CHEMISTRY

LESSON 8: THE DEVELOPMENT OF ATOMIC MODEL

LEUCIPPUS

• Teacher of DEMOCRITUS
• Creator of atomic model. He said that everything was made of INDIVISIBLE ELEMENTS CALLED ATOMS.
• Finite particles called ATOMOS- Greek word “ INDIVISIBLE” (15th century)
• He came either from MILETUS or from ELEA
• Leucippus and Democritus went the SCHOOL OF ELEACTIC, which was science school that believed that “EVERYTHING IS ONE”

DEMOCRITUS

• Born in ABDARA, THRACE around 458 BCE, lived to be 90 Y/O

• He announced the ATOMIC THEORY

ARISTOTLE

• Born in STAGIRE, MACEDONIA in 384 BC

• He attacked and argued the idea of the atom and the existence of particles, which was the belief of Democritus
• ARISTOTLE and others came to the conclusion that matter consisted of various combinations of 4 ELEMENT- FIRE, EARTH, AIR, and
WATER and could be infinitely divided.

JOHN DALTON

• Born in CUMBERLAND, COUNTRY, ENGLAND in 1766

• CHEMIST METEOROLOGIST and PHYSICIST
• Best known work developing MODERN ATOMIC THEORY
• DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY- all elements were made of tiny particles called ATOMS. It is indestructible and unchangeable.
Elements are characterized by the weight of their atoms. In chemical reactions, atoms combine in small, whole- number ratios.
When elements react, their atoms may combine in more than one whole- number ration.

MODERN ATOMIC THEORY: ELECTRICALLY CHARGED PARTICLES

MICHAEL FARADAY 1830

• Atoms can gain electrical charges. (Static electricity) added the following to atomic theory.
• Mattes mist contain positive (+) and negative (-) charges. Opposite charges attract and like repel. Atoms combine to form the
particles of a compound because of the electrical attraction between the charges atoms (IONS).

SIR WILLIAM CROOKES 1879

• Constructed the modern television picture in the 1870’s to investigate the properties of CATHODE RAYS
• Crookes tube- a vacuum discharge tube.

WILHELM ROENTGEN 1895

• Invisible ray or force must be responsible and nicknamed them X-RAYS (other sciencetists called them a Roentgen RAYS)

MODERN ATOMIC THEORY: RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS

HENRY BEQUEREL 1896

• Fluorescent properties of uranium salt

• Discovered the radioactivity
• MARIE and PIERRE CURIE, shared the 1903 NOBEL PRIZE in physics for their studies in spontaneous radiation.

ERNEST RUTHERFORD

• Discovered the ALPHA and BETA “RAYS” from URANIUM

J.J THOMSON 1897

• PLUM- PUDDING MODEL positive sphere (pudding) with negative electrons (plums) dispersed throughout. Discovered ELECTRON

ERNEST RUTHERFORD

• Gold foil experiment marked the discovery that the atom was made up of mostly empty space and contained a positively
charged nucleus. He concluded that the atom consisted of small, dense, positively charged nucleus in the center of the atom
with negatively charged electrons surrounding it. Discovered PROTON

NIELS BOHR 1913

 • BOHR MODEL models depicts atom as small (+) charged nucleus surrounded by electrons in orbit. Similar to solar system, but with
forces providing attraction, rather than gravity.

ERWIN SCHRODINGER 1926

• Atomic model QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL of the atom

JAMES CHADWICK 1932

• He revised the theory of Rutherford, and proposed that the nucleus contains positively charged protons and neutral particles
called NEUTRONS

1932

• Smaller units than atoms QUARKS. Are turn made of vibrating strings of energy.

SUBATOMIC PARTICLES

1. ELECTRON- J.J THOMPSON

2. PROTON- ERNEST RUTHERFORD
3. NEUTRON- JAMES CHADWICK

LESSON 9: THE MODERN VIEW OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE

ATOM- smallest defining structure of an element.

STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM- composed of 2 regions: NUCLEUS, center of the atom and contains PROTON AND NEUTRON. Outer region is the
ELECTRON SHELL, holds its electrons in orbit around the nucleus.

PROTON – positively charged

NEUTRON- no electrical charge

ELECTRON- negative charge

MASS NUMBER- total number of protons and protons in a nucleus

ATOMIC NUMBER- number of protons in the nucleus of each atom of that element.

FORMULA IN CALCULATING SUBATOMIC PARTICLES

ATOMIC NUMBER= PROTON= ELECTRON

MASS NUMBER= PROTON + NEUTRON

NEUTRON= MASS NUMBER- ATOMIC NUMBER

ISOTOPES- atoms whose nuclei have the same atomic number but different mass numbers; that is, the nuclei have the same number of
protons but different numbers of electrons.

FORMULA: atomic mass of an element = (fractional abundance of isotopes 1× mass of isotope 1) + (fractional abundance of isotope 2×
mass of isotope 2)

EXAMPLE: Bromine has two naturally occurring isotopes: bromine-79 has mass of 78.9183 amu and an abundance of 50.69%, abundance of
49,31%. Find the relative atomic mass of bromine.

SOLUTION: atomic mass of Br= (0.5069×78.9183 u) + (0.4931× 80.92 u) = 79.91 u

BASIS FOR DALTON’S THEORY: BASIC LAWS OF MATTER

1. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS- states that the total mass present before a chemical reaction is the same as the total mass
present after the chemical reaction; in other words, MASS IS CONSERVED
2. LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS – states that if a compound is broken down into its constituents elements, the masses of the
constituents will always have the same proportions, regardless of the quantity or source of the original substance.
3. LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS- states that when two or more elements form more than one compound, the ratio of the masses
of one element that combine with a given mass of another element in the different compounds is ratio of small whole number

LESSON 10: THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

DMITRI MENDELEEV

• The periodic table organizes the elements in a particular way. A great deal of information about an element can be gathered
from its position in the periodic table
• In 1869, DMITRI IVANOVITCH MENDELEEV, created the first accepted version of the periodic table.
• He group elements according to their atomic mass and as he did he found that the families had similar chemical properties
 • Blank spaces were left open to add the new elements he predicted would occur

ATOMS

• Atoms are the simplest and smallest particle composed of protons, electrons and neutrons
• The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is equal to its atomic number.
• Normally the number of protons equals the number of electrons.

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

• ELEMENTS are substances that cannot be broken down any further by chemical means. There are over 100!
• PERIODIC TABLE is the arrangement of these elements by increasing atomic number and similar properties.

ELEMENTS

• Each element on the periodic table has an atomic number, symbol, name and average atomic mass
• ATOMIC NUMBER- the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom.
• AVERAGE ATOMIC MASS- the mass of an atom including the protons, neutrons, electrons

GROUP ELEMENTS HAVE SIMILARITIES

• Elements in the same group have similar properties remember groups are columns.
• CHEMICAL PROPERTY- a property used to characterize materials in reactions that change their identity. Ex. Burning something
• PHYSICAL PROPERTY- a characteristics of a substance that can be observed without changing the substance into something
else.Ex. measuring something's length color mass or volume.

METALS, NONMETALS AND METALLOIDS

• METALS are lustrous, malleable, and are good conductors of heat and electricity
• NONMETALS are elements that do not share the properties of metals
• METALLOIDS are elements that share some but not all the properties of materials

METALS- LUSTROUS, MALLEABLE, AND GOOD CONDUCTORS? (Physical properties of metals)

• LUSTROUS- means shiny or reflective of light

• MALLABLE- means capable of being shaped
• GOOD CONDUCTORS- means being able to allow electricity and heat to flow through

ALKALI METALS- very reactive metals. Always combine with something else in nature. ( Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr)

ALKALINE EARTH METALS- reactive metals that are always combined with nonmetals in nature. (E.g. important mineral nutrients like
calcium) (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra)

TRANSITION METALS- less reactive, harder metals. Includes metals used in jewelry, money and construction.

BORON FAMILY- boron has properties of both metals and nonmetals. The rest of element in this group are metals. ( B, Al, Ga, In, Tl, Uut)

CARBON FAMILY- contains elements important to life and computers. Carbon is the basic element in all organic compound. Carbon is the
basic element in all organic compounds. Si and Ge are important semiconductors.

NITROGEN FAMILY- nitrogen makes up more than 3/4 of our atmosphere. The red tip of matches is made of phosphorus

OXYGEN FAMILY OR CHALCOGENS- oxygen is necessary for respiration. Many things that have a bad odor contains sulfur.

HALOGENS- very reactive, diatomic non-metals. Always found combined with other elements in nature. Chlorine is used to keep bacteria
out of swimming pool.

NOBLE GASES- very reactive gases. Use enlighten neon signs. Helium is used to make party balloons float.

THE PERIODIC TREND- periodic trends are specific patterns that are present in the periodic table that illustrate different aspect of a certain
elements including its size and its electronic properties.

1. ELECTRONEGATIVITY- can be understood as a chemical properties describing atoms ability to attract and bind with electrons. It
increase from left to right across the period and decrease from top to bottom.
2. IONIZATION ENERGY- is the energy required to remove an electron from a neutral atom in its gaseous phase. It increases from left
to right across the period and decreases from top to bottom down a group or remove an electron.
3. ELECTRON AFFINITY- is the ability of an atom to accept an electron. It increases from left to right across the period and decreases
from top to bottom down a group.
4. ATOMIC RADIUS- is 1/2 the distance between the nuclei of two atoms. It decreases from left to right across the period and
increases from top to bottom down a group.
5. MELTING POINT- is the amount of energy required to break a bonds to change the solid phase of a substance to a liquid. Metals
generally possess a high melting point. Was nonmetals possess low melting points.
6. METALLIC CHARACTER- can be defined as readily an atom can lose an electron. It decreases from left to right across the period
and increases from top to bottom down a group.
LESSON 11: ELECTRON CONFIGURATION

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION- representation of the arrangement of electrons distributed among the orbital shells and subshells.

VALENCE ELECTRON- is an electron in the outermost shell associated with an atom, and that can participate in the formation of a chemical
bond.

PERIODIC TABLE BLOCKS

• Different section or blocks within the periodic table corresponds to the s, p, and f, sublevels.
• We can “build” the electron configurations of atom by reading the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number.

THE s BLOCK includes ( elements in the s block have their final one or two electrons in an s orbital)

• Hydrogen and helium

• Elements in Group 1A (1)
• Elements in Group 2A (2)

THE p BLOCK

• The p block consists of elements in Group 3s (13) to Group 8A (18)

• There are six p black elements in each period, because 3p orbitals can hold up to six electrons.

THE d BLOCK

• The d black contains transition elements. The d sublevels are one less ( n-1) than the period number.
• There are 10 elements in each d block, because five d orbitals can hold up to 10 electrons.

THE f BLOCK

• The f block contains inner transition elements, two rows at the bottom of the periodic table. The f sublevels id two less tha t the
period number.
• There are 14 elements in each f block, because there are seven f orbitals that can hold up to 14 electrons.

RULES FOR ASSIGNING ELECTRONS ORBITALS

OCCUPATION OF ORBITALS - electrons fill orbitals in a way to minimize the energy of the atom. Therefore the electrons in an atom fill the
principal energy levels in order of increasing energy.

A. PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE- states that no two electrons can have the same four quantum numbers.
B. HUND’S RULE- when assigning electrons in orbitals each electron will first fill all the orbitals with similar energy also referred to as
degenerate before pairing with other electrons in a half field orbital.
C. THE AUFBAU PROCESS- states that an electron occupies orbitals in order from lowest energy to highest. The Aufbau (German for
building up, construction( principle is sometimes referred to as the building up principle. It is worth nothing that in reality atoms are
not built by adding protons and electrons one at a time and that this method is merely an aid to understand the end result .

WRITING ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS

1. ORBITAL DIAGRAM- this is a visual way to reconstruct the electron configuration by showing each of the separate orbitals
and the spins of the electrons.
2. SDFD NOTATION- the most common way to describe electron configuration is to write distribution in the sdfd notation.
The total number of electron in each energy level is described by a super script that follows the relating energy level.
3. NOBLE GAS NOTATION- the noble gas in the period above the element that is being analyzed is used to denote the
subshells that the element has filled and after which the valence electrons are written.

LESSON 12: NAMES AND FORMULAS OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

IONIC COMPOUNDS- when an element composed of atoms that readily lose electrons (a metal) reacts with an element composed of
atoms that readily gain electrons (a nonmetal), a transfer of electrons usually occur, producing ions. The compound formed by this transfer
is stabilized by the electrostatic attractions ( ionic bonds) between the ions of opposite charge present in the compound.

• Ionic compounds form when atoms or molecules attract others with opposite charges.
• The structure of an ionic compound depends on the relative sizes of the cations and anions. Ionic compound include salts, oxides,
hydroxides, sulphides, and the majority of inorganic compounds. Ionic solids are held together by the electrostatic attraction
between the positive and negative ions. The electrostatic attraction between the participants facilitates electrons transfer
between them
1. Ionic compounds form crystal lattices rather than amorphous solids.
2. They have high melting and boiling points, because of their strong crystal lattices
3. They are hard and brittle, often breaking along smooth planes when shattered
4. As solids, they are insulating and do not conduct electricity, but they do conduct when molten, or when dissolved in water
5. If they are soluble in water, they are often insoluble in nonpolar solvents.

Ionic compounds composed of ions, charged particles that form when an atom (or group of atoms) gains or loses electrons.
CATION- ion that has lost one or more electrons, giving a net positive charge (metal ion)

Naming cation

a) Cations formed from the metal atom has the same name as the metal atom, following the word ion

Examples: Na+ sodium ion Al+ Aluminum ion

b) If a metal can form ions with different charges is indicated by a Roman numerals in the parentheses following the name of the
metal

Examples: Fe2+ Iron (II) ion

Lead (II) ion

Lean (IV) ion

ANION- ion that has gained one or more electrons, giving a net negative charge (nonmetal ion)

Naming Anion

a) The names of monoatomic anions are formed by replacing the ending of the name of the element with -ide

Examples: N3- Nitride ion O2- Oxide ion

b) A few polyatomic anion have names ending with -ide

LESSON 13: NAMES AND FORMULAS OF ACIDS AND BINARY COMPOUNDS

ACID- any hydrogen- containing substance that is capable of donating a proton ( hydrogen ion) to another substance. Acidic substances
are usually identified by their sour taste. Acids are known to turn blue litmus red.

• The word acid comes from Latin word ‘acere’ means ‘sour’

PROPERTIES OF ACIDS

1. Acids are corrosive in nature

2. They are good conductors of electricity
3. Their pH values are always less than 7
4. When reacted with metals, these substance produced hydrogen gas
5. Acids are sour in taste

How to name Acids?

1. Acids containing anion whose names end with -ide are named by changing the -ide ending to -ic, adding the prefix hydro- to this
ion name, and then following the word acid
2. Acid containing anion whose names end with -ate or -ite are named by changing the -ate to -ic, and -ite to -ous, and then affing
the words acid
3. Prefixes in the name are retained in the name of the acid.

NAMES AND FORMULAS OF BINARY MOLECULAR COMPOUND

- Binary molecular (covalent) compounds are formed as the results of a reaction between two nonmetals. Although there
are no ions in these compounds, they are named in similar manner to binary ionic compounds.

GREEK PREFIX

Mono- (1)

Di- (2)

Tri- (3)

Tetra- (4)

Penta- (5)

Hexa- (6)

Hepta- (7(

Octa- (8)

Nona- (9)

Deca- (10)