reduces lead times, evidence of defects is kept up-to-date, and the
number of potential error sources is limited. JIT effectively creates an early warning system for quality problems
within the company and among suppliers.
Better quality means less inventory and a better, easier-to-use JIT system: The purpose of the inventory
is usually to prevent poor production performance due to unreliable quality. Companies can use JIT to reduce all
costs associated with warehousing while maintaining consistent quality. (4)
Advantages of JIT inventory systems:
Production cycles are short, meaning manufacturers can quickly switch from one product to another. This
approach also reduces costs by minimizing storage requirements. Additionally, companies spend less money on
raw materials because they purchase only enough resources to produce the products they order, not more. (5)
Disadvantages of a JIT inventory system include potential supply chain disruptions. If a raw material supplier
fails and cannot deliver on time, it could bring the entire production line to a standstill. Sudden unexpected orders
may delay the delivery of finished goods to end customers. (5)

6. KANBAN
The origin of Kanban
Kanban originated from the Toyota Production System (TPS) and lean manufacturing. Toyota production
system is based on a pull system rather than a push system. This means that their production is based on the "pull"
of consumer demand, rather than the "push" of production plans to create inventory. The desire to create push
systems gave rise to so-called “just-in-time” manufacturing, where products are made, when possible, when
consumers need them (rather than in a warehouse). When the product assembly is completed, the downstream
processes continue to "pull" the products into the production process and upstream processing areas endeavor to
get materials to their downstream counterparts just in time. [1]
Through the practice of visually charting the progress of production stages, Kanban boards are a useful
method of visually managing workflow in workplaces where pull and just-in-time are critical. [1]
Kanban became a standard part of the lean manufacturing toolkit and is used by many manufacturing
companies. However, it is not only suitable for manufacturing but also adopted by the software industry for agile
development. [1]
Four Principles of Kanban
Kanban has four principles. These are:
1. Start doing what you are doing now.
When you introduce Kanban, you don’t also change your production process. Instead, use Kanban
boards to visually manage what you're doing. This way you avoid culture shock and the risk of losing
recognition at work. Additionally, using Kanban boards within your existing processes will help you identify
opportunities for improvement. [15]
2. Pursue incremental, evolutionary change.
Once Kanban is implemented, you can use it to make a series of small changes to a problem to achieve
continuous improvement. This is consistent with Lean’s typical emphasis on small incremental improvements,
which Kaizen also demonstrates. [15]

9
 3. Respect existing processes, roles, and responsibilities
Remember to recognize that existing processes, roles, and responsibilities currently exist for a reason
and have value. Overall, they are worth keeping. You're not prohibited from making changes, but you're also not
supposed to accept change for the sake of change or make crazy, sweeping, sweeping changes. [15]
4. Inspiring leaders at all levels
People often mistakenly believe that leadership only comes from the “top” in the organizational
hierarchy. However, to truly create a culture of organizational learning and continuous improvement, employees
at all levels must adopt a process of Kanban and incremental change for continuous improvement, and in many
cases, employees will take the lead. [15]
Benefits of Kanban
Because Kanban strives to increase efficiency, companies that use Kanban typically experience faster
turnaround times. This includes faster manufacturing processes, faster packaging and handling, and more
efficient delivery to customers. This reduces a company's shipping costs (e.g. storage, insurance, obsolescence
risk) while allowing faster turnover of capital for more efficient use. Companies that adopt Kanban practices are
also likely to have better predictions. By outlining future steps and tasks, companies may be able to better
understand risks, obstacles, or difficulties that would otherwise slow down progress. Instead, companies can
preemptively plan to address these deficiencies and allocate resources to address obstacles before they slow
down the process. [16]
Finally, the goal of kanban is to provide better service to customers. With more efficient and less
wasteful processes, customers may be charged lower prices. With faster processes, customers may get their
goods faster. By being on top of processes, customers may be able to interact with customer service quicker and
have resolutions met faster. [16]
Disadvantages of Kanban:
• Cannot be used independently: Kanban is not a methodology that can be connected autonomously, or
maybe it can be combined with other forms and frameworks of a company like JIT, make-to-order,
scrum, etc., making these frameworks more obvious. [16]
• Does not fit into a dynamic environment: The Kanban approach assumes the plans that are stable and
consistent to a certain level, it may become feeble in industries where the activities are not still. [16]
• The inability for an iteration: Building software in iterations is a foundation for most development
processes, which are not integral to Kanban at a ticket level. You can build iteration on top of Kanban,
but it often ends up being a separate process. [16]
• Doesn’t Show the Timeframes Another negative point to take into account before getting started is
that a Kanban board doesn’t tell you the timescales involved in getting the tasks done. They simply
move across the board from one column to the next, with no dates noted on when they need to be
completed. [16]

7. SMED
Single Minute Exchange of Dies. The actual interpretation of SMED is for the setup changeover to be
accomplished within single-digit minutes; that is, less than 10 min. [1]
The main objective of SMED is to minimize the time required to change a production line from one
product to another. The term "single-minute" in SMED does not necessarily mean that every changeover should
be completed in one minute, but rather that the goal is to reduce the setup time to a single-digit number of minutes.
[13]
The SMED methodology focuses on two primary types of setup activities: internal and external setup.
Internal setup refers to activities that can only be performed when the machine is stopped, such as removing or
installing parts, adjusting settings, or calibrating equipment. External setup refers to activities that can be
performed while the machine is still running, such as gathering tools, preparing materials, or organizing the
workspace. [13]
10
SMED methodology:
Observation: The current setup process is observed and analyzed in detail to identify all the steps
involved, including both internal and external setup activities. [13]
Separation: The setup process is divided into internal and external setup activities. The goal is to
convert as many internal setup activities as possible into external setup activities, which can be performed
while the machine is still running. [13]
Streamlining: The internal setup activities that could not be converted into external setup activities are
analyzed to identify opportunities for improvement. Techniques such as standardization, simplification,
or automation may be applied to streamline these activities and reduce their duration. [13]
Standardization: Standardized procedures and checklists are developed to ensure that setup activities
are performed consistently and efficiently. This reduces the risk of errors or delays during changeovers.
[13]
Continuous Improvement: The SMED process is iterative, and the goal is to continuously identify
and eliminate waste in the setup process. By involving the operators and encouraging their suggestions
for improvement, the setup time can be further reduced over time. [13]

The benefits of implementing SMED include:

Reduced setup time: By applying SMED techniques, companies can significantly reduce the time
required to change from one product to another. This allows for smaller batch sizes, increased production
flexibility, and shorter lead times. [13]
Increased productivity: With shorter setup times, machines spend more time producing and less time
idle. This leads to higher equipment utilization and improves overall productivity. [13]
Improved quality: By standardizing setup procedures and reducing the potential for errors during
changeovers, SMED can contribute to improved product quality and reduced defects. [13]
Cost savings: SMED helps to eliminate unnecessary activities, reduce downtime, and optimize resource
utilization, leading to cost savings in terms of labor, material waste, and equipment maintenance. [13]

8. Value Stream Mapping

Value stream mapping originated from the Toyota Production System and has since been widely adopted
in various industries. It involves creating a detailed map of the current state (as-is) and future state (to-be) of the
value stream to identify and eliminate non-value-added activities and streamline the overall process. [9]
Value stream mapping (VSM) is a lean management technique used to analyze and improve the flow of
materials, information, and activities required to deliver a product or service to customers. It provides a visual
representation of the entire process, highlighting areas of waste, inefficiency, and opportunities for improvement.
[12]

Objectives of Value Stream Mapping:

The primary objectives of value stream mapping include:
Identifying waste: VSM helps identify different types of waste, such as overproduction, waiting, unnecessary
transportation, excess inventory, defects, and underutilized talent or resources.
Improving cycle time: By analyzing the current state map, organizations can identify bottlenecks, delays, and
inefficiencies that contribute to longer cycle times. The future state map allows for the redesign of processes to
reduce cycle time.
Enhancing quality: VSM helps identify areas where defects or errors commonly occur, enabling organizations
to implement quality improvement initiatives and reduce the occurrence of defects.

11
Reducing costs: By eliminating waste and improving efficiency, organizations can reduce costs associated with
excess inventory, rework, transportation, and other non-value-added activities.
Increasing customer satisfaction: Value stream mapping focuses on delivering value to customers by
eliminating waste and improving the overall flow, leading to improved customer satisfaction. [9]

Value Stream Mapping Process:

The value stream mapping process typically involves the following steps:
Selecting the value stream: Identify the specific value stream to map, which could be a product, service, or a
specific process within an organization.
Creating the current state map: Gather information about the current state of the value stream by observing
and documenting the flow of materials, information, and activities involved. This includes identifying process
steps, cycle times, inventory levels, and other relevant data.
Analyzing the current state: Identify areas of waste, bottlenecks, and inefficiencies in the current state map.
Use tools like process cycle efficiency (PCE), takt time, and value-added analysis to analyze the data and identify
improvement opportunities.
Designing the future state map: Based on the analysis of the current state, design a future state map that
represents an ideal, more efficient state of the value stream. This involves eliminating waste, reducing cycle time,
improving flow, and enhancing overall performance.
Implementing improvements: Develop an action plan to implement the changes identified in the future state
map. Assign responsibilities, set targets, and establish a timeline for implementation. Monitor progress and adjust,
as necessary. [9]

Applications of Value Stream Mapping:

Value stream mapping can be applied in various industries and processes, including manufacturing,
healthcare, logistics, software development, and service-oriented businesses. Some common applications include.
• Manufacturing: VSM can help identify and eliminate waste in manufacturing processes, reduce lead
times, improve production flow, and optimize inventory levels.
• Healthcare: VSM can be used to streamline patient flow, improve scheduling, reduce wait times, and
enhance overall efficiency in hospitals and clinics.
• Software development: VSM can help identify bottlenecks, reduce handoffs, and improve collaboration
and communication in software development processes, such as Agile and DevOps.
• Service industry: VSM can be applied to service-oriented businesses, such as banking, insurance, and
hospitality, to improve the customer experience, reduce process complexity, and enhance service
delivery. [12]

Benefits of Value Stream Mapping:

• Waste reduction: VSM helps identify and eliminate waste, leading to improved efficiency, reduced
costs, and increased productivity.
• Customer focus: VSM focuses on delivering value to customers by identifying and eliminating non-
value-added activities, resulting in improved customer satisfaction.
• Continuous improvement: Value stream mapping is a continuous improvement tool that promotes
an ongoing cycle of analysis, improvement, and innovation within an organization. [12]

9. KAIZEN
Kaizen, a Japanese term meaning "change for the better" or "continuous improvement," is a management
philosophy and a set of practices that has gained significant recognition worldwide. Rooted in the principles of

12
efficiency, quality, and collaboration, Kaizen focuses on making incremental, continuous improvements in all
aspects of an organization to drive overall productivity, customer satisfaction, and competitive advantage. [14]

Key Concepts of Kaizen: Continuous Improvement: Kaizen emphasizes the notion that every process, no
matter how efficient, can be improved further. It encourages employees at all levels to identify problems, suggest
solutions, and implement small, incremental changes to enhance productivity and quality over time. [14]

Benefits of Kaizen:
Enhanced Efficiency: By continuously identifying and eliminating waste, inefficiencies, and bottlenecks,
Kaizen leads to streamlined processes, reduced lead times, and improved resource utilization. [14]
Quality Improvement: Kaizen emphasizes the importance of quality at every step of the process. Through
small, incremental changes, organizations can identify and resolve quality issues, resulting in improved product
or service quality and customer satisfaction. [14]
Employee Engagement: Kaizen empowers employees by involving them in problem-solving, decision-
making, and improvement initiatives. This engagement leads to increased job satisfaction, motivation, and a sense
of ownership, ultimately fostering a culture of continuous learning and innovation. [14]
Cost Reduction: The focus on waste reduction and process optimization in Kaizen leads to cost savings. By
eliminating unnecessary steps, excess inventory, and non-value-added activities, organizations can achieve
significant cost reductions. [14]

10. Jidoka
Jidoka, also known as autonomous operation, is a lean manufacturing method that focuses on quality
control. It is based on the idea of stopping the production line as soon as a defect is discovered. The machine is
stopped automatically without any human resources.

How Does Jidoka Work

the autonomation concept relies on four steps:
Discovery: The first step is to discover that there is a problem. This can be done through automation; this can
be done through human observation. For example, if you manufacture cars, workers on the assembly line may
discover a problem with a particular vehicle before it continues to run.
Stopping: Once the problem is discovered, the next step is to stop the production process. This is important to
prevent defective products from being manufactured. Stopping the machine when a fault is found prevents
waste and reduces losses.
Fix: The third step is to fix the detected issue. Repair can be done by human workers or through automation.
Investigation: The last step is to investigate the root cause of the problem. This is important to prevent this
from happening again in the future. Workers investigate the cause of the problem and take appropriate measures
to correct it. This may include changing the way the product is made.
The Benefits of Jidoka
1. Jidoka can improve Quality Control
2. can Reduce Costs
3. Jidoka can Improve Customer Satisfaction
4. Autonomation can Increase Efficiency

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11. 5S
While working we need to be key tools in a better place so that the clients can do a good job, (5S) It is a
way to better organize your work to make your time easier, safer and more productive It consists of five terms
that are explained below: (17)
Sort: It is a poem about separating tools for other necessary uses from the workplace from the tools used at
work to reduce the time spent searching for the location of the equipment when it needs to be used again.(17)
Set in order: To prepare and arrange the workplace and be able to see every tool you need in its place to do
the work with, and you can get it easily (to determine a place for everything and everything is in its place).(17)
Shine: Responsible for cleaning and inspecting the equipment and the workplace so that we can discover any
defect and suggest solutions to it before it turns into a major problem. (17)
Standardize: standardizing the line on best practices so that all workers can see what is necessary to do the
work in the same way and get the same results. When things are standardized and standardized, workers in
different shifts are able to do the work in the same way. Examples that help with organization are taking
pictures of the locations of things or sketches. Or lines, paints, color distinction, pasting strips, or shadow
boards. (17) Sustain:
Reviewing the standards and improving them over ti me until it becomes part of our daily work so that we
maintain the previous (4s) and do not perform bad operations in the organization again. (17)
The key benefits of 5S are:
• Less Waste (Improved Efficiency)
• Reduced Space Used for Storage
• Improved Maintenance
• Improved Safety
• Better, More Committed Employees
• Improved Quality (18)

12. Poka-Yoke
The Poka-Yoke comes from Japan and was introduced by Shigeo Shingo to Toyota as part of the production
system. Poka means “unintentional error” and Yoke means “prevention.” It's not about finding or correcting
mistakes in the process, it's about preventing them from being made at all. Poka Yoke is used to design
processes so that defects are almost impossible and reduce human mistakes and defects in production.

The three types of poka-yoke used to detect errors are

1.1 The contact method
This method identifies defects by physical features. This method uses a sensory device that detects defects in
the product's shape, size, color, weight, or dimensions. The device alerts a person or device to the current status
of the product.

1.2 Fixed value method

This method can also include a fixed number of parts used. If a specified number of movements are not made,
there is an alert. Another example is having a certain number of parts in each step of the process. If you have
parts left over, something is wrong.
1.3 The Sequence Method
There is a specific amount of steps prescribed in the said process before the next stage is introduced. This box
can be opened in a specific sequence, color-coded, labeled, and then examined to ensure important steps are
completed.

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Benefits of using poka-yoke
1. Preventing errors (control) and avoiding errors (warning) means you save time and money.
2. Fewer errors mean more safety for workers and consumers.
3. Time and money are reduced on quality checks and inspections
4. Motivates employees for continuous improvement

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13. Case Study
Introduction to Toyota Company:
Toyota Motor Corporation, founded in 1937 by Kiichiro Toyoda, stands as a global automotive industry
leader renowned for its innovation, quality, and efficiency. Headquartered in Toyota City, Japan, the
company has emerged as a cornerstone of the automotive sector, pioneering groundbreaking
methodologies and production systems that have reshaped the industry's landscape.[21]
From its modest beginnings as a textile machinery company to its evolution into one of the world's
largest automobile manufacturers, Toyota has consistently prioritized innovation and excellence. A
hallmark of Toyota's success lies in its commitment to continuous improvement and the relentless
pursuit of manufacturing and operational excellence.
Toyota's influential approach to production, epitomized by the Toyota Production System (TPS), has
revolutionized manufacturing worldwide. TPS, often referred to as "lean manufacturing,"
emphasizes efficiency, waste reduction, and the creation of high-quality products. The company's
emphasis on quality, reliability, and innovation has cemented its reputation for producing vehicles
known for durability, fuel efficiency, and advanced technology.
Beyond its significant presence in the automotive industry, Toyota has extended its reach into various
sectors, including robotics, financial services, and sustainability initiatives. The company's
dedication to environmental stewardship and sustainable mobility solutions has led to the
development of hybrid and electric vehicles, reflecting a commitment to reducing the ecological
impact of transportation.
With a global footprint spanning across continents and a diverse portfolio of vehicles catering to
different markets and consumer preferences, Toyota continues to set benchmarks for excellence in
the automotive realm. Through its pioneering spirit, dedication to quality, and forward-thinking
strategies, Toyota remains a driving force in shaping the future of mobility and manufacturing on a
global scale.

Early Years: Pre-World War II (1930s):

• Corporate Beginnings: Sakichi Toyoda established Toyoda Automatic Loom Works, focusing
on automated loom production.
• Innovation Era: Sakichi Toyoda invented the automatic power loom, demonstrating early
mechanization efforts were the machine would stop if error happen demonstrating early form of
jidoka.
Pre-War and World War II (1937-1945):
• Diversification: Kiichiro Toyoda founded Toyota Motor Corporation in 1937, steering the
company toward automobile manufacturing.
• War and Adaptation: During the war, Toyota pivoted to producing military vehicles and
trucks.[24]
Post-War Reconstruction (1945-1950s):
• Transition Period: After World War II, Japan faced economic turmoil, leading to resource
scarcity and reconstruction challenges.

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 • Jidoka Implementation: Sakichi Toyoda's Jidoka concept, automated loom machines stopping
when issues occurred, inspired the principle of building quality into processes by halting
production in case of abnormalities. It was later adapted to automobile production.
Development of Lean Manufacturing Principles (1950s-1960s):
• JIT Concept Emergence: Kiichiro Toyoda, faced with limited resources and space, developed
the Just-in-Time (JIT) approach to minimize waste by producing what's needed, when needed.
• Taiichi Ohno's Contributions: Taiichi Ohno played a pivotal role in refining JIT principles at
Toyota, experimenting with quick die changeovers and reducing changeover times significantly.
Creation of Toyota Production System (TPS) (1950s-1970s):
• TPS Foundation: Toyota consolidated Jidoka and JIT principles, laying the groundwork for the
Toyota Production System.
• Kaizen Integration: The philosophy of continuous improvement (Kaizen) was embraced across
Toyota's operations, encouraging small, incremental changes for efficiency gains.
Global Expansion and Advancement (1980s-2000s):
• Lean Manufacturing Practices: Toyota popularized Lean Manufacturing principles globally,
emphasizing the elimination of waste, efficient supply chain management, and a focus on
quality.
• Toyota Way Philosophy: Toyota formalized its organizational culture, encapsulated in "The
Toyota Way," stressing leadership behaviors, continuous improvement, respect for people, and
teamwork.
Modern Era (2010s-Present):
• Continuous Evolution: Toyota continues to refine its manufacturing processes, integrating
advanced technologies like automation, AI, and IoT while staying committed to Lean principles.
• Adaptation to Challenges: Adapting to market shifts, environmental concerns, and
technological advancements, Toyota remains a benchmark for innovative and sustainable
manufacturing practices.
Already disadvantaged by lacking natural resources, materials were hard to come by and companies had
to be creative to compete. Toyota's founder Sakichi Toyoda had started a loom business but it was his
son Kiichiro who founded the motor company in 1937. They were used to working within narrow
margins. As the shortage of materials increased during the war, the number of headlamps on its Model
K truck was reduced to one, and it only had brakes on one of the axles.[24]

But this changed in the 50s and Toyota's revolutionary practices in manufacturing were profoundly
shaped by the insights of Eiji Toyoda and Taiichi Ohno during their visit to Ford's River Rouge plant in
the U.S. While the scale of the Ford operation impressed them, they realized that replicating such a
system in resource-constrained Japan was unfeasible due to the massive stockpiles tying up capital.
Ohno was particularly struck by a visit to a supermarket, “piggly wiggly” where customers had freedom
in choosing what they wanted, when they wanted it. Inspired by this idea, Ohno developed the "Just In
Time" system, mirroring a supermarket's model by producing only enough parts needed for the
subsequent phase.[22]

This approach allowed Toyota to significantly minimize waste inherent in Ford's system, operating on a
leaner budget by producing fewer parts as required. Ohno introduced 'Kanban,' a sign-based scheduling

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method depicting goods in production, out, and in inventory, serving as a precursor to barcodes. Notably,
Ohno observed that American car companies persisted with Ford's early production techniques, often
resulting in defects that were fixed post-production. He believed this flawed system discouraged
improvements and, thus, empowered workers with cords above each station to stop the assembly line if
a problem was detected, fostering collective resolution and with jidoka or quality at the source was
implemented in the factories.[24]

With a culture emphasizing continuous improvement or 'kaizen,' Toyota established itself as a brand
synonymous with affordable, dependable vehicles. By the early 1970s, their factories' efficiencies
enabled the production of one car every 1.6 man hours, a remarkable feat compared to global
competitors. Furthermore, the oil crises heightened the appeal of fuel-efficient Japanese cars in the U.S.,
where gas-guzzling vehicles became costlier to operate. Today, Toyota's legacy extends beyond
producing over 250 million vehicles, as industries worldwide seek to adopt their 'Lean' practices,
integrating craftsmanship with mass production, minimizing waste, and prioritizing ongoing
enhancements.[24]

The Toyota production system is often depicted as a house because it is a structural system rather than
simply a set of tools.
-The goal of the Toyota production system is to
• Provide world class quality and service to the customer.
• Develop each employee’s potential, based on mutual respect, trust and cooperation.
• Reduce cost through the elimination of waste and maximize profit
• Develop flexible production standards based on market demand
These goals are upheld by two pillars, the first pillar is.
just in time which means providing the next downstream customer with what they need when they need
it in the quantity that they need it and at the point in time in which they need it
They use several tools and principles to achieve just in time.
1. continuous flow moving the product from one value-added step to the next with no delay
between steps.
2. They set their production rate equal to takt time the heartbeat of the customer.
3. They use pull systems to build and provide only what the customer needs when they signal for
it.
4. They also use quick changeover to become more flexible at building what the customer needs
when they need it.
The next pillar is.
quality at the source or Jidoka this pillar represents the idea that they never knowingly pass a defective
product to our next downstream customer.
they prevent this from happening by implementing tools like
1. line stop which empowers the operators to stop the line and address a problem when one occurs.
2. visual controls to identify problems and prevent problems.
3. mistake proofing to prevent human error from causing a defect.

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 4. Andon systems light and audible systems to alert them of errors.
5. They also employ the concept of the five whys root cause analysis by continually asking the
question why until they get to the root cause of a problem rather than addressing symptoms of
problems.
At the base of the Toyota production system, they have operational stability to create and maintain stable
processes.
• They employ standard work which ensures that the process is consistent and able to meet the
volume requirements of the customer.
• They also employ preventive maintenance or total productive maintenance to ensure that the
equipment is reliable.
• They implement a 5s system to help them organize and standardize their operations and keep it
that way.
• finally, they employ the concept of hijanka, or leveling the workload to ensure a smooth flow of
production from beginning to end.
• the final and most important element of TPS is to create a flexible capable, and highly motivated
workforce to make it all happen they want to create a culture of problem solving.[23]
NUMMI

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NUMMI

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14. Conclusion
In conclusion, the discussions manufacturing principles and methodologies play crucial roles in
enhancing efficiency, reducing waste, and improving overall productivity in diverse industries.
Lean manufacturing, with its focus on maximizing productivity and minimizing waste, offers
benefits such as reduced lead times, operating costs, and improved product quality. Machine
cells and their layouts, along with cellular manufacturing and group technology, provide modular
and adaptive solutions to streamline production processes.

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15. References
1. Groover, M. P., & Zimmers, E. W. Jr. (2015). Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated
Manufacturing (4th ed.). Pearson.
2. Stevenson, W. J. (2015). Operations Management. McGraw-Hill Education
3. Heizer, J., Munson, C., & Render, B. M. (2017). Operations Management: Sustainability and Supply
Chain Management (12th ed.). Pearson.
4. What is Lean Manufacturing? TWI Global Technical Knowledge. Retrieved from https://www.twi-
global.com/
5. Dave, P. The History of Lean Manufacturing by the View of Toyota-Ford. ResearchGate.
https://www.researchgate.net
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