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Developing a sustainable water conservation strategy for Saudi Arabian cities

Article in Groundwater for Sustainable Development · November 2023

DOI: 10.1016/j.gsd.2023.101040

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 Developing a Sustainable Water Conservation Strategy for Saudi Arabian Cities

Abdulaziz I. Almulhim*1, & Ismaila Rimi Abubakar 2

1
Department of Urban and Regional Planning, College of Architecture and Planning, Imam Abdulrahman Bin
Faisal University, Dammam 31451, Saudi Arabia. aialmulhim@iau.edu.sa
2
College of Architecture and Planning, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, P.O. Box 1982, Dammam
31441, Saudi Arabia. irabubakar@iau.edu.sa

Highlights
 Water scarcity and unsustainable water management practices in Saudi Arabia are studied.
 The study evaluates the sustainability of water management practices in Jubail Industrial City
 It employs mixed-method approach: literature review, case studies, and document analysis.
 It proposes water conservation strategy: demand management, water efficiency, governance framework.
 Water conservation, optimization and reuse are significantly relevant to industry settings

Abstract
Water scarcity is a global issue posing significant challenges for sustainable water management. Saudi Arabia,
due to its arid conditions, limited freshwater resources, and high evapotranspiration rates, faces water scarcity.
Factors such as rapid population growth, urban expansion, industrial development, and unsustainable water
management practices contribute to increased municipal water demand and per capita water consumption. This
trend is evident in the Jubail Industrial City (JIC), the largest industrial city in the Middle East. Although JIC
heavily relies on desalination and groundwater extraction to meet growing water needs, it lacks a strategic vision
for water conservation. The objective of this paper is to identify the causes of water scarcity, assess the
sustainability of current water management practices, and develop a sustainable water conservation strategy using
JIC as a case study. The study adopts a mixed-method approach, involving a comprehensive review of literature
and official documents, along with an analysis of successful case studies of water conservation practices in arid
regions worldwide. The proposed strategy encompasses demand management, adoption of water-
efficient technologies, water reuse and recycling, public awareness and education, and policy and governance
frameworks. Strategic water conservation, optimization and reuse hold significant relevance to industry settings.
The study’s findings can contribute to the enhancement of the municipal water supply sector and support
decision-makers in achieving the sustainable water resource management goals outlined in Saudi Vision 2030.
Keywords: Water planning; Water resource management; Conservation strategy; Desert environment; Urban
sustainability; Saudi Arabia.

1. Introduction
Water, an essential resource for sustaining life and human activities, requires efficient use and conservation.
Despite the sustainable development goal (SDG6) of ensuring the availability and sustainable management of
water for all by 2030, about 2.2 billion people still lack safe drinking water services, and over 733 million people
reside in high-stress water countries (UN, 2023). With less than 2% of Earth's water supply being freshwater,
which is unevenly distributed and mostly saline (Negewo, 2012), the world is expected to face a 40% reduction in
water supply by 2050, leading to increased water-related illnesses and disasters (Mathiesen, 2016). The problem
of water scarcity is compounded by the lack of freshwater resources, global population growth (Bao & Fang,
2007), climate change (Buytaert & De Bièvre, 2012), pollution (Ouda, 2015), and unsustainable water
consumption and management practices (Leal Filho et al., 2022). Water scarcity adversely affects education,
health, and productivity while contributing to hunger, poverty, and food insecurity due to crop failure (Vidal et
al., 2014). Consequently, sustainable utilization and conservation of water resources are crucial in mitigating
water scarcity challenges (Chowdhury & Al-Zahrani, 2015; Diakonidze et al., 2013; Pereira et al., 2012).

1
 The Middle East is an arid region facing severe water scarcity due to limited freshwater resources, low
rainfall, high evapotranspiration rates, intensified by rising water consumption from rapid populations and
industrial growth (Alamoud, 2003; Gazzeh & Abubakar, 2018). Despite being home to 5% of the world's
population, the region has access to only 1% of renewable freshwater resources (Kubursi, 2006). In Saudi Arabia,
low annual rainfall that averages 114 mm and high evapotranspiration rates of 3,500 -4,550 mm, 50 times rainfall
rate in some areas, exacerbate freshwater scarcity (Baig et al., 2020). Scarce precipitation, high winds, and
maximum temperatures that often exceed 50°C also undermine the availability of freshwater in valleys and rivers,
leading to limited groundwater recharge (Mahmoud & Abdallah, 2013). Agriculture, industries, and municipal
water consumption contribute to over-reliance on declining groundwater reserves, limited surface water, and
energy-intensive seawater desalination (Almulhim et al., 2021). Water supply and demand are shaped by
household consumption patterns and the existing water resource management policies and strategies. Despite
Saudi residents consuming only half the water of an average American per day, the country's freshwater resources
per capita are only 1/75th of the United States (CSIS, 2011). The rising water demand underscores the need for
robust and sustainable water conservation strategy in the country (Ouda, 2015).
There is currently no comprehensive water conservation strategy in Saudi Arabia, except some piecemeal
initiatives, such as promoting low-flush toilets and reusing treated wastewater for landscaping and fodder
production (Abubakar & Mu'azu, 2022; Ouda et al., 2013). Water conservation is imperative because municipal
water demand is growing at a rate of 6% per year, according to the Ministry of Environment, Water & Agriculture
(MEWA, 2019). To address this situation, the MEWA introduced the Saudi National Water Strategy 2030,
focusing on five objectives: (a) ensuring the supply of sufficient and safe drinking water, (b) enhancing water
demand management, (c) providing quality wastewater services, (d) safeguarding and optimizing the use of water
resources while preserving the local environment, and (e) contributing to national development (MEWA, 2019).
However, these objectives give minimal attention to water conservation, despite the unsustainability of relying on
desalination, which supplies 60% of municipal water (Abubakar & Mu’azu, 2015).
Limited research has investigated water resource conservation strategies in Saudi Arabia. Baig et al. (2020)
reviewed the challenges for water resources management, including low tariffs, water losses, unaccounted water,
low irrigation efficiency, and climate change. Almulhim et al. (2021) conducted a bibliometric review of the
literature on sustainable water planning and management. Mahmoud and Abdallah (2013) explored water-demand
management for the agriculture sector. While Al-Zahrani and Baig (2011) investigated the sustainability of
aquifers and desalination plants as drinking water sources, Chowdhury and Al-Zahrani, (2015) assessed water
consumption trends across various socioeconomic sectors. Also, Mahmoud, and Abdallah (2013) evaluated the
environmental impacts of water-demand management practices, and Ouda et al. (2013) examined household
awareness of domestic water conservation practices. However, previous studies have primarily addressed water
conservation in a fragmented manner, lacking an integrated approach or a strategic vision for Saudi Arabia,
specifically in relation to Jubail Industrial City (JIC). Thus, the present study was conceived to fill this gap.
Therefore, this study aims to contribute to the empirical literature on water resource management in rapidly
urbanizing cities of developing countries. The objectives of this study are to (1) develop sustainable water
conservation strategies suitable for JIC, and (2) suggest measures for implementing the proposed strategies. This
research can assist the water sector in identifying prospects and obstacles in water resource management, aiding
decision-makers in designing effective policies and strategies for sustainable water resource management.
Additionally, it aligns with the Saudi Vison 2030, which aims to foster sustainable water resource management
and provides a foundation for future research.

2. Literature review
Water conservation involves the efficient and responsible use of water resources to reduce waste, preserve
supplies, and protect the environment (Ouda et al., 2013). It encompasses reducing consumption, minimizing loss,
and increasing water recycling for a stable supply (Taylo Starkl et al., 2013; Ben-Daoud et al., 2021). The
literature emphasizes the importance of water conservation in meeting essential human needs (Majeed & Piracha,
2011; Pereira et al., 2012), promoting environmental sustainability (Mahmoud & Abdallh, 2013; Gober, 2010),
and addressing water scarcity (Almulhim & Abubakar, 2023; Al-Zahrani & Baig, 2011). Water conservation

2
improves access to drinking water, critical for public health, safety, economic growth, and well-being (Brown
2012).
Challenges to water conservation include increasing demand from urbanization, industrialization, and
agriculture, limited freshwater resources, contamination from waste and chemicals, and soil erosion following
heavy rainfall (Aina et al., 2023; Babel et al., 2022; Ward, 2023; Liu et al., 2021; Ouda, 2015; Hong; Lu et al.,
2022). Urbanization and deforestation reduce soil's water-holding capacity in elevated areas (Huang et al., 2017;
Marques et al., 2022). Climate change further undermines conservation efforts through evapotranspiration and
saltwater intrusion (De Graaff et al., 2013). Despite the convenience of tap water in developed societies, it is
crucial not to take water for granted.
Water conservation requires a multidisciplinary approach and intersectoral collaboration at local, national,
and global levels as freshwater resources are shared among states and countries. Cooperation in water
management fosters mutual respect, understanding, trust, peace, security, and economic growth (UN, 2015).
Effective water conservation relies on tracking demand, supply, and consumption (Gleick, 2014). Gober (2010)
emphasizes the need for a new water science and planning paradigm to address interconnectivities, feedback, and
tradeoffs in resource management. Innovative strategies such as simulation modeling, quantitative analysis,
scenario planning, and stakeholder engagement are recommended.
Water conservation tools include regulatory actions, management practices, and education to change user
behavior. Young et al. (2014) identify nine principles crucial for water conservation: education and information,
plumbing codes, retrofit programs, water-rate structures, universal meters and meter repair, water conservation
and landscaping, leak detection and repair, recycling, and reuse, and means of implementation and enforcement.
Mir and Ashraf (2023) underscore the need for striking a balance between water consumption and availability to
ensure more effective demand management and conservation. Incorporating market principles and assigning value
to water can also enhance conservation practices (Reddy, 2008). However, the impact on vulnerable families and
the principle of equal access to water must be considered.
Water conservation planning and management can create political and social tensions, necessitating strategies
that prioritize maximum conservation to consider specific local context (Sharma, 2022; Xiang et al., 2021). In the
case of Saudi Arabia, efforts should include reviewing water tariffs, predicting future demand and reserves, and
involving all stakeholders in strategy design (Ahmadov, 2020). The literature emphasizes that water conservation
is a universal obligation for sustainable water usage and outlines the challenges and tools for long-term solutions
to water supply issues.

3. Materials and methods

3.1 Study area
Jubail Industrial City (JIC) is situated along the Arabian/Persian Gulf (Figure 1), approximately 100 km north of
Dammam, the capital of the Eastern Province. It is located at an elevation of 12m above sea level and adjacent to
the Jubail old town (Balad), which was a small fishing village until 1975. According to the Royal Commission for
Jubail and Yanbu (RCJY), the city covers 1,016 m2, and it is served by King Fahd Industrial Port, Jubail Naval
Airport and a highway linking Dammam with the Northern region and Kuwait (RCJY, 2022). The Jubail region
experiences a subtropical desert climate characterized by limited precipitation, dry winds, high temperatures, and
a high evapotranspiration rate. Due to the aridity and clear skies, temperatures often soar to 50 degrees Celsius
(Almulhim & Abubakar, 2023). The city's strategic position offers convenient access to major transportation
routes, such as highways, seaports, and a regional airport, facilitating domestic trade, imports, and exports.
JIC holds the distinction of being the largest industrial city in the Middle East and a significant contributor to
Saudi Arabia's economy. It attracts multinational corporations, investors, and expatriates, making it a
cosmopolitan hub that can serve as an exemplary case for other cities. The economy primarily relies on
manufacturing industries, higher education, and coastal tourism and recreation. However, the rapid urbanization
and industrial development have resulted in a substantial water demand for production and machine cooling.
Approximately 52% of the city's water supply is consumed by industries, exacerbating the strain on already
depleting groundwater reserves (Ouda, 2013).

3
Figure 1. JIC is a coastal industrial city (Source:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jubail,_Saudi_Arabia_locator_map.png)

3.2 Data collection and analysis

The first step involved gathering data through a comprehensive review of relevant literature. This literature was
sourced from various online platforms, including published academic articles and gray literature such as technical
reports and online content from water sector websites in Saudi Arabia and international agencies (as shown in
Table 1). The search focused on peer-reviewed journals, books, and conference proceedings published in English
within the last ten years, specifically related to the study's objectives. Comprehensive databases such as Web of
Science, Scopus, and Cross Ref were utilized for academic literature searches, employing keywords listed in the
abstract to ensure comprehensive coverage. This extensive review was essential in developing a deeper
understanding of water conservation concepts and issues, identifying relevant conservation strategies applicable to
JIC, and selecting an appropriate research methodology..
Secondly, successful case studies of water conservation practices in arid regions worldwide were selected and
reviewed. Among the several water conservation case studies identified online, three (Kenya, Pakistan, and New
Mexico in the USA) stood out as exemplary because they satisfied three major criteria: (a) they are characterized
by arid climates similar to JIC; (b) face water scarcity challenges; and (c) they represent three different regions
with distinct challenges and at varying development levels, thus providing reach and diverse perspectives
experience. Water conservation strategies employed in these case studies were analyzed by comparing their
applicability, benefits, and challenges in the context of JIC. Examining multiple case studies allows for a deep
understanding of a phenomenon under different contexts, identifying best practices and perspectives, and
acquiring practical knowledge (Flyvbjerg, 2006). The author concludes that effectively implementing multiple
case studies can strengthen social science research.
Thirdly, relevant secondary documents, including technical reports, statistics, and maps were collected from
various sources online and from JIC municipality and the RCJY, which are responsible for city administration and
water supply through the Water and Power Company, the largest water company in the Middle East. Other
sources of secondary documents and data included the Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture (MEWA)
and international organizations such as the United Nations and the Center for Strategic & International Studies

4
(CSIS). These documents provided valuable information regarding the characteristics of existing water scarcity
challenges, the conservation efforts and challenges in their implementation.

Table 1: Various types of data and documents collected from different sources.
Method Data type Main sources
Literature Peer-reviewed articles Web of Science, Scopus, Cross Ref
review Grey literature Internet
Case study Kenya Kenya Water Partnership (2009)
Pakistan Environment Protection Department (2007)
New Mexico Environment Protection Agency (2002)
Document Technical reports MEWA (2019); RCJY (2012); CSIS (2011).
analysis Statistics GCC-STAT (2020); World Population Review (2023); United
Nations (2023).
Maps www.commons.wikimedia.org; http://kids.britannica.com
www.kda-germany.de

The gathered documents and case studies were analyzed using thematic content analysis. This process
involved organizing the data according to the study's objectives and thoroughly examining each document to
extract, compile, summarize, and synthesize themes. The results were then presented in tables and narratives. This
descriptive analysis provides readers with a comprehensive understanding of the research findings and
conclusions in a clear and thorough manner. Lastly, based on the analysis of literature, case studies, and key
findings, the researchers developed a strategic water conservation plan for JIC, including recommendations and
conclusions.
Mixed method research is a widely utilized approach that provides the best opportunity to meet research
objectives by incorporating both numerical (statistical) and textual (thematic) data. It captures a more
comprehensive understanding of the research topic. Its flexible and inclusive data collection and analyses enable
the exploration of complex phenomena from various perspectives, providing a rich and nuanced analysis.
Through triangulation, findings from different approaches are synthesized and cross-validated to strengthen the
validity and reliability of the study outcomes. Although it reduces over-dependance on a single method and its
limitations or biases, this approach can be challenging in terms of data integration, time consumption, and data
intensity as it involves searching, collecting, and analyzing several documents and other data sources (Tashakkori
& Creswell, 2007).

4. Results of the analysis of case studies

This section presents the existing water conservation strategies from three case studies from Kenya, Pakistan, and
New Mexico (USA) with relatively dry environmental conditions and freshwater scarcity. The cases are
comparatively analyzed, focusing on key themes, challenges, and best practices related to water conservation.
Lessons learned from these cases are then applied to JIC, and conclusions are drawn based on the analysis.

4.1 Case Study 1: Integrated Water Resources Management and Water Efficiency Plan for Kenya
Kenya is an African country situated on the equator, sharing borders with Ethiopia and Sudan to the north,
Tanzania to the south, the Indian Ocean coastline and Somalia to the east, and Lake Victoria and Uganda to the
west (Figure 2). It spans a land area of approximately 583,000 km2, with 80% classified as arid and semi-arid, and
only 13,600 km2 (2.3%) covered by inland water bodies (Embassy Avenue, 2014). Kenya is divided into seven
provinces: Central, Eastern, North Eastern, North, Coast, Rift Valley, and Nyanza, with Nairobi serving as the
capital. As of 2023, the estimated population is 55.101 million, with an annual growth rate of 2.09%, and
approximately 30% residing in urban areas (World Population Review, 2023).
Kenya faces significant water scarcity issues, with an annual renewable fresh water supply of only 647 cubic
meters per capita in 2010, which is projected to decline to 235 m3 by 2020 (KWP, 2009). The country has
experienced more frequent droughts and floods due to erratic rainfall patterns and climate change, underscoring
the urgent need to conserve water resources and mitigate the effects of these natural disasters.

5
 In August 2009, Kenya established the Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) and Water
Efficiency Plan, involving various stakeholders, including citizens, NGOs, professional associations, the private
sector, public institutions, and local and national development agencies. These groups formed the KWP, an
organization that conducted multiple consultations to incorporate the interests of diverse stakeholders into the
plan. The IWRM is supported by national laws and policies, such as the National Water Policy on Water
Resources Management and Development of 1999, Chapter 372 of the Water Act of 1972 (revised in 2002), and
the Environmental Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion Policy approved in June 2007. The plan includes
enforcement laws to ensure compliance.
The primary objective of the IWRM Plan is to achieve optimal, long-term, environmentally sustainable, and
socioeconomic benefits from Kenya's water resources. To accomplish this, seven key strategies were formulated:
institutionalize water resource governance, bridge knowledge gaps through knowledge management and capacity
building, increase water supply and meet demand through infrastructure, institutionalize water use, distribution,
and financing policies and regulations, preserve natural water bodies, manage floods and droughts through
infrastructure and policies, and promote stakeholder and sector collaboration, with a focus on transboundary
waters (KWP, 2009). The IWRM Plan places significant importance on stakeholder participation and the use of
human-rights based approaches to foster collaboration among stakeholders. Furthermore, the Kenyan government
is committed to implementing the Water Act, aligning the formulated strategies with other relevant national and
international laws, policies, and guidelines.

Figure 2. Map of Kenya (Source: Kenya Development Associates, Germany http//: www.kda-germany.de)

4.2 Case Study 2: Ensuring Clean and Safe Water in Pakistan

Pakistan is situated in Southern Asia and shares borders with India to the east, Iran and Afghanistan to the west,
China to the north, and the Arabian Sea to the south (Figure 3). As of 2023, the estimated population of Pakistan
is 240.486 million, with 38% residing in urban areas and experiencing an annual growth rate of 1.91% (World
Population Review, 2023). The climate varies, consisting of predominantly arid areas in the south, temperate
regions in the northwest, and arctic conditions in the north (IndexMundi, n.d.). Rainfall is seasonal, with an

6
average of 212mm during rainy seasons and 53mm during dry seasons. The country has a total land area of
796,095 km2, with water covering 25,220 km2 (3.2%).
The Indus River System serves as the primary water source for agriculture and hydropower. Agriculture,
being the main source of food in the country, contributes significantly to the increasing water demand. The annual
water demand for domestic use, excluding industrial and agricultural needs, is approximately 45.50 billion m3
due to population growth (Majeed and Piracha, 2011). Despite having a relatively abundant water supply,
Pakistan ranks among the top 10 countries facing water shortage issues, resulting from droughts, inefficient water
resource management, and pollution from industrial activities (Majeed & Piracha 2011).
Water conservation efforts in Pakistan are overseen by the Environment Protection Council, which enacted
environmental protection laws and policies in 1977, with further updates in 1992 through the establishment of the
National Conservation Strategy. In 2001, the National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) was introduced,
providing guidelines for the water sector to sustainably manage water resources and protect, conserve, and restore
the country's environment to enhance the quality of life through the National Environment Policy of 2005
(Environment Protection Department, 2007, p. 1). The NEAP includes the "Clean Drinking Water for All by
2008" program, which aims to address water shortage problems and ensure access to safe water supply, with the
public sector taking a leading role. The program focuses on achieving integrated water resource management
through various strategies: developing a legal and policy framework to promote safe drinking water; expanding
water supply and treatment facilities through infrastructure development; promoting low-cost water treatment
technologies at the community and household levels; implementing rainwater harvesting practices; ensuring
appropriate monitoring of water quality and loss; and installing metered water systems to monitor consumption
(Environment Protection Department, 2007, p. 1). Another crucial aspect of the NEAP and Pakistan's National
Environment Policy is the institutionalization of environmental assessment, accounting, and information
management tools to guide decision-making processes for sustainable water resource development.

7
Figure 3: Map of Pakistan (Source: Encyclopedia Britannica: http://kids.britannica.com)

4.3 Case Study 3: Albuquerque, New Mexico—Water Conservation at the City Level
Albuquerque city is in New Mexico state, USA (Figure 4). In 2012, the city had an estimated population of
554,621 and covers an area of approximately 486.22 km2 (QuickFacts, 2014). Albuquerque rests within the upper
boundaries of the Chihuahuan Desert and boasts a diverse social composition with a rich history of Spanish
occupation in the 1700s. The city is known for its modernity, tourism, and economic activity, earning recognition
as one of the best cities in the USA for business and career development by Forbes Magazine.
Facing challenges in water supply, the Albuquerque government implemented a comprehensive Water
Resources Management Strategy (WRMS) to achieve several objectives, including utilizing surface water,
reclaiming wastewater and shallow groundwater for non-potable uses like irrigation, and implementing an
aggressive water conservation program. The city also introduced the Long-Range Water Conservation Strategy
Resolution (LRWCSR) to conserve water and minimize the cost of city's water supply through five key
components (Environment Protection Agency, 2002). The first component involved implementing additional
charges during the summer for users who exceeded a certain amount of water consumption. These charges were
periodically increased to provide funds for the water conservation program. The second component focused on
public education, ensuring that the program's details, including water bill calculations, were effectively
communicated to the public. The city also actively engaged with its constituents in the development of new laws,
policies, and regulations related to water conservation.
The third component centered on the implementation of the Uniform Plumbing Code (UPC), which
mandated the use of high-efficiency toilets and efficient clothes washers in new home constructions. Those
complying with the code received rebates. The fourth component involved the institutionalization of regulations

8
governing landscaping and outdoor water use. This included guidelines prohibiting the use of high-water-use
grass and promoting water-efficient practices. The fifth and final component required water conservation plans for
those using over 50,000 gallons of water daily (Environment Protection Agency, 2002). Additionally, efforts were
made to reduce unaccounted water losses.
The impact of Albuquerque's water conservation efforts became evident over time. By April 2001, more
than 39,000 high-efficiency toilets were installed through the rebate program. As a result, per capita water use
decreased to 205 gallons per day, 45 gallons less than the daily consumption in 2005. These water conservation
programs were projected to further decrease water demand in the city (Environment Protection Agency, 2002),
ensuring sufficient water supply for future needs. Albuquerque's approach to water conservation was
straightforward but required diligent implementation to ensure the effectiveness of the strategies. This involved
engaging consumers and stakeholders, using surcharges to drive behavioral change in water utilization, and
ensuring adequate investment and financing for the program's sustainability. The achievements resulting from the
combined strategies were notable and had a tangible impact in subsequent years.

Figure 4. Map of Albuquerque, New Mexico (Source: http://www.artofanderson.com/albuquerque-new-mexico-

map)

4.4 Comparative Analysis of the Case Studies

Table 2 presents a comparative summary of the analysis of the three case studies, highlighting the year of strategy
establishment, the types and components of strategies implemented, the agency responsible for their preparation,
existing regulatory measures, criteria used for evaluating the strategies, and indicators of success. Each strategy
has its own unique characteristics in water management. However, there are also common aspects that emerged
during the analysis, emphasizing replicable elements, steps, and components that are deemed useful for JIC. The
strategy adopted by Kenya is relatively simple and focuses on three components: direct use of surface water
supplies, reclaiming wastewater and shallow groundwater for irrigation and non-potable uses, and implementing a
water conservation program. Kenya focused on a comprehensive approach to address its water supply challenges,
establishing and strengthening structures, institutions, and agencies to ensure adequate supply, storage, and
distribution.

9
 On the other hand, the strategies of Pakistan and New Mexico are more elaborate and comprehensive.
Pakistan's strategy includes the development of legal and policy frameworks, increasing water supply and
treatment facilities, promoting low-cost water treatments technologies, rainwater harvesting, monitoring water
quality and consumption, and integrated water resource management. The strategy prioritized ensuring safe water,
protecting freshwater sources, and constructing water treatment facilities in underserved areas. Albuquerque, on
the other hand, has advanced and sophisticated strategies that involve institutionalized governance of water
resources and knowledge management. It leverages financial policies and regulations to increase water supply and
distribution. The strategy focused on water conservation strategies, implementing a "reward and punishment"
system through rebates and surcharges to influence behavior change.
Upon closer examination, all three strategies shared common elements such as legislation, multi-stakeholder
participation, financial investments, efficient infrastructure, sustainable program development and management, a
management structure, and community education. All three cases are dedicated to ensuring sufficient water supply
while conserving water resources over the long term. Despite differences in scale, the cases utilized collaboration,
governance, education, and government financing as key elements for successfully establishing and implementing
water conservation strategies. These elements are crucial in planning and implementing an effective water
conservation strategy.

Table 2. Comparison of water conservation strategies from the case studies

Categories Albuquerque Pakistan Kenya
Strategy 1994 2005 2009
establishment
Strategies used [1] Water Resources [1] Develop legal and policy [1] Institutionalize water resources
Management Strategy framework for drinking water governance: supply, consumption and
[2] Direct use of surface management. financing policies and regulations.
water supplies [2] Increase water supply [2] Bridge knowledge gaps through
[3] Reclaim wastewater coverage and wastewater education and capacity building.
and shallow treatment and recycling [3] Increase water supply to meet the
groundwater for [3] Promote low-cost water demand through infrastructure expansion.
irrigation and non- treatment technologies at [4] Preserve natural freshwater bodies.
potable uses. community and household
[5] Mitigate floods and droughts risk
[4] Water conservation levels.
through infrastructure and policies.
program via high- [4] Rainwater harvesting
[6] Promote stakeholder and sector
efficiency toilets, taps [5] Monitor water quality and collaboration, with close consideration to
and washing machines. loss transboundary waters.
[5] Rebates for [6] Monitor water consumption [7] Utilize human rights-based approaches
observing plumbing via metering to water access.
code.
[7] Integrated management of [8] Sustainable financing and cost recovery
[6] Free water audits. water resources with
[7] Raising water rates. community involvement.
[8] Public education [8] Equitable sharing of
benefits of water resources.
[9] Integrate environmental
issues into water resource
development.
Agency City government National government Kenya Water Partnership
responsible
Regulations Laws and Policies: Laws and Policies: Laws and Policies:
Uniform Plumbing National Environment Policy [1] National Water Policy on Water
Code Resources Management and Development

10
 requiring all new (1999)
buildings to install [2] Water Act, Chapter 372 (enacted in
water conservation 1972, revised in 2002)
appliances
[3] Environmental Sanitation and Hygiene
Promotion Policy (June 2007)
Regulatory Bodies: Regulatory Bodies: Regulatory Bodies:
Long-Range Water [1] National Conservation [1] Water Services Regulatory Board
Conservation Strategy Strategy (NCS) [2] Water Service Boards
Resolution [2] Millennium Development [3] Water Service Providers
Goals
[4] Water Appeal Board
[3] Clean Drinking Water
Initiative
[4] Medium Term
Development Framework,
2005-2010
Criteria used [1] Feasibility [1] The extent of implementing [1] The extent of implement the Water Act
to evaluate [2] Sustainability the Water Act [2] Alignment with other relevant Kenyan
strategies [3] Achievable within a [2] Reducing water national laws and policies and international
given timeframe consumption. policies and guidelines on water
[3] Achieving environmental accessibility and conservation
sustainability. [3] Collaborative opportunities among
relevant stakeholders

Indicators of [1] Reduce total water To be determined, based on [1] Governance of water resources—a
success usage by 30% by 2004. monitoring and evaluation National Steering Committee in place with
[2] A decrease of 75 tools to be formulated. complete legislative framework, and
gallons per capita per functional institutions with capacity
day over 9 years [2] Annual reports on water resource
assessments presented to the National
Assembly.
[3] Infrastructure maintenance, water
pricing and permitting regulations in place.
[4] Sustainable watersheds management:
protected and conserved freshwater bodies.
[5] an effective and efficient flood drought
management system
[6] Achieve effective collaboration among
stakeholders and transboundary water
cooperation with other riparian countries.
[7] reliable and sustainable water resources
management financing system

4.5 Evaluation of Water Conservation at JIC.

The review of official documents and relevant studies reveals that the current water supply in JIC is sufficient to
meet the community and industry demands. The existing freshwater resources, such as surface and groundwater,
are inadequate and unsustainable due to their limited supply and high withdrawal rate. The future sustainability of
these resources is uncertain, considering the projected growth of populations and socioeconomic activities. While
alternative sources like desalination which is in use since 1982 and wastewater recycling show promise,
desalination is energy-intensive and polluting, and reclaimed wastewater remains low due to insufficient
collection. Nevertheless, with increased wastewater collection and treatment, reclaimed water could become a

11
sustainable option. Currently, desalinated water can adequately meet the present and future demands, thanks to
the unlimited supply of seawater. However, that was it comes with significant monetary and environmental costs.
To improve the sustainability of water demand and supply in JIC, the RCJY plans to implement several
water management projects, such as mandating low water-flow plumbing fixtures, reusing treated wastewater for
irrigation, industrial processes, and cooling, collecting condensate for sanitation, and maximizing current water
supplies from existing desalination plants. The success and sustainability of these projects can only be assessed
once they are implemented.
Despite the multifaceted strategies for managing water demand, supply, and conservation, JIC continues to
face water scarcity in the mid-term (2013–2019) based on expert shortfall anticipation study (Table 2). Even the
more tangible desalination strategy, which can supply additional water, cannot fully meet the total shortfall of
2,068,297 m3/d (Table 3). Although wastewater recycling for industrial and agricultural use can substantially
reduce supply shortfall, it requires thorough evaluation to determine its impacts. Having such data would provide
a clearer understanding of the future water supply challenges in JIC for the mid- and long-terms (2020–2030).
The more speculative options, such as the regional water network and identifying new underground sources,
cannot significantly contribute to resolving the current supply problems until specific steps are taken, such as
accurately estimating the maximum supply from the regional water network or identifying an underground source
with a reliable estimate of its capacity. Although reclaimed water is sustainable with population growth, it is
currently inadequate due to low wastewater collection volumes and low acceptability among citizens even for
landscaping and agricultural applications (Abubakar & Mu’azu, 2022).
Considering this situation, JIC will continue to face water scarcity and requires a robust water conservation
strategy. Based on the analysis of case studies and the existing situation, three key areas emerge as crucial for
developing an effective water conservation strategy for JIC: water resources, water consumption, and water
conservation projects. Although interconnected, these areas address different aspects of the water conservation
strategy, as described in the next section.

Table 3. Positive impacts and net surplus of current demand, supply, and conservation strategies on seven-day
projected water shortfall at midterm (2013–2019)
Current Strategies Positive impact (2015) Net shortfall (surplus)
7-day storage shortfall 3,430,000 m3
DEMAND
Alternative sources for process water
TWW, -43,700 m3/d (×7 days) -305,900 3,124,100
Community demand management, conservation
Egyptian leakage, -18,229 m3 (x7 days) -127,603 2,996,497
Industries demand management, conservation 0
SUPPLY
Current supplies
Desal I, -19,200 m3/d (×7 days) -134,400 2,862,097
3
Desal II, -38,400 m /d (×7 days) -268,800 2,593,297
On-hold plants activation
SWRO 5, -75,000 m3/day (×7 days) -525,000 2,068,297
Expanded IWPP supply (currently n. a.)
Regional sourcing (speculative)
New supply sources (speculative)
Total Additional Water Supplies (m3) -1,361,703
3
Total Net Shortfall (m ) 2,068,297
[Sources: RCJY, 2012, p. 84)]

12
5. Proposed Water Conservation Strategy for JIC
Water conservation strategy refers to a broad set of measures for the efficient management and preservation of
water resources to decrease water consumption, curtail waste, and promote sustainable water management
practices. This section disuses the components and implementation plan of the proposed water conservation
strategy for JIC and other Saudi cities.

5.1 Components of the Strategy

The proposed strategy serves as the policy blueprint for water conservation in JIC. Table 4 presents the
recommended conservation measures for three water sources, detailing the collection and treatment procedures
necessary to incorporate them into the general reserves efficiently and economically. It is essential to emphasize
that the strategy encompasses the management of three distinct types of water resources: natural, desalinated, and
reused water. Each of these resources follows specific processes to reach end users, and their contributions to
JIC's water supply are equally important.
The success of the strategy requires the participation and active collaboration of various stakeholders, such as
the public water sector, citizens, and professionals such as meteorologists, geologists, engineers, planners to
formulate and determine and implement appropriate courses of action. The recommended responsibilities of the
stakeholders are:
 The government serves as the overarching body responsible for passing laws to enable plan implementation and
enforcing water regulations.
 The water sector in JIC oversees the management of water resources. The RCJY should conduct research to
improve management practices and engage relevant bodies to recommend the best methods to the government.
 Professionals such as geologists, meteorologists, and engineers could play a vital role in evaluating the
suitability of current conditions in JIC for implementing the strategic plan and assessing potential negative
implications.
 Conservation, desalination, and recycling must be utilized to their fullest extent, forming a comprehensive
three-pronged approach to water management in JIC. Maximizing the efficiency of each source as it is crucial to
recognize the value of every drop of water in JIC to avoid wastage.

Table 4. Summary of the proposed water conservation strategic vision

Water resource Conservation measures and polices
- Lack of surface water requires better city stormwater management,
applying the following measures:
 Rainwater harvesting using water cisterns at homes and public buildings,
 Channeling water runoff to a main reservoir by artificial dams,
 A hydrodynamic process for industries and office buildings to harness
rainwater to a central drainage system.
Surface
- Adopt implementation measures such as:
water
 Estimate the amount of rainwater to be collected and the projected increase
in rainwater,
Freshwater
 Monitor water impurities and water loss
 Adopt low impact development using small-scale rainwater management to
promote infiltration and rainwater reuse.
 Educate people about important water management actions.
 Prevent the contamination of underground aquifers.
 Proper disposal of chemicals and fixing leaks in the drainage system.
Groundwater  Apply soil aquifer treatment techniques to recharge the groundwater after
treatment.
 Apply preventive measures on treatment of waste, septic tanks, and

13
 Water resource Conservation measures and polices
underground reservoirs that should be lined; pump-and-treat method to
restore already contaminated water.
 Natural cleansing of groundwater by seeping through rocks and soil.
Saline  Protect ground water from saline intrusion.
Groundwater  Educate the public how to easily treat water at home (adopting example
from Pakistan).
Desalinated  Improve the efficiency of seawater desalination plants.
Water  Develop long-term plan to reduce desalination costs.1
 Adopt indirect desalinization method2 which is less expensive – except for
Seawater the initial installation costs.
 Adopt reverse osmosis (RO) method of water desalination is more efficient.
 Ensure health and safety for human consumption of desalinated water.
 Efficient use and conserving desalinized seawater and wastewater.
Artificial  Adopting PSAs to improve public awareness.
Used Supplies  Monitor water usage.
Water
 Treat and reuse wastewater
 Apply sludge and septage treatment methods in industrial wastewater.
 Adopt wastewater management measures
 Extract gas from wastewater treatment for energy generation.
 Protect artificial wetlands by planting reeds at the point of waste emission
and remove organic and inorganic substances from the water.
 Purify water as it flows along the bed; it is then collected and discharged or
Recycling reused back in the plants.
 Adopt households’ wastewater treatment techniques.
 Use composting toilets at households.

5.2 Strategy Implementation and Discussion

Water conservation measures are implementable at public organization, business, industry, or household levels.
Implementing the proposed water conservation strategy requires effective management of the three distinct water
sources. To begin, the necessary infrastructure, including hardware, communications, and software, is already in
place. It is crucial to involve and coordinate all stakeholders involved in the strategy's implementation in JIC.
Cooperation among actors is critical to overcome bureaucratic infighting, corruption, and mismanagement, which
can undermine the strategy (Baig et al., 2020). To prepare workers for their tasks, training should be provided to
enhance their capacity and bridge knowledge gaps. Assigning duties according to their skills and directing them to
implement the proposed water management strategy is important (Brache, 2002). Additionally, having adequate

1
The process involves construction of a cement tower that has a tank at the top. A glass covering is placed on the tower but a
gap is left between the two. Salinized water is pumped from the ground water reservoir. As the tank fills up, excess water
runs on the cement wall, flowing to the bottom. Using solar radiation, the water on the cement surface evaporates and settles
on the glass surface. The water is collected from the glass through drain channels.
2
In this method, photovoltaic and fluid thermal collectors are used and the energy is connected to a desalinization plant. The
JIC desalination plants use Multi-stage Flash (MSF) technology that enables the plants to produce an average of 31.391 cubic
yds. (24,000 cubic meters) of fresh water a day. Adding the solar photovoltaic (PV) panels and reverse osmosis will increase
The amount of water in each of the desalination plants to 422 gallons (1,600 liters) per hour and 52 gallons (200
liters) a day for every PV panel square meter.

14
and quality data, along with a fully operational system for monitoring existing water resources, managing water
consumption, and researching better conservation methods, is crucial. Regular monitoring of implementation is
essential to rectify any misapplications or mishaps promptly. The implementation process should follow a
timeline, just like other aspects of the strategic plan. Broad-based education should be the first step, aiming to
change the attitudes and behaviors of everyone in Jubail regarding water use and wastage.
Governance plays a vital role in strategy implementation. Shared governance, involving collaboration and
consensus among the RCJY, water processing, desalination, wastewater recycling firms, and the public, is the
most suitable structure to use (Wiek & Larson, 2012). This structure should incorporate mechanisms of
transparency, efficiency, and accountability to ensure proper and sustainable management of water resources.
Strict enforcement of water conservation policies and regulations, such as efficiency standards and mandates for
recycling and reclamation, should be accompanied by heavy fines for violations.
A significant reduction in water loss and contamination is crucial. Currently, JIC experiences a water loss of
30% of the supplied water (Alamoud, 2003). It is achievable to minimize water loss to less than 10% through
measures like reducing non-revenue water, implementing metering and monitoring systems (including loss
audits), conducting leak detection, and improving system maintenance and optimization. Reducing water waste
and consumption will have a significant impact on JIC's water management, particularly as water demand
increases with industrial consumption accounting for 53% of the total (Ouda, 2015). Therefore, emphasis should
be placed on reducing water loss and consumption to prevent an impending water crisis. Similarly, it is crucial to
treat wastewater before its discharge into water bodies, strictly prohibit the dumping of garbage into water, and
enforce other environmental laws to protect water resources (Mir & Ashraf, 2023). According to Weerasooriya et
al. (2021), industries should adopt water conservation strategies to address present and future water challenges by
improving water-use efficiency and promoting the natural water cycle.
Water pricing can be a useful tool to promote water conservation and operational efficiency, considering JIC's
limited water resources. Water pricing involves assigning prices to water to encourage responsible use, which can
differ depending on whether the water is bottled, piped, or tanked (Farrel, 2014). Currently, many Saudi citizens
consume water without much consideration for tariffs due to subsidies (Gazzeh and Abubakar, 2018). Pricing has
a dual effect: it influences people's water usage behavior and generates revenue that can be used for other water
management activities. Pricing has proven to be an effective water conservation strategy in Albuquerque, New
Mexico, where a 10% increase in the marginal price of water resulted in a 3 to 4% decrease in water demand in
the urban residential sector, on average (Mehan & Kline, 2012).
Public education and awareness can promote water conservation and cultivate a culture of responsible water
consumption and protecting water resources. The public needs to understand the importance of water
conservation, the challenges of water scarcity, the dangers of water pollution, and the existing water tariffs,
realizing that water is a valuable resource with monetary value rather than a free service provided by the utility
company. Behavior change communication through schools, religious institutions, community campaigns,
gatherings, and lectures can effectively educate and engage the community in adopting water-saving habits and
approaches at the household level.
Implementing a comprehensive plan and strategic vision for a major city like JIC involves identifying and
addressing problems and potential roadblocks. According to Brache (2002), strategy implementation can face
challenges that affect its outcome, such as low personnel morale, which can be mitigated through incentives
(rewards and punishments). The plan assumes continued progress in desalination technology; if this does not
occur, reliance on seawater resources could face disappointment. Additionally, there may be insufficient funds to
sustain the budget required for the proper installation and implementation of the entire strategic vision. Skilled
personnel specialized in water management are also required for successful implementation. Educating every
member of the public and industry about the importance of water conservation may present a challenge.
Furthermore, the ability to reach a necessary consensus for the shared governance structure to work is crucial;
failure to do so could jeopardize the entire process (Huang et al., 2017).
Lastly, efficient consumption of freshwater is vital since JIC has little rainfall and lacks freshwater bodies. In
2018, Saudi Arabia received a total precipitation of 255,600 million m3. However, the available freshwater
resources have experienced a decline, decreasing from 701.88 million m3 in 2000 to 85.0 million m3 in 2018. On
the other hand, desalinated water production has nearly doubled, rising from 374.92 million m3 in 2000 to 721.89

15
million m3 in 2018. While fresh surface water decreased from 100.0 million m3 in 2010 to 85.0 million m3 in
2018, there was a slight increase in the underground water reserve from 236.50 million m3 in 2001 to 250.0
million m3 in 2018. Notably, water loss during transportation has reduced significantly from 1,730.9 million m3 in
2002 to 4,828 million m3 in 2018. However, it is worth mentioning that as of 2017, wastewater treatment (619.4
million m3/day) fell considerably short of the collection rate of 10,006.2 million m3/day (GCC-STAT, 2020). To
address these challenges, an integrated approach, as proposed in the present study by, is necessary for effective
water conservation efforts at the industrial, civic, and individual household levels (Weerasooriya et al. 2021). For
example, improving the efficiency of seawater desalination by activating on-hold desalination plants and adopting
the latest technologies like Reverse Osmosis is important. Additionally, capturing, treating, and adding
wastewater to the general reserves based on its suitability for various purposes is essential. The strategy for
creating sustainable water supplies in JIC should efficiently and sustainably incorporate all these conservation
approaches.

6. Conclusions
The JIC is a rapidly developing industrial city facing challenges related to water supply and conservation. This
paper examined the water conservation measures in JIC, identified key elements of an effective water
conservation strategy through three case studies, and proposed measures for implementing a sustainable water
conservation strategy for JIC. The recommended strategies for conserving water and sustaining water resources in
JIC include water conservation, desalination, recycling and demand management. Strategic water conservation,
optimization and reuse hold significant relevance to industry settings. These strategies are crucial for efficient
water use and the preservation of water resources in JIC and other similar cities in the Global South.
The strategies outlined in this paper are informed by lessons learned from the case studies, the local context,
and a literature review. Successful implementation of these strategies requires good governance, including
transparency, accountability, and consultations with affected parties, as seen in Kenya's multisector group KWP.
However, cultural differences in Saudi Arabia, where the government is centralized, may pose challenges.
Authorities should also consider the effectiveness of water pricing as an approach that has proven successful in
scaling up water conservation efforts in the reviewed cases. Lesson from Albuquerque's implementation of the
Uniform Plumbing Code was effective, focusing on new construction projects to promote water efficiency. The
use of surcharges on excessive water consumption highlights the importance of behavior change, while rebates
and public awareness campaigns supported conservation measures. Pakistan's experience emphasizes the need for
public education on water conservation and the impact of population growth on water consumption.
Educational campaigns conducted through various channels like schools, religious institutions, community
gatherings, and media platforms can play a crucial role in instilling a culture of water conservation and
empowering individuals to make a positive impact. Furthermore, enforcing water conservation policies and
regulations is essential to ensure compliance and accountability. This includes setting efficiency standards,
mandating recycling, and reclamation practices, and imposing fines for violators. Additionally, strategies focused
on improving access to clean water, including treatment facilities, household-level treatment, rainwater collection,
and water monitoring, metering and leak detection, and system maintenance can help reduce water loss. Effective
wastewater treatment and recycling measures can be adopted in JIC. Lessons from other water management plans
offer opportunities for JIC to implement effective strategies.
To overcome challenges and ensure the success of the water conservation strategy, it is crucial to address
issues such as personnel morale, funding constraints, specialized expertise in water management, cultural
considerations, and the need for consensus-building among stakeholders, including households, communities,
industries, and the government, which JIC have a role to play in water conservation. Lessons from other regions
facing water scarcity can provide valuable insights for JIC's water conservation strategies, although adaptation to
JIC's specific circumstances is necessary. As the population and socioeconomic activities grow, adopting effective
water conservation strategies and fostering positive attitudes toward water use are crucial for JIC's sustainable
development. One limitation of this study is the potential lack of generalizability of its recommendations to other
global cities or regions. This is due to the variations in water resources, infrastructure, climate conditions, and
socioeconomic factors that exist among different locations. However, by integrating conservation practices,

16
promoting efficient water use, and incorporating innovative technologies, cities lie JIS can achieve their water
sustainability goals and ensure a reliable water supply for present and future generations.

Declaration of interest: The authors declare no competing interests.

Funding: None

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