Purposive Communication
- Ethos – source credibility
Midterm
Topic 1: Communication
History of Communication
 Etymology – development of the word through
history, origin of word.
 The word communication started to the Latin
words:
- Communis (Latin)
- Communico (Latin)
- Communicatio (Latin)
- Communicacion (Old French)
- Communication (English)
 The use of human voice – early people imitate
what they hear. They imitate sounds
(onomatopoeia)
 Time of carving – they use caves to provide
information and signs that those are their
territories.
 Petroglyphs – carving in the rock surface. The
use of mnemonics – the process of giving signs.
 Pictograms – a graphic symbol that conveys its
meaning through its pictorial resemblance to a
physical object.
 Ideograms – a graphic symbol that represents an
idea or concept, independent of any particular
language, and specific words or phrases.
 Entrance of writing – Ancient World
Civilization: Iraq, China, Persia, Assyria, Rome,
and Egypt.
 Papyrus – parchment paper. Introduced by
Chinese because they are known merchants.
Known in Egypt because they can afford it.
 Printing Press (1476) – William Caxton
(England) made printing press. He thought to be
the first person to introduce a printing press in
England.
 First Newspaper – England 1641. The first
weekly English newsbooks appeared in
November 1641, on the eve of civil war.
 Alexander Grahambell – Invented the telephone
in 1876. Father of communication.
Models of Communication
 Refers to the conceptual model used to explain
the human communication process.
Aristotle Model of Communication
 The first communication model attributed.
 Key points:
- Pathos – understanding audiences
- Logos – pertain to message, design,
and strategy
 This model is more focused on public speaking
than interpersonal communication.
 The sender is an active participant and the
receiver is passive.
 This concept is used in public speaking,
seminars, and lecture.
 5 basic components: speaker, speech, audience,
effect, and occasion.
Shannon – Weaver Model of Communication
 In 1948, Shannon was an American
mathematician, Electronic engineer and Weaver
was an American scientist and both of them
wrote an article, “Bell System Technical
Journal” called “A Mathematical Theory of
Communication” also called as “Shannon-
Weaver Model of Communication.”
 This model is more technological than other
linear models.
 Concepts:
- Sender – the originator of the
message.
- Encoder – the transmitter which
converts the message
- Channel – the medium
- Decoder – the receiver
- Receiver –the destination the
person who gets the message or the
place where the message should
reach.
- Noise – physical disturbance.
Osgood – Schramm Model of Communication
 This model was presented by Osgood and
Schramm in 1954.
 This model was presented by Wilbur Schramm
and adopted from the theories of another
scientist, Osgood, thus calling it Osgood-
Schramm.
 That communication is circular, not linear. The
listener can both receive and send messages.
 The communication is usually equal and
reciprocal.
 The message requires interpretation.
 Three steps – encoding, decoding, and
interpreting the message.
 Encoding: The method to convert the message
into communication syllables like picture, word,
gestures, etc.
 Media: The trail along which the encoded
message is transmitted to the receiver. The
channel could be written, face-to-face, calls or
any suitable manner.
 Decoding: The opposite of the encoding process,
the conversion of the encoded syllables is done
by the receiver.
 Receiver: The last person in the chain who
finally receives the message from the sender and
takes an action as per requirement.
 Feedback: It cumulatively involves all the
actions of the receiver indicating that he received
and understood the message by senders.
 Noise: The obstruction or hindrance in the entire
process in the communication. This hindrance
might be caused by the sender, receiver, or the
message.

Types of Communication

 Verbal communication – compromised of

sounds, words, and language which has a direct
relationship with culture. Language is the most
important tool of verbal communication.
 Two types:
Process of Communication
- Oral communication: spoken words
are used.
Sender encoding Advantages:
Feedback
Channel Message Facial expression
noise Real time clarification
Suitable for private convo
barriers
Words are easily expressed
Feedback Channel Disadvantages:
Cannot be revised.
decoding Receiver - Written Communication: written
words, signs, or symbols are used
to communicate.
Advantages:
Can be revised
Elements of Communication Has backup
 Communication is an entire process. It also has Disadvantages:
its elements. No immediate feedback
Time consuming
 Senders: means a person who initiates the
communication and conveys its ideas to the  Nonverbal Communication – refers to those
receiver. It is the source of the process. actions and attributes that have socially shared
meaning, are intentionally sent or interpreted as
 Message: The content, ideas, emotions,
intentional, are consciously sent or
suggestions, order all fall under this element of
unconsciously received, and have the potential
communication.
for feedback from the receiver.
 - Appearance: the speaker neatness,
costume, surroundings, conducive
- Body language: facial expression,
gestures, purposive movements,
posture, manner of bearing the
body
- Paralinguistic: nonverbal elements
of speech
- Proxemics: Space and distance
- Eye Gaze
- Haptics: sense of touch
- Artifacts
Levels of Communication
 Intrapersonal Communication – communication
that occurs in your own mind.
 Interpersonal Communication – communication
between two people but can involve more
informal conversation.
 Small Group Communication – communication
within formal or informal groups or teams
 One-to-group Communication – involves a
speaker who seeks to inform, persuade, or
motivate an audience.
 Mass Communication – electronic or print
transmission of messages to the general public.
Principles of Communication
 Validated guidelines, base line, yard sticks
 Principles consist of the validated guidelines that
are used in performing different tasks.
 Guides in forming message, its style and
importance so that it becomes more effective for
the target audience.
The 7Cs of Communication
 Conciseness – conciseness in communication
means that one should stick to the point and
keep it brief. Avoid filler words.
 Courtesy – involves being aware not only of the
perspective of others, but also their feelings.
Courtesy stems from a simple “You” attitude.
 Correctness – the core of correctness is proper
grammar, punctuation, and spelling.
 Clarity – message being conveyed must be clear.
Getting the meaning from your head to the head
of your reader.
 Completeness – the message is complete when it
contains all the facts the reader or listener needs
for the reaction you desire.
 Coherence – communication should be both
consistent and logical. All terms of the message
should be interconnected and relevant to the
message being conveyed.
 Concreteness – being specific, definite and vivid
rather than vague and general or unclear in
conveying the message.
Barriers of Communication
 Noise is interference with the decoding of
messages sent over a channel by an encoder.
 Environmental noise or physical barrier –
physically disrupts communication
 Physiological-impairment noise – physical
maladies that prevent effective communication
 Semantic noise – different interpretation of the
meanings of certain words.
 Organizational noise – bad stated directions
 Cultural noise – stereotypical assumptions can
cause misunderstandings
 Psychological noise – certain attitudes can also
make communication difficult (emotional)
 Language barrier
 Interpersonal barrier – blocking the people with
what they are saying.
Purpose of Communication
 For instruction – The instructive function
unvarying and importantly deals with the
commanding nature. It is more or less of
directive in nature.
 For integration – It is consolidated function
under which integration of activities is
endeavored. Its function of communication
mainly involves to bring about inter-relationship
among the various functions of the business
organization. It helps in the unification of
different management functions.
 For information – The purposes or function of
communication in an organization is to inform
the individual or group about the particular task
or company policies and procedures, etc.
Information can flow vertically, horizontally, and
diagonally across the organization. Being
informed or inform others is the main purpose of
communication.
 For evaluation – Examination of activities to
form an idea or judgement of the worth of task is
achieved through communication.
  For direction – Communication is necessary to
issue directions by the top management or
manager to the lower level. Directing others may
be communicated either orally or in writing.
 For teaching – The importance of personal safety
on the job has been generally recognized. A
complete communication process is required to
teach and educate workers about personal safety
on the jobs.
 For influencing – A complete communication
process is necessary in influencing others or
being influenced. The individual having potential
to influence others can easily persuade others. It
implies the provision of feedback which tells the
effect of communication.
 For image building – A business enterprise
cannot isolate from the rest of the society. There
is interrelationship and interdependence between
the society and an enterprise operating in society.
Through an effective external communication
system, an enterprise has to inform the society
about its goals, activities, progress, and social
responsibility.
 For employees’ orientation – When a new
employee enters into the organization, at that
time he or she will be unknown to the
organization programs, policies, culture, etc.
Communication helps to make people acquainted
with the co-employees, superior, and with the
policies, objectives, rules regulations of the
organization.
 Other – Effective decision-making is possible
when required and adequate information is
supplied to the decision-maker. Effective
communication helps the process of decision
making.
Communication in a Multicultural Society and the World
Understanding Globalization
 Globalization
- Process of world shrinkage, of
distance, getting closer, things
moving closer. – Thomas Larson
- Borderless world. – Ohmae
- Internationalizing of production,
labor, state, movements, and
competitiveness. – Robert Cox
- Growing multidirectional flows of
people, objects, places, and
information as well as structures
and barriers to, or expedite these
flows. – Ritzer
- Increasing economic, political, and
cultural integration and
interdependence of diverse
cultures.
 Diversity – The recognition and valuing of
difference.
 Glocalization – How globalization affects and
merges with local interests and environments.
 Multiculturalists – Persons respectful of and
engaged with people from distinctly different
cultures.
Cultural diversity makes communication difficult and
may lead to:
 Stereotyping and Prejudice – is the process of
creating a picture of a whole culture.
Overgeneralizing all people belonging to the
same culture.
 Ethnocentrism – the process of dividing cultures
as “us” vs “them.”
 Racism – prejudice, discrimination, or
antagonism directed against a person or people
on the basis of their membership of a particular
racial or ethnic group, typically one that is a
minority or marginalized.
 Xenophobia – dislike of or prejudice against
people from other countries.
 Cultural Appropriation – the adoption of an
element/s of one culture by a member of another
culture that can be controversial when used
inappropriately.
Other factors that affect communication:
 Gender roles
 Age and Generational Differences
 Racial and Ethnic Identity
 Religious Identity
 Socioeconomic Identity
Few example of cultural ignorance on communication:
 Showing the sole of your shoes is insulting in
Muslim countries.
 Crossing your legs is insulting to Koreans.
 It is impolite to blink while talking with a
Taiwanese.
 Slurping when eating noodles is acceptable in
Japan.
 It is disrespectful to touch someone’s head or
hair in Thailand.
 Intercultural Communication – a discipline that
studies communication across different cultures
and social groups. It seeks to understand how
people from different countries and cultures act,
communicate, and perceive the world around
them.
 Interracial Communication – The interpreting
and sharing of meanings with individuals from
different races.
 Interethnic Communication – Interaction with
individuals of different ethnic origins.
 International Communication – Communication
between persons representing different nations.
 Intracultural Communication – Interaction with
members of the same racial or ethnic group or
co-culture as yours.
 Culture – A system of knowledge, beliefs,
values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts that are
acquired, shared, and used by members during
their daily living.
 Co-cultures – Groups of persons who differ in
some ethnic or sociological way from the parent
culture.
 Assimilation – The means by which co-culture
members attempt to fit in with members of the
dominant culture.
 Accommodation – The means by which co-
culture members maintain their cultural identity
while striving to establish relationships with
members of the dominant culture.
 Separation – The means co-culture members use
to resist interacting with members of the
dominant culture.
 Ethnocentrism – The tendency to see one’s own
culture as superior to all others.
 Cultural Relativism – The acceptance of other
cultural groups as equal in value to one’s own.
 Stereotypes – Mental images or pictures that
guide our reactions to others.
 Prejudice – A positive or negative prejudgment
 Melting-pot Philosophy – The view that different
cultures should be assimilated into the dominant
cultures.
 High-Power-Distance Cultures – Cultures based
on power differences in which subordinates defer
to superiors.
 Low-Power-Distance Cultures – Cultures that
believe that power should be used only when
legitimate.
 Masculine Cultures – Cultures that value
aggressiveness, strength, and material symbol of
success.
 Feminine Cultures – Cultures that value
tenderness and relationships.
 Culturally Confused – Lacking an understanding
of cultural difference.
 Cultural Imperialism – The expansion of
dominion of one culture over another.
 Virtual Neighbors and Communities – Online,
surrogate communities.
 Digital Divide – Information gap
Characteristics of Cross-Culture
 Context – some societies, known as high-context
societies (Samovar & Porter, 2004), place a
great deal of emphasis on the total environment
or context where speech and interaction take
place. Everything is connected to the
background context of relationships and other
personal contexts of status, influence, and
personal knowledge.
 Collectivism/Individualism
- Collectivist societies place greater
emphasis on the whole group,
stressing common concerns and the
value of acting not merely for
oneself but for the common good.
- In individualistic societies, personal
achievement is lauded and
reinforced through conversations
with others.
 Time
- Monochromatic Societies: (US,
UK, and Germany) If you think of
time as a straight line from
 beginning to end; where people do
one thing at a time or multitask
only because it helps them work
toward particular goals with tasks
in sequence and communications
fitting into a particular order.
People with monochromatic view
of time will usually arrive at an
appointment a few minutes early as
a symbol of respect for the person
they are meeting. A monochromatic
society places emphasis on speed
and punctuality plus the rapid and
efficient accomplishment of tasks.
- Polychromic Societies:
(Mediterranean and Arad) If you
think of time as a rotation of the
season or something more open-
ended; where independent and
unconnected tasks can be done
simultaneously. People in this
culture do not hold time in the same
reverence; this culture instead has a
much more relaxed attitude toward
time. “Promptness” is not
particularly important, and as long
as the person shows up sometime
during the right day, that will count
as doing what was required.
Polychromic society places more
emphasis on the relationships
between people than on the task.
 Conflict
- Conflict-as-opportunity cultures
tend to be individualist.
Conflict Management
Members of these cultures view
conflict as a normal and useful
process, and an inherent part of
everyday life.
United States is a sample of
conflict-as-opportunity because of
the following assumptions:
Conflict is a normal, useful
process;
All issues are subject to change
through negotiation;
Direct confrontation and
conciliation are valued;
Conflict is necessary
renegotiation of an implied
contract – a redistribution of
opportunity, release of
tensions, and renewal of
relationships.
- Conflict-as-destructive cultures
tend to be collectivist.
Members of these cultures do not
view conflict as a natural part of
everyday experience but rather as
unnecessary, detrimental, and to be
avoided.
Asian cultures are samples of
conflict-as-destructive.
Religious groups also view as
conflict destructive.
- Conflict-as-opportunity cultures
tend to be collectivist.
Members do not view individual
needs and desires as more
important than group needs and
established norms.
Members consider confrontations
useless and harmful to relationships
and the group as a whole.
According to Martin and
Nakayama (2007), these are the
following assumptions:
Conflict is a destructive
disturbance of the peace;
The social system should not
be adjusted to meet the needs
of members; rather members
should adapt to established
values;
Confrontations are destructive
and ineffective;
Disputants should be
disciplined.
 Dominating Styles – involves forcing one’s will
on another to satisfy individual desires regardless
of negative relationship consequences.
 Integrating Styles – necessitate a great deal of
open discussion about the conflict at hand to
reach a solution that completely satisfies
everyone involved.
 Compromising Styles – are often confused with
integrating styles because a solution is reached
following a discussion of the conflict. However,
making a compromising demands that everyone
must give something up to reach a solution, and
as a result, people never feel fully satisfied.
 Obliging Styles – involve giving up one’s
position to satisfy another’s. This style generally
emphasizes areas of agreement and
deemphasizes areas of disagreement.
 Avoiding Styles – people avoid conflict entirely
either by failing to acknowledge its existence or
by withdrawing from a situation when it comes.
Fundamentals of Ethical Communication
 Perhaps the main principle of ethical
communication is honesty, as other factors
stem from this core values of presenting
information in the most reliable and factual
way possible.
 The honesty principle of ethical
communication is linked inexorably to other
core principles – consistency and
responsibility.
 Ethical communication also assumes that
communicated information is always
presented (and received by the listener)
according to one’s subjective perception,
even if only in the most minimal way, and
thus the goal of ethical communication is to
be as objective as possible when
communicating with others and to ensure
that every recipient receives the same
message.
 Openness and Transparency
- Truthfulness and honesty are the
core principles of ethical
communication. This means that
speaking 99 percent of the truth in a
matter – while leaving out one
percent of the facts – is not ethical
communication, as omitting any
detail (intentionally) changes the
way that a listener will perceive an
event.
- Being honest is linked to one’s
personal and professional
trustworthiness and integrity.
- One of the primary goals of ethical
communication is to prevent any
misunderstandings or instances or
miscommunication.
 Consideration for Any Potential Roadblocks
- If there is known roadblocks, then
ethical communication principles
dictate that the
speaker/communicator utilize
whatever means possible to
mitigate or attenuate the roadblocks
and ensure that the recipients of the
information are able to fully
understand what is being
communicated.
- Language use: Ethical
communication dictates that
speaker utilize the language that
listeners understand.
- Jargon: Every industry has its own
jargon. When speaking to a
layperson, it is ethical to speak with
simple, easy-to-understand words,
avoiding the use of heavy jargons.
- Language Fluency: Ethical
communication considers the level
of fluency as well as the language
spoken by listeners so that
recipients of the communication
(whether it be spoken or written)
are able to fully understand what is
being communicated.
 Accessibility to Technology – In this information
and digital age, some take accessibility to
advanced technology for granted.
 Development of Relationship – the art of
communication allows people to express
themselves in order to develop relationships.
Principles of Ethical Communication
 Emotional intelligence/empathy – the precursor
of all soft skills, which allows all personnel to be
understood, and to effectively communicate with
others.
 Emotional intelligence, within the framework of
ethical communication, allows one to understand
the needs of others, and meet those needs in the
most efficient manner possible as if you were in
their shoes.
 Be truthful and honest: Being honest means
communicating what is known to be true (only
100 percent the facts) to a listener, with no intent
to deceive or present only parts of the truth. It
also means being as objective as possible, that is,
not tailoring the story based on what the speaker
wants the listener to believe. Ethical
communication should be based on accurate
information and facts – in a word, do not lie.
 Active listening: In order for ethical
communication to be effective, it is necessary for
the recipient to pro-actively listen to the speaker,
and to not just hear what they want to hear, or to
hear only parts of the conversation. This also
means asking questions when any point is not
completely understood, for the sake of
clarification.
  Speak Non-Judgmentally: Ethically and  a set of signs and different symbols used in
concisely communicating means speaking in a written language to clarify what, when, and how
non-judgmental manner with every recipient, things are being said.
negating unnecessary conflict, which typically  Period
creates a breakdown in communication and - The full stop or period is the most
causes misunderstandings. common punctuation mark in the
 Speak from Your Own Experience: Bringing English language.
your personal experience into a dialogue with - Used for ending declarative
business listeners is important, providing backup sentences
for your arguments with something more - Also used to finish imperative
tangible. sentences.
 Consider the Receiver’s Preferred - Two main functions:
Communication Channel: You risk losing an 1) It shows the end of a sentence.
audience if you use a communication channel Examples:
that is not preferred by your intended receiver. Dinner’s ready.
To effectively communicate with your listeners, Sales have increased every
use the most preferred communication channel. month since January.
 Strive to Understand: While it is important to be 2) It indicates an abbreviation. This
proactive in listening, it is important for listeners is more commonly used in
to also strive to fully understand what is being American English.
said before responding. Examples:
 Avoid a Negative Tone: Ethically Ms. Jones arrives at 8 to open
communicating assumes the speaker will avoid the office; you can start work
rudeness, be polite and professional, and have any time after that.
tact. The ethical communicator knows that it’s Let’s buy a 64-oz. bottle. The
not only important what you say, but how you kids will be thirsty after
say it. Tone is one of the most critical facets of playing baseball all day.
communication. A listener may miss the  Question Mark
meaning altogether if the tone is wrong, which - The question mark shows that a
can lead to unnecessary confrontations that question is being asked, that the
decrease business productivity. speaker or writer is seeking an
 Do Not Interrupt Others: Allowing others to answer to something.
speak is important for the creation of a civil, - Used to end interrogative sentences
effective working environment. Interrupting Examples:
others result in misunderstandings and Can we agree that peace is
unnecessary conflicts and a breakdown in better than war?
workplace. Interrupting others not only shows a What time does the movie
lack of respect but does not allow the listener to start?
fully grasp what is being said. Would you accept a lower
 Respect Privacy and Confidentiality: Most price for the watch?
businesses should include a clause in their code  Exclamation Point
of ethics defining what is appropriate when it - The exclamation mark or
comes to honoring client and employee exclamation point shows strong
confidentiality and privacy. emphasis or strong emotion. It is
 Accept Responsibility: A core tenet within any rarely used in formal writing.
ethical communication framework is taking - Used at the end of an exclamatory
responsibility for the actions that result from sentence.
one’s words, whether it be good or bad. Owning Examples:
one’s words reinforces the importance of being Stop!
conscientious about ethical communication. Don’t do that!
I’ve finally finished my
assignment!
 Comma
Topic 2: Punctuation Marks
- Brief pause, breath
 - Joins two or more ideas in a
sentence or separates items in a
series.
- Used to separate independent
clauses.
- It’s usually found before a
coordinating conjunction (for, and,
nor, but, or, yet, so).
- Also use to set off nouns as direct
addresses.
- Need to include this punctuation
mark, whether the name is at the
beginning or end of the sentence.
Examples:
Millie, you look stunning in
your beaded dress.
This house used to be orange
and blue, but they changed it to
lilac and yellow.
The partner I have chosen is
you, Jacob.
 Colon
- Used to introduce additional
information. It can also connect
clauses like an em dash and a
comma.
Examples:
I’ve narrowed my choices
down to two schools: Indiana
or Michigan State.
As I see it, you’ve committed
three criminal acts: fraud,
perjury, and misrepresentation
of financial assets.
I’ll say this for him: he’s
honest even if it’s difficult.
- Colons also have other uses on a
regular basis:
Examples:
I started working at 8:30 p.m.
The correct rice-to-water ratio
is 1:2.
 Semicolon
- Connects two complete sentences
that are related.
- Separates elements within
sentences.
- Used to join a clause and a larger
clause without a conjunction.
Examples:
Franklin D. Roosevelt was the
U.S. president for four terms;
he led the country through
World War II.
Roses are red; violets are
purple.
I’m ready to go; I hope you’ll
be ready soon!
 Apostrophe
- Used in contractions. A contraction
is when two words are shortened by
omitting one or more letters to form
one word.
Examples:
Do not—don’t.
I am—I’m.
She will—she’ll.
- Another one of the apostrophe’s
functions is to show the possessive
form of a noun.
Examples:
That bag is Cornelia’s.
Will’s dedication is
impressive.
- If two people possess the same
item, put the apostrophe + s after
the second name only.
Example:
Cesar and Maribel’s home is
constructed of redwood.
- In cases of separate rather than
joint possession, use the possessive
form or both.
Example:
Cesar’s and Maribel’s homes
are both lovely.
- A note on apostrophes is that it can
also use to form the plurals of
letters and numbers.
Examples:
Three A’s.
Ten 12’s.
- A common misuse of the
apostrophe is placing it before an S
to make nouns plural. Here’s an
example:
Incorrect: I ate bacon’s for
breakfast.
Correct: I ate bacons for breakfast.
 Quotation Marks
- used to make direct quotations or
repetitions of someone’s exact
words or famous quotes.
- Single quotation marks are used to
enclose a quote within a quote,
while double quotation marks are
used to indicate a direct quote.
Examples:
 “I’ve been working hard all
day,” he said. “Let’s go out to
dinner!”
“He wouldn’t lie to me. I know
it,” said Elaine.
“Why do you treat me this
way?” I asked the boss.
- Put commas and periods within
quotation marks, except when a
parenthetical reference follows.
Examples:
He said, “I may forget your
name, but I never forget a
face.”
History is stained with blood
spilled in the name of
“civilization.”
- Place colons and semicolons
outside closed quotation marks.
Examples:
William described the
experiment as “a definitive
step forward”; other scientists
disagreed.
Benedetto emphasizes three
elements of what she calls her
‘Olympic journey”: family
support, personal commitment,
and great coaching.
- Place a question mark or
exclamation point within closing
quotation marks if the punctuation
applies to the quotation itself. Place
the punctuation outside the closing
quotation marks if the punctuation
applies to the whole sentences.
Examples:
Philip asked, “Do you need
this book?”
Does Dr. Lim always say to
her students, “You must work
harder”?
 Parentheses
- parentheses are used to add
information to a sentence.
- show that the material inside the
parentheses is less important than
the main part of the sentence. Often
you can replace them with commas,
but parentheses make the material
seem less important.
Examples:
The world’s leading
automakers (Toyota,
Volkswagen, and General
Motors) are all pursuing hybrid
technology.
Jennifer’s cat (an angora) is
very friendly.
Germany’s decision to invade
the Soviet Union (in 1941) led
to disaster.
 Dash
- There are types of dashes to
consider.
- En dash: indicates a range of
numbers of a period of time. In this
sense, it is used with numerals.
Examples:
During the World War II years
(1939–1945), basic
commodities were rationed in
many countries.
The school is open to children
ages 6–14.
During office hours, 8 a.m.–3
p.m., someone will be here to
help you with your application.
- Em dash: (twice as long as the en
dash) shows a big pause in a
sentence or emphasizes the end of a
sentence. It can separate
independent clauses from
subordinate clauses to help a writer
expand on an idea.
Examples:
I’m ready to talk—if you’re
ready to listen.
You said you’d—you said
you’d be faithful to me!
Honda makes the best care in
the subcompact category—the
Fit.
 Hyphen
- The hyphen has two main
functions.
1) The most common use of the
hyphen is to form compound
words, words that are made up of
more than one word. Sometimes
this occurs when two words are put
together to serve as an adjective
Examples
I paid for two full-price tickets,
but I still was not admitted to
the arena. I want a refund.
 After losing three jobs this
year, I have no self-confidence
left.
2) A hyphen is often used after the
prefix of a word. If you’re not sure
whether a hyphen is needed,
consult a dictionary.
Examples
Post-conference activities
include a tour of the city.
Don’t over-promise, and you
won’t have a problem
delivering on your promises.
Topic 3: Parts of Speech
 A category that describes the role a word plays in
a sentence.
 Noun
- A word that names something, such
as person, place, thing, or idea.
- Proper noun: a specific name of
person, place, or thing and is
always capitalized.
Example:
Does Tina have much
homework to do this evening?
Tina is the name of a specific
person.
- Compound noun: made up of two
or more different words.
Example:
Cake shop
Bus stop
- Common noun: the generic name of
an item in a class or group and is
not capitalized unless appearing at
the beginning of a sentence or in a
title.
Example:
The girl crossed the river.
Girl is a common noun.
Types of common nouns
- Concrete noun: something that is
perceived by the senses; something
that is physical or real.
Example:
I heard the doorbell.
Doorbell names real thing that
can be sensed.
- Abstract noun: something that
cannot be perceived by senses.
Example:
We cannot imagine the
courage it took to do that.
Courage is an abstract noun.
- Collective noun: denotes a group or
collection of people or things.
Example:
That pack of lies is disgraceful.
Pack is a collective noun.
 Pronoun
- Pronouns are a type of generic
noun that can present any other
noun.
- Substitute of nouns
- Personal pronouns: are pronouns
that change based on their
grammatical person – that is, based
on whether they refer to the person
speaking or writing (first person),
the person or thing being spoken to
(second person), or the person or
thing being spoken about (third
person).
Examples:
I/me
She/her
He/him
They/them
It
We/us
You
- Relative pronouns: connect relative
clauses to independent clauses.
Examples:
That
What
Which
Who
Whom
- Demonstrative pronouns: pronouns
that can point directly to an
antecedent or replace one that has
already been mentioned or is clear
through context.
Examples:
This
That
Those
These
- Indefinite pronouns: are used to
refer generally to a person or thing
that doesn’t need to be specifically
identified or has already been
mentioned.
 Examples: Example:
One all Jack is excited.
Other enough  Adjectives
None any - Word that describes a noun or
Some more pronoun.
Anybody most - Positive adjectives: base, no
Everybody plenty comparison
No one some - Comparative adjectives: compare
- Reflexive pronouns: refers back to two or more things.
the subject, self/selves pronoun. - Superlative adjectives: describe
Examples: something as having the most or
Myself least of a specific characteristics.
Yourself - Indefinite adjectives: same as
Himself indefinite pronoun, countable and
Herself uncountable nouns.
Itself - Coordinate adjectives: two or more
Oneself adjectives that modify the same
Yourselves noun in sentence.
Themselves Example:
- Intensive pronouns: give emphasis The plums were cool and
to the subject. Self/selves pronoun. delicious.
Example: - Numeral adjectives: ordinal number
I told them I could do it myself. and cardinal number.
- Interrogative pronouns: used in - Participial adjective: an adjective
questions. that is identical to the participle
Examples: form of a verb. ( -ing, -ed, or –en)
Who Example:
Whose The light produced a blinding
Whom effect.
What - Proper adjectives: proper noun
Which - Common adjectives: common
 Verbs noun.
- Word that describes an action.  Subject-Verb Agreement
- Regular verbs: whose simple past - Subject: Singular = Verb: Singular
and past participle are formed by Subject: Plural = Verb: Plural
adding –ed to the end of the word. - Titles would always be singular
Example: - Pronouns “You and I” – Plural
Check - checked - Common noun – articles or
- Irregular verbs: are verbs who determiners
simple past and past participles - Abstract noun – similar form
change the spelling. - Money, time, dimension, distance –
Example: always be singular
Sing – sang - Fraction – can be singular or plural,
- Auxiliary verb: used along with a look for the subject
main verb to express tense, mood, - Plural-looking nouns – singular
or voice. Also used in various verb - Always plural nouns
tenses, including continuous tense. Example:
Examples: Ana’s scissors are
It is raining. Ana’s pair of scissors is
Alice has been working here - A number – plural
for a month. - The number – singular
- Linking verb: or copular verb. - And is generally plural except:
Connects the subject of a sentence If it is one unit – singular
with a subject of complement.
 Referring to the same person –
singular
Referring to another person –
plural
Topic 4: Reading
 Leu & Kinzer (1987) defines reading as a
development, interactive, and global process
involving learned skills.
 As for Tarigan (2008), it is a process carried out
and used by a reader to acquire message which is
conveyed by a writer through words and could
be known and seen by reader
 Reading involves the use of a code that has to be
interpreted for meaning (Romero & Romero,
1985).
 Reading is defined:
- Decoding written symbols
- Getting meaning from printed page
- Putting meaning into the printed
page
- Process of interpreting the written
symbols
- Process of communication between
author and reader.
 Characteristics of a reading process (Romero &
Romero, 1985)
- Reading is a complex process:
because there are many factors
involved that may affect one’s
performance in reading. Word
recognition, identifying and making
sense out of words being read are
also a few of the requisites towards
better comprehension of the text.
- Reading is a two-way process:
reading is not just receiving, or
absorption of ideas; it is an
interaction or communication
between the author and the reader.
- Reading is largely a visual process:
for one to be able to read well, he
has to have a good eyesight.
- Reading is an active process: The
reader constructs meaning from a
text and may have different
interpretation of what he reads
because of his experiences and
knowledge.
- Reading makes use of a linguistic
system which enables readers to be
more effective users of written
language: A reader would do better
if he knows the syntax,
orthography, and morphology of a
language.
- Effective reading is partly
dependent on the reader’s prior
knowledge or background
experiences: a person’s knowledge
of the topic facilitates
comprehension.
 Stages of reading
- Pre-reading stage: an individual is
engaged in a program of experience
aimed to enhance his oral language
development to a level equal to or
greater than the level of materials
for beginning reading.
- Initial reading stage: begins to use
picture, context, and configuration
clues to recognize words and then
goes on to beginning instruction in
phonetic and structural analysis
techniques. Learns to use and
handle books.
- Stage of Rapid Progress: the reader
extends his use of a variety of
word-recognition techniques and
begins to use the dictionary for
word meaning.
- Stage of Extended Reading
Experience and Rapidly Increasing
Reading Efficiency: uses word-
recognition automatically, and is
almost completely independent in
reading.
- Stage of Refinement in Reading
Abilities, Attitudes, and Tastes:
acquired independence in locating
and utilizing a variety of materials,
is aware of varied purposes for
reading and has developed skills of
critical evaluation of material read.
 Reading techniques
- Signal words: words or phrases that
cue the reader about an
organizational pattern in the text, or
show a link or transition between
ideas.
- Organizational patterns: include
sequence, comparison,
problem/situation, pro/con,
chronological, general to specific,
cause/effect, and more.
 - Graphic Organizer: provides a - Move eyes quickly down a page or
visual way to organize information list to find one specific detail.
and show the relationship among - Vertical, diagonal
ideas.  Making notes
 Types of Organizational Patterns - To monitor their understanding and
- Spatial order help writers and speakers to
- Order of importance organize information and clarify
- Cause/effect their thinking
- Generalization  Drawing Conclusion (I read, I think, Therefore)
- Time order - Involves gathering information and
- Compare/contrast deciding what the information
- Classification means.
 Extending Vocabulary (Creating a word wall)
- A wall, chalkboard, or bulletin
board listing keywords that will
appear often in a new unit of study,
printed on card stock, and taped or
pinned to the wall/board.
- Parts of dictionary
A, B, C, D, E, F, G – Front
H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P – Middle
Q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z – Back
- A dictionary gives you the
following information about a
word:
How to spell a word
Pronunciation – International
Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is used as
a pronunciation guide
Part of speech of a word
Different meanings that the word
has:
Synonyms – words that have
the same meaning
Antonyms – words that have
opposite meaning
Homonyms – the same
spelling, different meaning
Homophones – same
pronunciation, different
meanings
Homographs – the same
spelling, different
pronunciation, different
meaning
Tells the origin of the entry word –
etymology
Finding the meaning
 Skimming
- Read quickly and get the main idea
of the paragraph and a few (but not
all) of the details.
- horizontal
 Scanning