buildings
Article
New Optimal Supply Air Temperature and Minimum Zone Air
Flow Resetting Strategies for VAV Systems
Nabil Nassif *, Mostafa Tahmasebi, Iffat Ridwana






Citation: Nassif, N.; Tahmasebi, M.;
Ridwana, I.; Ebrahimi, P. New
Optimal Supply Air Temperature and
Minimum Zone Air Flow Resetting
Strategies for VAV Systems. Buildings
2022, 12, 348. https://doi.org/
10.3390/buildings12030348
Academic Editor: Antonio Caggiano
Received: 21 February 2022
Accepted: 8 March 2022
Published: 14 March 2022
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Buildings 2022, 12, 348. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12030348
and Pejman Ebrahimi
Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering and Construction Management, University of Cincinnati,
Cincinnati, OH 45220, USA; tahmasma@mail.uc.edu (M.T.); ridwanit@mail.uc.edu (I.R.);
ebrahipn@mail.uc.edu (P.E.)
* Correspondence: nassifnl@ucmail.uc.edu
Abstract: Buildings account for a large portion of the total energy use in the US; therefore, improving
the operation of typical variable-air-volume (VAV) systems in buildings can provide a tremendous
economic opportunity. ASHRAE Guideline 36 recommends a resetting strategy for supply air
temperature (SAT) for VAV systems based on outside air temperature. However, this strategy may
not produce optimal performance, particularly when simultaneous cooling and heating occurs in
zones. In addition, there is no strategy recommended in the Guideline to reset the zone minimum
airflow set point in a single-duct VAV terminal unit with reheat, although this setpoint has a great
impact on zone reheat requirements and ventilation efficiency. Thus, this paper introduces new
strategies to reset both the SAT and zone minimum airflow rate set points to improve the efficiency
of typical VAV systems. The strategies were tested under various conditions through experiments
performed in fully instrumented VAV systems located in the HVAC lab at the University of Cincinnati.
The experiments were conducted on a chilled-water VAV system that serves three controlled zones
with hot-water reheat VAV boxes controlled by a typical commercial BACnet web-based building
automation system BAS. The simulation studies were performed using the building energy simulation
software EnergyPlus to evaluate the strategies at a larger scale in various locations. The simulation
results show that the proposed resetting strategies can provide fan energy savings between 1.6% and
5.7% and heating load savings between 7.7% to 33.7%, depending on the location. The laboratory
testing shows that the proposed strategies can provide stable control performance in actual systems
as well as achieving the anticipated reheat and fan energy savings. The result offers significant
improvements that can be implemented in the Guideline for single-duct VAV system operation
and control.
Keywords: building energy performance; VAV system; supply air temperature reset; minimum zone
airflow; optimization; energy efficiency
1. Introduction
Buildings are among the major consumers of global energy. As a matter of fact,
this sector accounts for approximately 40 percent of the energy consumed in the United
States, which is more than the amount of energy used by industry and transportation.
Therefore, improving the energy efficiency of these buildings can reduce the total energy
use and associated building carbon dioxide emission [1–3]. Building HVAC systems
accounts for a large portion of a building’s energy consumption. Amongst different types
of HVAC system, variable-air-volume (VAV) systems are used in most large-scale buildings.
Therefore, any enhancement in the operation of typical VAV systems can provide both
energy and cost-saving opportunities [4–6]. Hence, several studies have investigated
different optimization strategies to achieve better energy efficiency in VAV systems. For
example, some researchers focused on the optimum set points of one or several local-loop
controllers. Wang and Song proposed the optimization of the supply air temperature
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings
Buildings 2022, 12, 348 2 of 15

during the economizer cycles, which can minimize energy costs [7]. On the other hand,
Zhu et al. proposed an adaptive artificial neural-network-based control for the supply air
temperature, which was tested in a pilot HVAC system to evaluate efficiency [8]. Taylor
improved the VAV system efficiency by resetting the duct static pressure setpoint [9].
In another study, Taylor introduced a trim-and-response logic to reset the supply air
temperature and duct static pressure setpoints [10]. Nassif offered improvements for the
trim-and-response logic to enhance the system’s response to any changes in conditions [11].
Other studies have been performed to develop model-based optimization methods to
optimize the overall performance of the VAV system instead of just one subsystem [5,12].
For instance, Seong et al. introduced a model-based method to optimize airside and
waterside variables [13]. Talib and Nassif introduce a data-based optimization engine to
improve the operation of chilled water and DX systems, including system- and zone-level
setpoints [14]. Kim et al. proposed two control algorithms considering temperature and
humidity as the factors of the indoor environment to maintain the occupant comfort while
lowering the energy consumption in conventional HVAC systems [15]. Other studies are
based on the optimization and control of HVAC systems following different modeling
techniques and methods [16–19]. Unfortunately, these methods require accurate models
with a high level of computation, and they are difficult to implement in real control
systems. Even if these controls are implemented, their performance depends significantly
on the accuracy of the models. Alternatively, ASHRAE Guideline 36 on high-performance
operation sequences [20] introduces easy-to-implement, rule-based methods and control
sequences for the operation of HVAC systems that are intended to maximize their energy
efficiency, improve their performance, provide control stability, and allow real-time fault
detection and diagnostics. The guideline recommends a trim-and-response method to
reset the supply air temperature (SAT) set point for a multi-zone VAV system based on
readings from zone cooling loops. The guideline recommends resetting the SAT linearly
as a function of outside air temperature (OAT). When the building has zones mostly in
cooling, as in interior zones, resetting the SAT based on OAT, as proposed by the Guideline,
may not produce the best performance. This study did not address typical single-duct VAV
terminal units, and the study did not test the methods in the real control systems to verify
whether the control works properly in the real control system. Another issue is that the
Guideline did not propose how to reset the minimum airflow rate set point in zones that
are not equipped with CO2 sensors. There is no clear guideline as to what the minimum
flow rate setpoint should be. Typically, the setpoints are set to be 20–30% of design and
kept constant during operation. The zone minimum airflow set point in a single-duct
VAV terminal unit with reheat has a significant impact on zone reheat requirements and
ventilation efficiency. Lowering the setpoint reduces the zone reheat requirements but
reduces the ventilation efficiency, thereby increasing the ventilation load on the cooling and
heating equipment. When the economizer is enabled, during the full or partial free cooling
mode, a large amount of fresh air is introduced into the system to maintain the supply air
temperature at its setpoint. This amount is typically greater than the required minimum
ventilation; consequently, the setpoint can be lowered to reduce the reheat requirement
without any effect on the ventilation load. Nassif et al. proposed a new resetting method
for the minimum zone airflow rate set point, but the study assumed that the supply air
temperature was constant, and the study overlooked the interaction between the SAT and
the zone minimum airflow rate setpoints [21]. Thus, to address these challenges, this paper
introduces integrated two control strategies that reset both the SAT and the minimum
airflow rate set point for a single-duct multi-zone VAV system and evaluate the methods in
simulation and real control systems. These strategies are easy to implement in real systems
and can improve the efficiency of typical VAV systems.

1.1. Resetting Control Strategies

As shown in Figure 1, a typical VAV system has the following major control loops:
space control loops, supply air temperature SAT control loop, and duct static pressure
 Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14

1.1. Resetting Control Strategies

Buildings 2022, 12, 348 1.1. Resetting Control Strategies 3 of 15
As shown in Figure 1, a typical VAV system has the following major control loops:
spaceAscontrol
shownloops,in Figure supply 1, a air
typical VAV system
temperature SAT has the following
control loop, and major control
duct static loops:
pressure
space control loops, supply air temperature SAT control loop,
control loop. The space air temperature is typically controlled through a cascade control and duct static pressure
control
control
loop. loop.
One loop. The
loop The
usedspaceis toair
space airtemperature
temperature
determine isistypically
the air ratecontrolled
typically
flow controlled
setpoint thatthrough
through a cascade
maintains control
control
the space air
loop. One
loop. One
temperature. loop
loop
Theused
used is istoloop
other todetermine
is usedthe
determine theair
to airflow rate
flowthe
control ratesetpoint
VAV box that
setpoint that maintains
maintains
damper spacethe
the space
that maintains air
air
temperature.
airflow rate atThe
temperature. The
its other
setother
point.looploop is isused
The usedto
duct tocontrol
control
static the
theVAV
pressure VAV
controlbox damper
boxloop thattomaintains
is used maintains
maintain thethe
the
airflow
airflow
static rate
rate
duct atatitsitsset
pressure set point.
atpoint.
its setTheTheduct
point duct staticpressure
by static
modulatingpressure control
thecontrol loop is
loop
fan speed. is used to maintain
maintain the the
static duct pressure at its set point by modulating
static duct pressure at its set point by modulating the fan speed. the fan speed.

Figure 1. Schematic of a typical VAV system.

Figure 1. 1.
Figure Schematic ofof
Schematic a typical
a typicalVAV
VAVsystem.
system.
The supply air temperature control is used to maintain the supply air temperature at
its set
TheThe
point. supply
supply airair
Depending temperature
on the air
temperature control is is
handling
control used
used to to
unit’s maintain
AHU
maintain thethe
operating supply
supply airair
states, temperature
the supply air
temperature at
itsatset
itspoint.
set point.
temperature (SAT) Depending
Dependingis typically
on theon thehandling
air handling
controlled
air unit’s
in sequence
unit’s byAHU
AHU three operating
separate
operating states,
the the
controlled
states, supply
devices:
supply air
air temperature
cooling
temperature (SAT)(SAT)
coil valve, outside
is is air
typically
typically controlled
(OA) damper,
controlled inheating
and
in sequence sequencecoilby
by three threeFigure
valve.
separate separate controlled
2 shows
controlled four
devices:
devices:
AHU operating
cooling cooling
coil valve, coil
states
outsidevalve,
or regions,outside
air (OA) air
as follows. (OA)
damper,(1) damper,
Region
and and heating
1—heating:
heating coil valve. coil
when
Figure valve.
the 2SAT Figure
is main-
shows four2
AHUshows four
tainedoperating AHU
by modulating operating
states or the states
heatingascoil
regions, or regions,
valve(1)
follows. as
positionfollows.
Regionand (1) Region
OA damper
1—heating: when 1—heating:
is atthethe
SAT when
minimum
is main-
the SAT(2)
position. is maintained
Region 2—freeby modulating
cooling and the heating coil
modulating OA:valve
when position
the SAT andis OA damperby
maintained is
tained by modulating the heating coil valve position and OA damper is at the minimum
at the minimum position. (2) Region 2—free cooling and modulating OA: when the SAT
modulating
position. the OA 2—free
(2) Region dampercooling
position.and(3)modulating
Region 3—mechanical
OA: when the andSAT
economizer cooling:
is maintained by
is maintained by modulating the OA damper position. (3) Region 3—mechanical and
when the OA
modulating the damper
OA damper is fullyposition.
opened,(3) andRegion
the SAT is maintainedand
3—mechanical by controlling
economizerthe cool-
cooling:
economizer cooling: when the OA damper is fully opened, and the SAT is maintained by
ing coil
when thevalve
OA position.
damper is(4)fullyRegion 4—mechanical
opened, and the SAT cooling and minimum
is maintained OA: whenthe
by controlling thecool-
OA
controlling the cooling coil valve position. (4) Region 4—mechanical cooling and minimum
damper
ingOA: is
coilwhen at
valve thethe minimum
position. position,
(4) Region and the SAT is maintained by controlling the cooling
OA damper is at4—mechanical
the minimum cooling position,and
andminimum
the SAT OA: when the OA
is maintained by
coil valve
damper is position.
at the minimum position, and the SAT is maintained by controlling the cooling
controlling the cooling coil valve position.
coil valve position.

Figure
Figure 2.2. AHUoperating
AHU operatingstates
statesand
andthe
the recommended
recommended minimum
minimumzone
zoneairflow
airflowsetpoint
setpoint(SPf) strategy.
(SPf) strat-
egy.
Figure 2. AHU operating
1.2. Minimum statesRate
Zone Airflow and the recommended minimum zone airflow setpoint (SPf) strat-
SetPoint
egy. Guideline 36 does not propose how to reset the minimum airflow rate set point in
zones that are not equipped with CO2 sensors. Since there is no clear guideline on what the
minimum flow rate setpoint should be, the minimum zone airflow rate setpoint is typically
Buildings 2022, 12, 348 4 of 15

set to be 20–30% of the design airflow (referred to, in this study, as the maximum value
of the setpoint SPfmax ). Without the application of a resetting control strategy, the active
minimum airflow rate setpoint (referred to, in this study, as the setpoint for flow SPf) is kept
constant during the operation (SPf = SPfmax ). This research introduces a new strategy to
reset the active minimum airflow rate setpoint (SPf) at every time step (e.g., 5 min) between
the design value (SPfmax ) and the lowest possible value (SPfmin ). The lowest possible value
of the setpoint (SPfmin ) is equal to and greater than the ventilation required in the breathing
zone or minimum airflow required for VAV box control stability.
The recommended set point (SPf) depends on the operating states of the AHU, as
shown in Figure 2. In region 1, the active setpoint (SPf) should be kept at the design
maximum value (SPfmax ), as reducing the setpoint increases the amount of OA required for
ventilation and, consequently, the AHU heating requirement. In region 2, when the SAT
is maintained by modulating the OA damper, the system introduces less than 100% fresh
air, which may be higher than the minimum ventilation requirement, so the supply air is
rich in fresh air, and the setpoint can be reset to lower than the maximum value (SPfmax ).
Ideally, the setpoint can be optimally selected to make the required OA for ventilation near
the OA introduced by the outdoor damper to maintain the SAT at its set point, in which
case, there is no need for mechanical cooling or heating. However, this can be difficult
to apply in real systems. A simple and easy-to-implement resetting strategy is to use the
heating capacity control signal as an indicator to change the set point. Any time the heating
capacity signal (or heating valve position) is higher than zero (or a threshold), the active SPf
should be increased by a certain value (e.g., a = 0.02 or 2% of the design value). Otherwise,
the setpoint decreases by a certain value b (e.g., b = 0.01 or 1%). There is no need to reset
the minimum airflow rate setpoints in zones with airflow rates higher than the SPfmax . Any
zones with airflow rates equal to or lower than the SPfmax are called critical zones, and the
reset takes place only in those zones. In direct-expansion, DX-packaged units, the heating
signal (if furnace or heat-pump) can be used instead. In region 3, the SPf should be kept
at the SPfmin that is equal to the ventilation required in the breathing zone. In region 4,
the SPf should be kept at the SPfmax . Decreasing the setpoint may increase the ventilation
requirement and, consequently, the cooling load.

1.3. Supply Air Temperature Setpoint

The Guideline 36 resetting algorithm resets the SAT setpoint (referred to, in this study,
as the set point for temperature SPt ) linearly between a fixed minimum value SPtmin
(e.g., 55 ◦ F or 13 ◦ C) and an adjusted maximum value SPt*max as a function of outside
air ◦ F temperature (OAT), as shown in Figure 3a. The resetting algorithm is based on a
predefined minimum change-point outside air temperature Tomin (e.g., 55 ◦ F or 13 ◦ C) and
the maximum change-point outside-air temperature Tomax (e.g., 68 ◦ F or 20 ◦ C). The active
maximum value SPt*max is dynamically adjusted using the trim-and-response algorithm
to ensure that the SAT is low enough to meet the required cooling load in the critical
zone (s) by keeping the cooling control signal lower than a predetermined value (e.g., less
than 95%).
Even when it is cold, there may be several zones in cooling, and the SAT resetting
based on OAT proposed by the Guideline may not produce the best performance. Thus,
the proposed strategy uses the zone cooling or heating control loops instead of the OAT to
count the number of zones in cooling or heating at any time. If the zone is in cooling or
deaband, the zone value ZV is assigned to be one; otherwise, it is zero. The SAT resetting
cooling signal RCS is then calculated as follows:
n
RCS = ∑ ai ZVi
i =1

Here, n is the number of zones. The term a is a factor to give a weight for zone i. The
value of ai can be determined from the design airflow rate or actual readings. In this paper,
ai is calculated by the ratio of the design zone airflow rate to the sum of the design zone
 =

Here, n is the number of zones. The term a is a factor to give a weight for zone i. The
Buildings 2022, 12, 348 value of ai can be determined from the design airflow rate or actual readings. In this5 of paper,
15
ai is calculated by the ratio of the design zone airflow rate to the sum of the design zone
airflow rates. The sum of ai should be 1. The RCS should then vary from 0 to 1 (0 to 100%).
Ifairflow
no zones areThe
rates. sum of athe
in cooling, RCS be
i should 1. TheIfRCS
is zero. all zones
shouldare in vary
then cooling,
fromit0becomes
to 1 (0 to 1100%).
(100%).
If no
The SATzones are in
is reset cooling,
based on the RCS is
theRCS, aszero.
shown If all zones are
in Figure 3b.inThe
cooling,
maximumit becomes
value1of(100%).
the SAT
The SATSPt*
setpoint is reset
max is based on the RCS,
dynamically as shown
adjusted using in theFigure
same 3b. The maximum value
trim-and-response of therec-
algorithm
SAT setpoint SPt* is dynamically adjusted using the same trim-and-response
ommended in the Guideline to ensure that the SAT is cold enough to meet the cooling
max algorithm
recommended
load in the Guideline to ensure that the SAT is cold enough to meet the cooling
in critical zone(s).
load in critical zone(s).

Figure
Figure3.3.SAT
SATsetpoint
setpoint (SPt)
(SPt) resetting strategies(a)
resetting strategies (a)Guideline
Guideline3636 and
and (b)(b) recommended.
recommended.

2.2.Simulation
SimulationStudy
Study
To evaluate the proposed strategies, a 5000 ft2 (463.6 m2 ) office building was selected
To evaluate the proposed strategies, a 5000 ft2 (463.6 m2) office building was selected
from EnergyPlus example files. The detailed building description can be found in the
from EnergyPlus example files. The detailed building description can be found in the com-
comment line of the IDF example file of EnergyPlus (5ZoneVAV-Pri-SecLoop) [22]. The
ment line of
building hadthea IDF
100 example
ft × 50 ftfile of m
(30.5 EnergyPlus
× 15.2 m)(5ZoneVAV-Pri-SecLoop)
rectangular shape and five[22]. zones:Thefourbuild-
ing had a 100 ft × 50 ft (30.5 m × 15.2 m) rectangular shape
exterior and one interior. A single-duct VAV box with hot water was used instead of a and five zones: four exterior
and one interior.
fan-powered VAV A box.
single-duct VAV box
Five resetting with hot
strategies werewater was usedand
investigated instead of a fan-pow-
programmed in
ered
the VAV
Energy box. Five resetting
Management strategies
System EMS of were investigated
EnergyPlus. The and programmed
strategies are listedininthe Energy
Table 1.
Management
Strategy S1 was the simplest: it kept the SAT setpoint (SPt) constant at the lowest value of S1
System EMS of EnergyPlus. The strategies are listed in Table 1. Strategy
was ◦ F (13
55.4the ◦ C) to save
simplest: it keptfanthe SATpower.
energy setpoint (SPt) constant
Strategy S2 reset theat SAT
the lowest
setpointvalue
(SPt) of 55.4 °F
linearly as(13
a function of OAT from the minimum ◦ F (13 ◦ C) to the nonadjustable
°C) to save fan energy power. Strategyvalue (SPtthe
S2 reset min )SAT
of 55.4
setpoint (SPt) linearly as a function
oforOAT
fixedfrom
maximum value SPtmax
the minimum value (SPt◦min
of 64.4 ) of◦55.4
F (18 C). Strategy S3 istothe
°F (13 °C) thestrategy recommended
nonadjustable or fixed
in Guideline 36. SPt is reset based on OAT from the minimum value (SPt ) of 55.4 ◦F
maximum value SPtmax of 64.4 °F (18 °C). Strategy S3 is the strategy recommended min in
◦
(13 C) to 36.the SPt
adjustable
Guideline is reset(active)
based maximum
on OAT from valuethe (SPt* max ). Thevalue
minimum maximum (SPtminactive value°Fis(13
) of 55.4
adjusted
°C) to the from 55.4 ◦ F(active)
adjustable (13 ◦ C)maximum
to 64.4 ◦ F (18
value
◦ C) using the trim-and-response algorithm to
(SPt*max). The maximum active value is ad-
ensure there is no cooling control signal in any zone greater than 95%. Strategy S4 is the
justed from 55.4 °F (13 °C) to 64.4 °F (18 °C) using the trim-and-response algorithm to
proposed SAT resetting strategy, as presented in Figure 3b. Strategy S5 is the proposed SAT
ensure there is no cooling control signal in any zone greater than 95%. Strategy S4 is the
strategy, as presented in Figure 3b, but in conjunction with the proposed minimum zone
proposed SAT resetting strategy, as presented in Figure 3b. Strategy S5 is the proposed
airflow rate resetting algorithm presented in Figure 2. For all the strategies that are based
SAT strategy,
on OAT, Tomax aswas
presented
set to be in68 Figure 3b,
◦ F (20 but
◦ C) andin To
conjunction with the proposed
◦ ◦ minimum
min was set to be 50 F (10 C). For all
zone airflow rate resetting algorithm presented in Figure
the strategies, the minimum and maximum SAT setpoints were 55.4 F (13 C) and 64.4 2. For all
◦ the strategies
◦ that◦ Fare
based ◦
(18 C),on respectively.
OAT, Tomax was The set to be 68values
maximum °F (20 of °C)theand Tomin was
minimum zonesetairflow
to be 50rates°F (10(SPf°C).
max )
For
all the strategies,
were set to be 30% the of
minimum
the design and maximum
zone airflow SAT rates.setpoints wereS1–S4,
In strategies 55.4 °Fthe (13minimum
°C) and 64.4
°Fzone
(18 °C), respectively.
airflow rate setpoint TheSPfmaximum valuesatofthe
is kept constant themaximum
minimumvalue zone(SPfairflow
= SPF rates
max ).(SPf
Themax)
were set toOA
required be for
30% of the design
ventilation zone airflow
is calculated basedrates. In strategies
on ASHRAE StandardS1–S4,62.1the minimum
multi-zone zone
VAV
ventilation
airflow rate procedure
setpoint SPf [23].is kept constant at the maximum value (SPf = SPFmax). The re-
quired OA for ventilation is calculated based on ASHRAE Standard 62.1 multi-zone VAV
ventilation procedure [23].
Buildings 2022, 12, 348 6 of 15

Table 1. Investigated resetting strategies.

Strategies Notes (Set Point for Temp.) SPt (Set Point for Flow) SPf
Keep SPt constant at the lowest value to save fan
Strategy I (S1) SPt = 13 ◦ C (55.4 ◦ F) SPf = SPfmax
energy power
Strategy II (S2) Reset SPt based on OAT (but SPtmax = constant) SPt = Vary (see Figure 3a) SPf = SPfmax
Strategy III (S3) The SAT strategy recommended in Guideline 36 SPt = Vary (see Figure 3a) SPf = SPfmax
Strategy IV (S4) Proposed SAT reset SPt = Vary (see Figure 3b) SPf = SPfmax
Strategy V (S5) Proposed (SPt + SPf) reset SPt = Vary (see Figure 3b) SPf = Vary (see Figure 2)

The simulation runs for all five strategies above, in several locations (Chicago, Tampa,
Washington DC, Golden, and San Francisco). However, for discussion, the results for one
day in spring in Chicago and three strategies (S3, S4, and S5) are presented in Figures 4–9.
The SAT and OAT for that day are shown in Figure 4. Figure 5 shows the total zone reheat
requirement (the sum of the reheats in all the zones). Figures 6 and 7 show the mass flow
rate and fan power, respectively. Figures 8 and 9 show the OA introduced to maintain
the SAT at its set point and the required OA for ventilation for only both strategy S4 and
strategy S5, respectively. The required OA for ventilation is calculated based on ASHRAE
standard 62.1. The minimum zone airflow rate setpoint is also illustrated in Figure 9 for
strategy S5. It is constant at 0.3 for other strategies.
Between 7:00 and 9:00, since most zones were heating and the proposed strategies S4
and S5 reset the SAT setpoint based on zone cooling requests, these strategies kept the SAT
at approximately the maximum value of 64.5 ◦ F (18 ◦ C) (see Figure 4). However, S3, which
is based on OAT, reset the SAT setpoint to lower than 64.5 ◦ F (18 ◦ C). In this case, the reheat
requirement for S3 was larger than for S4 and S5 (see Figure 5). The reheat requirement was
reduced further when S5 was applied as the strategy dropped the minimum zone airflow
rate setpoint below the maximum value of 0.3 (30% of design flow) (see Figure 9). Before
8:00, the introduced economizer OA approached the required OA for ventilation and it
no longer maintained the SAT at its set point. The SAT was then controlled by the system
heating coil valve (moving from region 2 to region 1, as shown in Figure 2). As the valve
slightly opened (not shown here), S5 responded by increasing the minimum airflow rate
setpoint gradually over time as long as the heating was activated. After 8:00, S5 dropped
the setpoint back to the minimum value as no heating was needed and the OA introduced
maintained the SAT at its set point (back to region 2).
Between 9:00 and 18:00, all the zones cooled. S4 kept the SAT setpoint at 55.4 ◦ F
(13 C), whereas S3 reset the set point to around 59 ◦ F (15 ◦ C) as it is based on OAT (see
◦

OAT profile in Figure 4). During this period, there were no reheats required in the zones
and the lowering of the SAT by S4 reduced the supply airflow rate and, subsequently,
the fan power, as shown in Figures 6 and 7. S5 did the same as S4, but by dropping the
minimum airflow rate setpoint to the minimum value of 0.1, as 100% OA was introduced,
as shown in Figure 9, and, consequently, S5 further reduced the supply airflow rate and
fan power. Between 18 and 19, S5 kept the minimum airflow rate at around 0.1 and, due to
this low zone airflow rate, the changes to the heating from the cooling in the zones were
delayed compared to S3 and S4, and the SAT setpoint stayed at 55.4 ◦ F (13 ◦ C) for a longer
period, saving fan power with no negative effect on reheating requirement. After 19:00,
as more zones heated, S4 and S5 reset the SAT setpoint gradually to a higher value, even
higher than the value for S3. During this period, the reheat requirement when S4 was
applied was lower than the reheat requirement when S3 was applied. S5 reduced the reheat
requirements and fan power even further. Between 19:00 and 20:00, the 100% OA required
to maintain the SAT at its set point became less than the required OA for ventilation and the
heating coil valve had to open to maintain the SAT. S5 then reset the minimum set point to
a higher value, keeping the introduced OA near the required OA. This result shows that the
proposed S4 reduced the heating requirement and fan power compared to S3. However, S5,
by including the minimum airflow setpoint reset, further reduced the reheat requirement
and the fan power while providing the required OA.
 Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14
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Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14

Buildings 2022, 12, 348 7 of 15

S3. However,
S3. However, S5,
S5, by
by including
including the
the minimum
minimum airflow
airflow setpoint
setpoint reset,
reset, further
furtherreduced
reducedthe
the
S3. However,
reheat S5, byand
requirement including
the fan the minimum
power while airflow setpoint
providing the reset,OA.
required further reduced the
reheat requirement and the fan power while providing the required OA.
reheat requirement and the fan power while providing the required OA.
Supply Air Temperature Set Point and OAT
Supply Air Temperature Set Point and OAT
19
19 Supply Air Temperature Set Point and OAT
19

18
18
18

17
17
17

oC oC oC
16
Temperature
Temperature 16
16
Temperature

15
15
15
14
14
14
13
13
13
12
12 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 0:00
12 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 Hours12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 0:00
1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00Hours 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 0:00
SAT-S3 SAT-S4 SAT-S5 OAT
Hours
SAT-S3 SAT-S4 SAT-S5 OAT
SAT-S3 SAT-S4 SAT-S5 OAT
Figure4.
Figure 4. Supply
Supply air
air temperature
temperature setpoints
setpoints for
for strategies
strategies S3,
S3, S4,
S4, and
and S5.
S5.
Figure 4. Supply air temperature setpoints for strategies S3, S4, and S5.
Figure 4. Supply air temperature setpoints for strategies S3, S4, and S5.
Total Zone Reheat
12000 Total Zone Reheat
12000 Total Zone Reheat
12000

10000
10000
10000

8000
8000
8000
W W
Reheat

6000
Reheat
W

6000
Reheat

6000

4000
4000
4000

2000
2000
2000

0
1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 0:00
0
Hours
0 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 0:00
1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 S311:00 S412:00
Hours S513:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 0:00
Hours
S3 S4 S5
S3 S4 S5
Figure 5. Total zone reheats when the strategies S3, S4, and S5 were applied.
Figure5.5. Totalzone
zone reheatswhen
when the strategies
strategies S3, S4,
S4, and S5
S5 were applied.
applied.
Figure 5. Total
Figure Total zone reheats
reheats when the
the strategies S3,
S3, S4, and
and S5 were
were applied.
Fan Mass Flow Rate
1.2 Fan Mass Flow Rate
1.2 Fan Mass Flow Rate
1.2
1

1
1
0.8

0.8
0.8
Flow kg/s

0.6
kg/skg/s

0.6
Flow

0.6
Flow

0.4

0.4
0.4
0.2

0.2
0.2
0
1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 0:00
0 Hours
0 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 0:00
1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 S3
11:00 S4
Hours S5
12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 0:00
Hours
S3 S4 S5
Figure 6. Fan mass flow rates when the strategies
S3
S3, S4, and S5 were applied. S4 S5

Figure 6. Fan mass flow rates when the strategies S3, S4, and S5 were applied.
Figure 6.
Figure 6. Fan
Fan mass
mass flow
flow rates
rates when
when the
the strategies
strategies S3,
S3, S4,
S4, and
and S5
S5 were
were applied.
applied.
Buildings 2022,12,
Buildings2022, 12,348
x FOR PEER REVIEW 88 of 15
14
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14

Fan Energy
1600 Fan Energy
1600 Fan Energy
1600

1500
1500
1500

1400
1400
1400
W W
Power
1300
Power
W

1300
Fan
Power

1300
FanFan

1200
1200
1200

1100
1100
1100

1000
1000 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 0:00
1000 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 Hours
12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 0:00
1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 Hours
12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 0:00
S3 S4 S5
Hours
S3 S4 S5
S3 S4 S5
Figure7.
Figure 7. Fan
Fan power
power when
when the
the strategies
strategiesS3,
S3,S4,
S4,and
andS5
S5were
wereapplied.
applied.
Figure 7. Fan power when the strategies S3, S4, and S5 were applied.
Figure 7. Fan power when the strategies S3, S4, and S5 were applied.
Outside Air Fraction for Strategy 4 S4
1.2 Outside Air Fraction for Strategy 4 S4
1.2 Outside Air Fraction for Strategy 4 S4
1.2

1
1
1

0.8
0.8
0.8
Fraction

0.6
Fraction

0.6
Fraction

0.6

0.4
0.4
0.4

0.2
0.2
0.2

0
0 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 0:00
0 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 Hours 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 0:00
1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 Hours 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 0:00
Required Outdoor Air Flow Fraction Outdoor Air Flow Fraction
Hours
Required Outdoor Air Flow Fraction Outdoor Air Flow Fraction
Required Outdoor Air Flow Fraction Outdoor Air Flow Fraction
Figure 8. Required and introduced outdoor air fraction when the strategy S4 was applied.
Figure8.8. Required
Figure Requiredand
andintroduced
introducedoutdoor
outdoorair
airfraction
fractionwhen
whenthe
thestrategy
strategyS4
S4was
wasapplied.
applied.
Figure 8. Required and introduced outdoor air fraction when the strategy S4 was applied.
Outside Air Fraction and Min Zone Air Fraction for Strategy 5 S5
1.2 Outside Air Fraction and Min Zone Air Fraction for Strategy 5 S5
1.2 Outside Air Fraction and Min Zone Air Fraction for Strategy 5 S5
1.2

1
1
1

0.8
0.8
0.8
Fraction

0.6
Fraction

0.6
Fraction

0.6

0.4
0.4
0.4

0.2
0.2
0.2

0
0 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 0:00
0 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 Hours
12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 0:00
1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 Hours
12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 0:00
Required Outdoor Air Flow Fraction Outdoor Air Flow Fraction Zone Minimum Air Flow Fraction
Hours
Required Outdoor Air Flow Fraction Outdoor Air Flow Fraction Zone Minimum Air Flow Fraction
Required Outdoor Air Flow Fraction Outdoor Air Flow Fraction Zone Minimum Air Flow Fraction
Figure 9. Required and introduced outdoor air fraction and minimum zone airflow set point when
Figure 9. Required and introduced outdoor air fraction and minimum zone airflow set point when
the strategy
Figure
Figure S5 wasand
9.9.Required
Required applied.
and introducedoutdoor
introduced outdoorair
airfraction
fraction and
and minimum
minimum zone
zone airflow
airflow set
set point
point when
when
the strategy S5 was applied.
the strategy S5 was applied.
the strategy S5 was applied.
Buildings 2022, 12, 348 9 of 15

This section shows the annual results for various locations. Table 2 shows the annual
fan energy consumptions and heating and cooling loads for the baseline, Strategy S3.
Table 3 shows the energy or load change as a percentage of the baseline (Strategy S3). The
change was calculated by subtracting the energy use or load for any investigated strategy
from the baseline divided by the baseline energy use or load. The positive value means
energy use or load saving or reduction from the baseline. The negative value means energy
use or load increase from the baseline.

Table 2. Annual energy fan consumption and loads for baseline (Strategy S3).

System Heating Load Total Heating Load

Location Reheat Load kWh Fan Power kWh Cooling kWh
kWh kWh
Golden, CO 4507.1 1807.3 6314.4 6408.2 17,159.4
San Francisco, CA 2411.6 634.8 3046.4 5105.1 13,118.4
Tampa, FL 2601.1 262.2 2863.3 5207.5 64,568.1
Washington, DC 4190.4 3084.8 7275.2 5159.7 30,432.2
Chicago, IL 5572.7 4572.0 10,144.7 5184.4 24,284.6

As strategy S1 kept the SAT at 55.4 ◦ F (13 ◦ C), the annual fan energy consumption
was lower than the baseline but the reheat and total heating requirements were greater. For
example, in Chicago, the fan power saving (reduction) was +3.7%, and the total heating
increase was −5.8%. S2 performed largely the same as S3 in most locations, except that
in Golden, the heating and cooling loads were reduced by S2. However, S3 ensured there
was no zone starving for airflow in cooling mode. The proposed strategy, S4, significantly
reduced the total heating loads and fan energy consumption in all the locations. For
instance, in Chicago, the total heating load reduction was 4.6%, and the fan energy use
reduction was 2.9% from the baseline, S3. With minimum zone airflow rate reset, S5 can
further reduce total heating requirements and fan energy uses. For instance, in Chicago,
the total heating load reduction was 8.1%, and the fan energy use reduction was 4% from
the baseline, S3. S4 and S5 reduced the cooling loads in some locations but increased the
load in other locations. A large increase occurred in San Francesco, where the cooling load
increased by about −10.6%, as maintaining lower SAT during economizer mode reduces
the number of hours of full free cooling. For instance, if the OAT is around 60.8 ◦ F (16 ◦ C)
and S4 or S5 sets the SAT set point at 55.4 ◦ F (13 ◦ C), the cooling coil should cool the supply
of 100% OA from 60.8 ◦ F (16 ◦ C) to 55.4 ◦ F (13 ◦ C). However, the cooling loads can drop to
near zero if the SAT is set to be 60.8 ◦ F (16 ◦ C). Nevertheless, this increases the fan energy
use, so there is a balance between fan and cooling energy uses. To reduce the cooling load
during economizer mode while increasing the fan power, the proposed strategy S4 or S5
can only be modified by resetting the SAT setpoint linearly as a function of OAT in the
range between 55.4 ◦ F and 62.6 ◦ F (13 ◦ C and 17 ◦ C). Doing this modification, the cooling
coil load will reduce (not increase) by 2.5% and the fan power will reduce by 2% (instead of
the original 5.4%) from the baseline.
Buildings 2022, 12, 348 10 of 15

Table 3. Percentage changes of fan energy consumption and cooling and heating loads from the baseline, Strategy S3 (positive sign is energy or load saving
or reduction).

Reheat System Heating Total Heating Fan Power Cooling

Location
S1 S2 S4 S5 S1 S2 S4 S5 S1 S2 S4 S5 S1 S2 S4 S5 S1 S2 S4 S5
Golden, CO, −47.5% 10.4% −0.9% 8.4% 49.6% 5.2% 7.5% 4.6% 19.7% 5.9% 1.5% 7.3% 4.9% 0.0% 4.1% 5.7% −7.8% 3.5% −2.3% −2.1%
San Francisco, CA, 103.3% 0.0% 12.2% 43.6% 93.5% 0.0% 17.8% 4.3% 2.3% 0.0% 5.9% 33.7% 4.1% 0.2% 3.6% 5.4% 29.6% 0.1% 10.6% 18.1%
Tampa, FL, −28.1% 0.1% 41.9% 68.9% 77.7% 0.2% −5.6% 2.1% 18.4% 0.1% 37.6% 62.4% 0.6% 0.1% 0.2% 1.6% −1.4% 0.0% 5.1% 7.9%
Washington, DC, −47.9% 0.1% 5.4% 15.1% 40.3% 0.9% 7.1% 7.6% 10.5% 0.3% 6.1% 11.9% 3.5% 0.3% 2.7% 4.0% −3.2% 0.0% 3.1% 4.2%
Chicago, IL, −37.3% 0.1% 2.4% 8.8% 32.5% 0.5% 7.3% 7.3% −5.8% 0.2% 4.6% 8.1% 3.7% 0.3% 2.9% 4.0% −4.9% 0.0% 1.8” 2.2%
22, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14

Buildings2022,
Buildings 2022,12,
12,348
x FOR PEER REVIEW 10
11 of 15
14

3. Laboratory Deployment
The Guideline
3. 36 strategy,
3. Laboratory
Laboratory S3, the proposed SAT strategy S4, combined with the pro-
Deployment
Deployment
posed SAT reset andThe minimum zone
Guideline 36 airflow rate reset strategy, S5,strategy
was implemented inwith
a the pro-
The Guideline 36 strategy,
strategy,S3, S3,thetheproposed
proposed SAT
SAT strategyS4, S4,
combined
combined with the
real chilled-water VAV system installed in the HVAC lab at the University
proposed SAT reset and minimum zone airflow rate reset strategy, S5, was implementedinina
posed SAT reset and minimum zone airflow rate reset strategy, of
S5, Cincinnati.
was implemented
Figure 10 shows thechilled-water
areal
real photos of the
chilled-water VAVlaboratory
VAV system and Figure
systeminstalled
installed in
inthe 11HVAC
the showslab
HVAC a simple
lab schematicofofCincinnati.
at the University
the laboratory. It contains
Figure various
Figure 10 shows the types
the photos of
photos of HVAC
ofthe system:
thelaboratory
laboratoryand chilled-water
andFigure andshowsa VAV
Figure1111shows DX simple sys-
a simple schematic
schematicof
tems, four-pipeof fan
thethe coil units,It and
laboratory.
laboratory. variable
contains
It contains variousrefrigerant-flow
varioustypes of HVAC
types of HVAC VRF
system:systems
system: servingand
chilled-water
chilled-water three
DX VAV
and sys-
DX VAV
environmentally tems,
systems, four-pipe
controlledfour-pipe fanfan
zones. coil
Acoil units,
chiller
units, and
andand variable
electric
variable refrigerant-flow
boiler deliver chilled
refrigerant-flow VRF
VRFandsystems
hot wa-
systems serving three
three
environmentally
environmentally controlled
controlled zones.
zones. AA chiller
chiller and
and electric
electric
ter to the chilled water VAV system, fan coil units, and hot-water VAV box reheat coils. boiler
boiler deliver
deliver chilled
chilled andand hot
hot wa-
water
to
The outside air ter the chilled
to the chilled
entering water
the VAV VAV
water system,
VAV system,
systems fan coil units,
fan coil by
is conditioned and
units, hot-water
and hot-water
a dedicated VAV box reheat
VAVlocated
DX coil coils. The
box reheat coils.
outside
The air
outside entering
air the
entering VAV
the systems
VAV is
systemsconditioned
is by
conditioned
on the OA intake (DOA). The systems are controlled by a typical commercial BACnet web- a dedicated
by a DX
dedicated coil located
DX on the
coil located
OA
on intake
the OA (DOA).
intake The systems
(DOA). The are controlled
systems are by a typical
controlled by a commercial
typical BACnet
commercial web-based
BACnet web-
based building automation system BAS. The temperature difference and water flow rates
building automation
based building systemsystem
automation BAS. The BAS.temperature
The temperature difference and water
difference flowflow
and water ratesrates
are
are measured across all fan coil units, reheat coils, and AHU coils.
measured across
are measured all fan
across all coil
fan units, reheat
coil units, coils,coils,
reheat and and
AHUAHU
coils.coils.

Figure 10. Photos ofof

DXDX
andand
chilled-water VAV systems in the HVAC Lab atLab
the at
University of
Figure 10. PhotosFigure and Photos
of DX 10. chilled-water VAVchilled-water VAV
systems in the systems
HVAC Labin
at the
the HVAC
University of the University
Cincinnati.
of Cincinnati.
Cincinnati.

Figure 11. Schematic of HVAC system lab.

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Schematic of Schematic of HVAC
HVAC system lab. system lab.
Multiple tests were initially performed by controlling the OAT entering the unit
through the DOA
Multiple tests at different
were values,
initially rangingbyfrom
performed 45 °F (7.2
controlling the°C) up to
OAT 85 °F (29.4
entering °C),
the unit
Multiple tests wereregions
covering initially1–4,performed
as shown inby controlling
Figure 2. When the
the OAT
economizerentering
was the unit
disabled (region 4),
through the DOA at different values, ranging from 45 ◦ F (7.2 ◦ C) up to 85 ◦ F (29.4 ◦ C),
through the DOA at different
all the strategies values, ranging from 45 °F (7.2 °C) up to 85 °F (29.4 °C),
covering regions performed
1–4, as shown at the
in same
Figurelevel,
2. Whenthe SAT set point was
the economizer at the
was minimum
disabled value
(region 4),
covering regionsof1–4,55 as(12.7
°F shown °C), in Figure
and the 2. When zone
minimum the economizer
airflow rate was
was disabled
at the (regionvalue
maximum 4), (SPfmax).
all the strategies performed at the same level, the SAT set point was at the minimum value
all the strategiesofperformed
When was at
55 ◦ Fit(12.7 ◦toothe
C), same
cold
and level,
outside
the and
minimum theall
SATtheset
zone point
zones
airflow was
were
rate at at
thethe
heating
was minimum
(region
maximum value
1), all the strategies
value (SPfmax ).
of 55 °F (12.7 °C), and
also the
performedminimum zone
similarly, airflow
the SAT rate
set was
point wasat the
at maximum
the maximum
When it was too cold outside and all the zones were heating (region 1), all the value
value (SPf
of 65
max ). strategies
°F (18.3 °C),
When it was too andcold
also theoutside
minimum
performed and all airflow
zone
similarly,thethezones
SATrate were
was
set heating
at
point the at(region
wasmaximum 1), all(SPf
value
the maximum the strategies
value
max ). of
Hence,
65 ◦ Fthis paper
(18.3 ◦ C),
also performedand focuses
similarly, on the
the minimum the SAT
evaluation of the
setairflow
zone point ratestrategies
was at the
was inmaximum
maximum
at the region value
3 value
and of the65transition
(SPf °F
max(18.3 areathis
°C),
). Hence, between
paper
regions 3 and 4. In these regions, the OAT needed
and the minimum zone airflow rate was at the maximum value (SPfmax). Hence, this paper
focuses on the evaluation of the strategies in region to be
3 approximately
and the transition lower
area than 45 °F
between
(7.2 °C) and the DX unit (DOA) could not achieve such
focuses on the evaluation of the strategies in region 3 and the transition area between a low temperature. Therefore, three
regions 3 and 4. In these regions, the OAT needed to be approximately lower than 45 °F
(7.2 °C) and the DX unit (DOA) could not achieve such a low temperature. Therefore, three
Buildings 2022, 12, 348 12 of 15

regions 3 and 4. In these regions, the OAT needed to be approximately lower than 45 ◦ F
(7.2 ◦ C) and the DX unit (DOA) could not achieve such a low temperature. Therefore, three
tests were performed on three different nights from 11 am to 6 am, when the OAT was
somewhat the same, as shown in Figure 12. The OAT sensor was located at the OA intake
and read approximately 44 ± 3 ◦ F (6.6 ± 1.6 ◦ C) during those three tests. The first hour of
the test, as this transition period, was excluded from the analysis. The first test, Test 1, was
when strategy S5 was applied (both proposed SAT and minimum airflow rate resetting
algorithms were included). The second test was when strategy S4 was applied (only the
proposed SAT algorithm was included). The last test was for the baseline strategy S3, when
the Guideline 36 SAT resetting strategy was applied. In Test 2 and Test 3, the minimum
airflow rates are kept constant at 32% (i.e., 160 cfm). The design zone airflow rate for each
VAV box was 500 cfm (236 L/s) and the design minimum zone airflow rate (SPfmax ) was
160 cfm (75.5 L/s). The breathing ventilation per zone was 80 cfm (37.7 L/s). Since the VAV
box was unable to control the zone airflow below 80cfm (37.7 L/s), the minimum setting
value of the minimum zone airflow rate (SPfmin ) was set at 100cfm (47.1 L/s) in Test 3,
which was greater than the minimum ventilation requirement of 80cfm (37.7 L/s). All the
control parameters and programs were kept the same as those installed by the controlling
contractor. The only change was the addition of the strategies investigated in this paper
and a new algorithm to calculate and control the minimum outside air flow rate setpoint,
based on the ASHRAE standard 62 procedure. The fan coil units were used to add heat to
zones representing “artificial” cooling loads at the rates of 5500 btu/h (1612 W), 1000 btu/h
(293 W), and 0 btu/h for zone 1, zone 2, and zone 3 respectively. This was performed
by controlling the hot water flow rate by the pressure-independent control water valve,
and the hot water supply temperature was maintained at 130 ◦ F (54.4 ◦ C). These heats
caused Zone 1 to cool and Zone 3 to heat. Zone 2 swung between cooling and heating,
depending on the resetting strategies applied. The zone heating temperature set point was
72 ◦ F (22.2 ◦ C) and the zone cooling temperature setpoint was 74 ◦ F (23.3 ◦ C).
Figures 12–14 show the experiment results for the three tests. As shown in Figure 13,
strategies S3 and S4 kept the minimum airflow rate set points at 160 cfm (75.5 L/s), whereas
S5 kept them near 100 cfm (47.1 L/s). S5 kept the OA introduced to maintain the SAT at
its setpoint, somewhat similar to the required ventilation achieved by dropping the zone
minimum airflow rate from the maximum value of 160 cfm (75.5 L/s) to 100 cfm (47.1 L/s).
At around 1:30, the AHU heat was activated to maintain the SAT at its setpoint (transient
from region 3 to region 4), and S5 increased the minimum set point incrementally by 10 cfm
(4.7 L/s) every 5 min. When there was no heating required at the system level and the SAT
could be maintained by OA (region 3), S5 reduced the minimum set point incrementally by
5 cfm (2.4 L/s).
In Test 1, as two zones (Zone 1 and 2) were cooling, S5 set the SAT setpoint at around
58 ◦ F (14.4 ◦ C). However, in Test 2, S4 maintained the SAT set point at around 62 ◦ F (16.6 ◦ C)
as there was only one zone (Zone 1) cooling. The minimum airflow rate in Zone 2 was
160 cfm (75.5 L/s) in S4 (instead of 100 cfm in S5), this high flow caused Zone 2 to heat
(more cold air supplied to the zone). S3 kept the SAT set point at around 64 ◦ F (17.7 ◦ C) as
the OAT was around 45 ◦ F (7.2 ◦ C). As S4 kept the SAT colder than the SAT for S3, the fan
airflow and power for S4 were lower than for S3. S5 further reduced the fan power due to
two reasons: (1) the colder supply air that met the load in Zone 1 and (2) the lower zone
airflow rates in Zone 2 and Zone 3 (100 cfm instead of 160 cfm). Comparing S5 with S4, a
large reheat saving was obtained by S5 due to the lower minimum airflow rate. No reheat
was required by S3 as this strategy kept the SAT at an elevated set point of 64 ◦ F (17.7 ◦ C)
but the system heating increased. Indeed, in this case, the heating shifted from the reheat
coil to the AHU coil. As a result, S5 required much less fan power and reheated. In another
scenario, which is not presented here, in cases in which all the zones are heating, S5 will
maintain the SAT at the maximum value of 65 ◦ F (18.3 ◦ C), whereas S3 may, or may not,
maintain the SAT at the maximum value, which depends on the OAT. This may occur in
the early morning in spring or fall, when the zones heat and the OAT rises very quickly, so
 Buildings 2022, 12, 348 13 of 15

Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 14

Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 14
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
that S3 may not maintain the SAT at the maximum value (see Figure 4, between 12 of 14
8:00–9:00
in the simulation section).
An
Anadditional
additionalresult
resultthat
thatisisnot
notpresented
presented in in
thisthis
paper is the
paper casecase
is the in region 2, in which
in region 2, in
An additional result that is not presented in this paper is the case in region 2, in which
which
the Anthe
AHU AHU heating
heating
additional was was
never
result never
thatactivated, activated,
and the
is not presented and
in thepaper
recommended
recommended
this case strategy
is thestrategy S5
S5 always
in region 2, always
main-
in which
the AHU heating was never activated, and thethe
recommended strategy S5 always main-
the AHU heating was never activated, and the recommended strategy S5 always L/s)
maintained
tained the the
minimumminimum
zone zone
airflow airflow
rate rate
at the at
minimum minimum
value value
of of
100cfm 100 cfm
(47.1 (47.1
L/s) and the
main-
tained
and thethe
SATminimum
at around zone
55 ◦airflow
F (12.7 ◦rate
C) at
when the
allminimum
the coolingvalue
zonesof 100cfm
and large(47.1
fan L/s)
and and
reheatthe
SAT at around 55 °F (12.7 °C) when all the cooling zones and large fan
tained the minimum zone airflow rate at the minimum value of 100cfm (47.1 L/s) and the and reheat savings
SAT at
savings around 55 °F (12.7
were consequently °C) when
achieved. all the cooling zones and large fan and reheat savings
were
SAT consequently
at around 55 °Fachieved.
(12.7 °C) when all the cooling zones and large fan and reheat savings
were consequently achieved.
were consequently achieved.
70
70 Test 1: Strategy S5 Test 2: Strategy S4 Test 3: Strategy S3
65 Test 3: Strategy S3
70 Test 1: Strategy S5 Test 2: Strategy S4
65
60 Test 1: Strategy S5 Test 2: Strategy S4 Test 3: Strategy S3
65
60
oF oF oF

55
Temperature

60
55
Temperature

50
55
Temperature

50
45
50
45
40
45
40
35
40
35
30
35
0:000:000:00
0:150:150:15
0:300:300:30
0:450:450:45
1:001:001:00
1:151:151:15
1:301:301:30
1:451:451:45
2:002:002:00
2:152:152:15
2:302:302:30
2:452:452:45
3:003:003:00
3:153:153:15
3:303:303:30
3:453:453:45
4:004:004:00
4:154:154:15
4:304:304:30
4:454:454:45
5:005:005:00
5:155:155:15
5:305:305:30
5:455:455:45
0:000:000:00
0:150:150:15
0:300:300:30
0:450:450:45
1:001:001:00
1:151:151:15
1:301:301:30
1:451:451:45
2:002:002:00
2:152:152:15
2:302:302:30
2:452:452:45
3:003:003:00
3:153:153:15
3:303:303:30
3:453:453:45
4:004:004:00
4:154:154:15
4:304:304:30
4:454:454:45
5:005:005:00
5:155:155:15
5:305:305:30
5:455:455:45
0:000:000:00
0:150:150:15
0:300:300:30
0:450:450:45
1:001:001:00
1:151:151:15
1:301:301:30
1:451:451:45
2:002:002:00
2:152:152:15
2:302:302:30
2:452:452:45
3:003:003:00
3:153:153:15
3:303:303:30
3:453:453:45
4:004:004:00
4:154:154:15
4:304:304:30
4:454:454:45
5:005:005:00
5:155:155:15
5:305:305:30
5:455:455:45
6:006:006:00
30
30 Hours
Hours
Discharge Air Temperature Setpoint (°F) Discharge
HoursAir Temperature (°F) Outside Air Temp (°F)
Discharge Air Temperature Setpoint (°F) Discharge Air Temperature (°F) Outside Air Temp (°F)
Discharge Air Temperature Setpoint (°F) Discharge Air Temperature (°F) Outside Air Temp (°F)
Figure
Figure12.
12.OAT
OAT and
and SAT when various
SAT when various strategieswere
were applied.
Figure 12. OAT and SAT when variousstrategies
strategies wereapplied.
applied.
Figure 12. OAT and SAT when various strategies were applied.
900
900 Test 1: Strategy S5 Test 2: Strategy S4 Test 3: Strategy S3
800
900 Test 1: Strategy S5 Test 2: Strategy S4 Test 3: Strategy S3
800
700 Test 1: Strategy S5 Test 3: Strategy S3
800
Test 2: Strategy S4
700
600
CFMCFM

700
600
500
Flow

600
500
CFM

400
AIr Flow
AIr

500
400
AIr Flow

300
400
300
200
300
200
100
200
100
0
0:000:000:00
0:150:150:15
0:300:300:30
0:450:450:45
1:001:001:00
1:151:151:15
1:301:301:30
1:451:451:45
2:002:002:00
2:152:152:15
2:302:302:30
2:452:452:45
3:003:003:00
3:153:153:15
3:303:303:30
3:453:453:45
4:004:004:00
4:154:154:15
4:304:304:30
4:454:454:45
5:005:005:00
5:155:155:15
5:305:305:30
5:455:455:45
0:000:000:00
0:150:150:15
0:300:300:30
0:450:450:45
1:001:001:00
1:151:151:15
1:301:301:30
1:451:451:45
2:002:002:00
2:152:152:15
2:302:302:30
2:452:452:45
3:003:003:00
3:153:153:15
3:303:303:30
3:453:453:45
4:004:004:00
4:154:154:15
4:304:304:30
4:454:454:45
5:005:005:00
5:155:155:15
5:305:305:30
5:455:455:45
0:000:000:00
0:150:150:15
0:300:300:30
0:450:450:45
1:001:001:00
1:151:151:15
1:301:301:30
1:451:451:45
2:002:002:00
2:152:152:15
2:302:302:30
2:452:452:45
3:003:003:00
3:153:153:15
3:303:303:30
3:453:453:45
4:004:004:00
4:154:154:15
4:304:304:30
4:454:454:45
5:005:005:00
5:155:155:15
5:305:305:30
5:455:455:45
6:006:006:00
100
0
0 Hours
Hours
Outdoor Air Flow Local (cfm) Supply Fan Air Flow (cfm) Air Flow Setpoint Minimum (cfm)
Hours
Outdoor Air Flow Local (cfm) Supply Fan Air Flow (cfm) Air Flow Setpoint Minimum (cfm)
Outdoor Air Flow Local (cfm) Supply Fan Air Flow (cfm) Air Flow Setpoint Minimum (cfm)
Figure 13. OA and supply airflow rates when various strategies were applied.
Figure
Figure13.
13.OA
OAand
and supply
supply airflow rates when
airflow rates when variousstrategies
strategies wereapplied.
applied.
Figure 13. OA and supply airflow rates when various
various strategieswere
were applied.
1200 0.40000
1200 0.40000
Test 1: Strategy S5 Test 2: Strategy S4 Test 3: Strategy S3 0.35000
1000
1200 Test 3: Strategy S3 0.40000
Test 1: Strategy S5 Test 2: Strategy S4 0.35000
1000 0.30000
Test 1: Strategy S5 Test 2: Strategy S4 Test 3: Strategy S3 0.35000
800
1000 0.30000
kW kW

0.25000
Btu/hr

800 0.30000
Power

0.25000
Btu/hr

600
800 0.20000
Power
kW

0.25000
Load
Btu/hr

600 0.20000
Fan
Power

0.15000
LoadLoad

400
600 0.20000
Fan Fan

0.15000
400 0.10000
0.15000
200
400 0.10000
0.05000
200 0.10000
0.05000
0
200 0.00000
0.05000
0:000:000:00
0:150:150:15
0:300:300:30
0:450:450:45
1:001:001:00
1:151:151:15
1:301:301:30
1:451:451:45
2:002:002:00
2:152:152:15
2:302:302:30
2:452:452:45
3:003:003:00
3:153:153:15
3:303:303:30
3:453:453:45
4:004:004:00
4:154:154:15
4:304:304:30
4:454:454:45
5:005:005:00
5:155:155:15
5:305:305:30
5:455:455:45
0:000:000:00
0:150:150:15
0:300:300:30
0:450:450:45
1:001:001:00
1:151:151:15
1:301:301:30
1:451:451:45
2:002:002:00
2:152:152:15
2:302:302:30
2:452:452:45
3:003:003:00
3:153:153:15
3:303:303:30
3:453:453:45
4:004:004:00
4:154:154:15
4:304:304:30
4:454:454:45
5:005:005:00
5:155:155:15
5:305:305:30
5:455:455:45
0:000:000:00
0:150:150:15
0:300:300:30
0:450:450:45
1:001:001:00
1:151:151:15
1:301:301:30
1:451:451:45
2:002:002:00
2:152:152:15
2:302:302:30
2:452:452:45
3:003:003:00
3:153:153:15
3:303:303:30
3:453:453:45
4:004:004:00
4:154:154:15
4:304:304:30
4:454:454:45
5:005:005:00
5:155:155:15
5:305:305:30
5:455:455:45
6:006:006:00

0 0.00000
0 Hours 0.00000
Hours
AHU Heat (BTU/h) Zone 3 VAV Box Reheat (BTU/h) Fan Power (kW)
Hours
AHU Heat (BTU/h) Zone 3 VAV Box Reheat (BTU/h) Fan Power (kW)
AHU Heat (BTU/h) Zone 3 VAV Box Reheat (BTU/h) Fan Power (kW)
Figure 14. Heating loads and fan power when various strategies were applied.
Figure 14. Heating loads and fan power when various strategies were applied.
Figure
Figure14.
14.Heating
Heating loads
loads and
and fan power when
fan power when various
variousstrategies
strategieswere
wereapplied.
applied.
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
4.4.Conclusions
Conclusions
Integrated SAT and minimum airflow rate resetting strategies are introduced in this
Integrated SAT and minimum airflow rate resetting strategies are introduced in this
Integrated
paperIntegrated
in order to SAT
SAT and minimum
achieve
and minimum
better energyairflow rate
rateresetting
efficiency
airflow strategies
in buildings.
resetting Theare
strategies introduced
SAT
are strategy in
introduced inthis
uses an
this
paper
paper in
inorder
order totoachieve
achieve better
better energy
energy efficiency
efficiency ininbuildings.
buildings. The
The SAT
SAT strategy
strategy uses
uses an
algorithm to count the number of zones in the process of cooling or
paper in order to achieve better energy efficiency in buildings. The SAT strategy uses anheating and uses this
algorithm
an algorithm to count the
to count number
the numberof zones in
of zones the
inonprocess
the of
process cooling
of or
cooling heating
or heatingand uses
and this
count to reset
algorithm the
to count SAT
theinstead
number ofofrelying
zones only
in the the
processOAT. This
of coolingmethod can create
or heating and a uses
uses better
this
count
this to reset
count to the
resetSAT
the instead
SAT of relying
instead of only on
relying theon
only OAT.
the This
OAT. method
This can create
method can a better
create
balance
count to between
reset the fan
SATpower
insteadand heatingonly
of relying requirement,
on the OAT. compared to the
This method canstrategy
create arecom-
better
balance
a better between
balance fan power
between fanand
powerheating requirement,
andairflow
heating compared
requirement, to the to
compared strategy
the recom-
strategy
mended
balance in Guideline
between 36. The
fan power minimum
and heating resetting
requirement, strategy
compared takes
to thethe AHU’s
strategy oper-
recom-
mended
recommendedin Guideline
in 36.
Guideline The minimum
36. Theinto
minimumairflow resetting
airflow strategy takes
resetting strategy the AHU’s
takes the AHU’soper-
ating states and heating coil signal account and determines the
mended in Guideline 36. The minimum airflow resetting strategy takes the AHU’s oper- minimum airflow rate
ating states and heating coil signal into account and determines the minimum airflow rate
setpoint
ating statesaccordingly.
and heating Bothcoilstrategies
signal intowere evaluated
account in simulation
and determines and laboratory
the minimum airflowenvi-
rate
setpoint accordingly. Both strategies were evaluated in simulation and laboratory envi-
ronments. The simulations
setpoint accordingly. were performed
Both strategies on an office
were evaluated building using
in simulation and EnergyPlus
laboratory envi-soft-
ronments. The simulations were performed on an office building using EnergyPlus soft-
ware; the strategies
ronments. were programmed
The simulations were performed in theonEMSan of the software.
office The simulation
building using EnergyPlus results
soft-
ware; the strategies were programmed in the EMS of the software. The simulation results
show
ware; that if both proposed
the strategies strategies areinimplemented
were programmed the EMS of the instead of theThe
software. onesimulation
in the Guideline,
results
show that if both proposed strategies are implemented instead of the one in the Guideline,
Buildings 2022, 12, 348 14 of 15

operating states and heating coil signal into account and determines the minimum airflow
rate setpoint accordingly. Both strategies were evaluated in simulation and laboratory
environments. The simulations were performed on an office building using EnergyPlus
software; the strategies were programmed in the EMS of the software. The simulation
results show that if both proposed strategies are implemented instead of the one in the
Guideline, the fan energy savings are between 1.6% and 5.7%, and the heating load savings
are 7.7% to 33.7%, depending on the locations. A cooling load saving can also be achieved,
but this depends strongly on the location and the number of hours the system operates in
free cooling mode. However, the cooling load can be reduced even in such a location by
adjusting the proposed SAT algorithm to reset the SAT as a function of OAT only when
the OAT is within the range of 55.4 ◦ F to 62.6 ◦ F (13 ◦ C and 17 ◦ C). The laboratory testing
was performed in a full-scale chilled-water VAV system instrumented and controlled by
a commercial BAS. The lab testing showed that the proposed strategies provide stable
control performance in an actual system. The experiments also validate the results from the
simulation and show reduced reheat requirements and fan energy savings. The proposed
integrated SAT reset and minimum airflow rate control strategy show significant energy
consumption. Therefore, they can be added and implemented as a part of the Guideline for
better VAV system control.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, N.N., M.T. and I.R.; methodology, N.N. and M.T.; soft-
ware, N.N.; validation, N.N., M.T., I.R. and P.E.; formal analysis, N.N., M.T. and I.R.; investigation,
N.N.; data curation, N.N., M.T. and I.R.; writing—original draft preparation, N.N., M.T. and I.R.;
writing—review and editing, N.N., M.T., I.R. and P.E.; visualization, N.N. and M.T., I.R. and P.E.;
su-pervision, N.N.; project administration, N.N. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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