Frequency

Electronics Communication 1

Modulation
Introduction
Frequency modulation, FM, is used in many applications
from broadcasting to communications and offers several
advantages over other modes. While changing the amplitude of a radio signal is the most obvious
method to modulate it, it is by no means the only way. It is also possible to change the frequency of a
signal to give frequency modulation or FM. Frequency modulation is widely used on frequencies
above 30 MHz, and it is particularly well known for its use for VHF FM broadcasting.
Although it may not be quite as straightforward as amplitude modulation, nevertheless
frequency modulation, FM, offers some distinct advantages. It is able to provide near
interference free reception, and it was for this reason that it was adopted for the VHF sound
broadcasts. These transmissions could offer high fidelity audio, and for this reason,
frequency modulation is far more popular than the older transmissions on the long, medium
and short wave bands.
In addition to its widespread use for high quality audio broadcasts, FM is also used for a
variety of two way radio communication systems. Whether for fixed or mobile radio
communication systems, or for use in portable applications, FM is widely used at VHF and
above.
What is Frequency Modulation?
To generate a frequency modulated signal, the
fre·quen·cy
frequency of the radio carrier is changed in line with the
amplitude of the incoming audio signal.
mod·u·la·tion
/ˈfrēkwənsē ˌmäjəˈlāSHən/
When the audio signal is modulated onto the radio
frequency carrier, the The modulation of a radio or other
new radio frequency wave by variation of its frequency,
signal moves up and especially to carry an audio signal.
down in frequency. The Oxford
amount by which the
signal moves up and down is important. It is known as the
deviation and is normally quoted as the number of kilohertz
Frequency modulation is the encoding
deviation. As an example the signal may have a deviation of
of information
plus and minus 3 kHz, i.e. ±3 kHz. In this in acase
carrier wave
the by is
carrier
made to move up and downvarying the instantaneous frequency
by 3 kHz.
of the wave. The technology is used in
telecommunications, radio
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Broadcast stations in the VHF portion of the frequency Frequency modulation is the
spectrum between 88.5 and 108 MHz use large values encoding of information in a carrier
of deviation, typically ±75 kHz. This is known as wide-
wave by varying the instantaneous
band FM (WBFM). These signals are capable of
supporting high quality transmissions, but occupy a frequency of the wave. The
large amount of bandwidth. Usually 200 kHz is allowed technology is used in
for each wide-band FM transmission. For telecommunications, radio
communications purposes less bandwidth is used. broadcasting, signal processing, and
Narrow band FM (NBFM) often uses deviation figures computing. Wikipedia
of around ±3 kHz.
It is narrow band FM that is typically used for two-way
radio communication applications. Having a narrower
band it is not able to provide the high quality of the
wideband transmissions, but this is not needed for
applications such as mobile radio communication.
Frequency demodulation
As with any form of modulation, it is necessary to be
able to successfully demodulate it and recover the
original signal. The FM demodulator may be called a
variety of names including FM demodulator, FM
detector or an FM discriminator.
There are a number of different types of FM
demodulator, but all of them enable the frequency variations of the incoming signal to be
converted into amplitude variations on the output. These are typically fed into an audio
amplifier, or possibly a digital interface if data is being passed over the system.
FM modulators
There is a variety of different methods that can be used to generate frequency modulated
signals.
 Varactor diode oscillator: This method simply requires the use of a varactor diode
placed within the tuned circuit of an oscillator circuit. It is even possible to use a varactor
diode within a crystal oscillator circuit. Typically when crystal oscillators are used the
signal needs to be multiplied in frequency, and only narrow band FM is attainable.
 Phase locked loop: Phase locked loops provide an excellent method of generating
frequency modulation. It is often necessary to manage the constraints within the loop
carefully but once done it provides an excellent solution.

Frequency modulation advantages & disadvantages

As with any form of modulation there are several advantages and disadvantages to its use.
These need to be considered before making any decision or choice about its use:
Advantages of frequency modulation, FM:
 Resilience to noise: One particular advantage of frequency modulation is its
resilience to signal level variations. The modulation is carried only as variations in

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 frequency. This means that any signal level variations will not affect the audio output,
provided that the signal does not fall to a level where the receiver cannot cope. As a
result this makes FM ideal for mobile radio communication applications including more
general two-way radio communication or portable applications where signal levels are
likely to vary considerably. The other advantage of FM is its resilience to noise and
interference. It is for this reason that FM is used for high quality broadcast
transmissions.
 Easy to apply modulation at a low power stage of the transmitter: Another
advantage of frequency modulation is associated with the transmitters. It is possible to
apply the modulation to a low power stage of the transmitter, and it is not necessary to
use a linear form of amplification to increase the power level of the signal to its final
value.
 It is possible to use efficient RF amplifiers with frequency modulated signals: It
is possible to use non-linear RF amplifiers to amplify FM signals in a transmitter and
these are more efficient than the linear ones required for signals with any amplitude
variations (e.g. AM and SSB). This means that for a given power output, less battery
power is required and this makes the use of FM more viable for portable two-way radio
applications.
Disadvantages of frequency modulation, FM:
 FM has poorer spectral efficiency than some other modulation formats: Some
phase modulation and quadrature amplitude modulation formats have a higher spectral
efficiency for data transmission than frequency shift keying, a form of frequency
modulation. As a result, most data transmission system use PSK and QAM.
 Requires more complicated demodulator: One of the minor disadvantages of
frequency modulation is that the demodulator is a little more complicated, and hence
slightly more expensive than the very simple diode detectors used for AM. However
this is much less of an issue these days because many radio integrated circuits
incorporate a built in frequency demodulator.
 Some other modes have higher data spectral efficiency: Some phase modulation
and quadrature amplitude modulation formats have a higher spectral efficiency for data
transmission that frequency shift keying, a form of frequency modulation. As a result,
most data transmission system use PSK and QAM.
 Sidebands extend to infinity either side: The sidebands for an FM transmission
theoretically extend out to infinity. They are normally significant for wideband frequency
modulation transmissions, although small for narrow band FM. To limit the bandwidth
of the transmission, filters are often used, and these introduce some distortion of the
signal. Normally this is not too much of an issue although care has to be taken to include
these filters for wideband FM and to ensure they are properly designed.

Basic Principles of Frequency Modulation

In FM, the carrier amplitude remains constant and the carrier frequency is changed by the
modulating signal. As the amplitude of the information signal varies, the carrier frequency
shifts proportionately. As the modulating signal amplitude increases, the carrier frequency
increases. If the amplitude of the modulating signal decreases, the carrier frequency

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decreases. The reverse relationship can also be implemented. A decreasing modulating
signal increases the carrier frequency above its center value, whereas an increasing
modulating signal decreases the carrier frequency below its center value. As the modulating
signal amplitude varies, the carrier frequency varies above and below its normal center, or
resting, frequency with no modulation. The amount of change in carrier frequency produced
by the modulating signal is known as the frequency deviation fd. Maximum frequency deviation
occurs at the maximum amplitude of the modulating signal.

The frequency of the modulating signal determines the frequency deviation rate, or how many
times per second the carrier frequency deviates above and below its center frequency. If the
modulating signal is a 500-Hz
sine wave, the carrier frequency
shifts above and below the
center frequency 500 times per
second.
An FM signal is illustrated in Fig.
5-1(c). Normally the carrier [Fig.
5-1(a)] is a sine wave, but it is
shown as a triangular wave here
to simplify the illustration. With
no modulating signal applied, the
carrier frequency is a constant-
amplitude sine wave at its normal
resting frequency.
The modulating information
signal [Fig. 5-1(b)] is a low-
frequency sine wave. As the sine
wave goes positive, the
frequency of the carrier
increases proportionately. The
highest frequency occurs at the
peak amplitude of the
modulating signal. As the
modulating signal amplitude
decreases, the carrier frequency
decreases. When the modulating
signal is at zero amplitude, the
carrier is at its center frequency
point.
When the modulating signal
goes negative, the carrier
frequency decreases. It
continues to decrease until the peak of the negative half-cycle of the modulating sine wave is
reached. Then as the modulating signal increases toward zero, the carrier frequency again

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increases. This phenomenon is illustrated in Fig. 5-1(c), where the carrier sine waves seem
to be first compressed and then stretched by the modulating signal.
Assume a carrier frequency of 150 MHz. If the peak amplitude of the modulating signal causes
a maximum frequency shift of 30 kHz, the carrier frequency will deviate up to 150.03 MHz and
down to 149.97 MHz. The total frequency deviation is 150.03 − 149.97 5 0.06 MHz 5 60 kHz.
In practice, however, the frequency deviation is expressed as the amount of frequency shift
of the carrier above or below the center frequency. Thus, the frequency deviation for the 150-
MHz carrier frequency is represented as 630 kHz. This means that the modulating signal
varies the carrier above and below its center frequency by 30 kHz. Note that the frequency of
the modulating signal has no effect on the amount of deviation, which is strictly a function of
the amplitude of the modulating signal.
Frequently, the modulating signal is a pulse train or series of rectangular waves, e.g., serial
binary data. When the modulating signal has only two amplitudes, the carrier frequency,
instead of having an infinite number of values, as it would have with a continuously varying
(analog) signal, has only two values. This phenomenon is illustrated in Fig. 5-2. For example,
when the modulating signal is a binary 0, the carrier frequency is the center frequency value.
When the modulating signal is a binary 1, the carrier frequency abruptly changes to a higher
frequency level. The amount of
the shift depends on the
amplitude of the binary signal.
This kind of modulation, called
frequency-shift keying (FSK),
is widely used in the
transmission of binary data in
Bluetooth headsets, wireless
speakers, and many forms of
industrial wireless.
How FM was introduced
In the early days of radio, static was a major issue and the way
everyone tried to reduce the effects of static was to reduce the
bandwidth - in this way less noise was picked up by the receiver.
An American engineer named Edwin Armstrong was investigating
this issue and whether frequency modulation, rather than amplitude
modulation might provide an advantage.
Around 1928, Armstrong started to develop the concept of using FM,
and rather than reducing the bandwidth, he increased it.
Many did not go along with Armstrong's ideas for a variety of
reasons. He approached RCA, and although they were impressed,
they was focussing upon television and did not want to divert any
resource onto a new form of broadcasting.
After many difficulties along the way, Armstrong launched his own
radio station in 1939 to demonstrate the effectiveness of FM. To
accommodate this and other stations following on the FCC allocated
a band of frequencies between 42 and 50 MHz. Others soon followed, but after the war, the FCC in
the USA, changed the allocated frequency band to the one we know today between 88 and 108 MHz.

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Although there was some initial pain because a few hundred thousand radios had been sold, the band
was accepted globally and it is the VHF FM band we know today.
With FM established as a medium for high quality broadcasting, it quickly developed.
In addition to this a form of narrow band FM became popular for VHF and UHF mobile
communications. The nature of FM meant that signal
strength variations did not affect the operation nearly as
much as if it had been an AM signal.
Frequency Modulation, FM Modulation Index &
Deviation Ratio
The Modulation Index and Deviation Ratio are two key
parameters for any FM, frequency modulation signal
whether used for broadcasting or two way radio
communications.
Two key parameters of any frequency modulated signal
are the modulation index and the deviation ratio. They
are widely used when looking at
frequency modulated signals and their FM broadcast transmitters
characteristics.
These two parameters describe some of the basic characteristics of a given FM signal - the
modulation index providing a measure of what is effectively the level of modulation and the
deviation ratio a measure of the
deviation relative to the modulating
frequency.
These two figures are key when
planning and designing radio
communications systems and
broadcast transmitters, etc. - they
define some of the basic parameters of
the frequency modulated signal,
impacting the sideband levels and the
bandwidth required for the signal.
It is important for everything from large
FM broadcast transmitters down to
small two way radios or walkie talkies.
Modulation index & deviation ratio
When using a frequency modulated signal it is very helpful to have a measure of what is
effectively the level of the modulation.
This is useful in defining parameters like whether the signal is a narrow band or a wide band
frequency modulated signal. It is also very useful in ensuring that all transmitters or receivers
in a system are set to accommodate a standardised level of modulation as it affects
parameters like the receiver bandwidth, channel spacing and the like.
To define the level of modulation, figures known as the modulation index and deviation ratio
are used.

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Frequency modulation index
The frequency modulation index is the equivalent of the
modulation index for AM, but obviously related to FM. In
view of the differences between the two forms of
modulation, the FM modulation index is measured in a different way.
The FM modulation index is equal to the ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating
frequency.
From the formula and definition of the modulation index, it can be seen that there is no term
that includes the carrier frequency and this means that it is totally independent of the carrier
frequency.
To give an example of the FM modulation index, take the example where a signal has a
deviation of ±5kHz, and the modulating frequency is 1 kHz, then the modulation index for this
particular instance is 5 / 1 = 5.
Similarly, if the deviation is ±10 kHz and the modulating frequency is s kHz, then this also has
a deviation ratio of 5.
As normal audio has a variety of different frequencies contained within the audio sound, the
deviation ratio is normally calculated using the maximum audio frequency and maximum
deviation. This figure will then be used to determine the bandwidth and other characteristics
of the signal.
FM bandwidth
One of the key
elements of an
FM signal is its
bandwidth. With
any frequency
modulated signal,
sidebands extend
out either side.
These actually
extend out to
infinity, but the
intensity of them falls away. Fortunately it is possible to
limit the bandwidth of an FM signal without affecting its quality unduly.
Frequency modulation is widely used in many areas of radio technology including
broadcasting and areas of two way radio communication. In these applications its particular
advantages can be used to good effect.
Whilst other forms of modulation are being used in many areas, FM still offers the highest
quality for broadcasting and many advantages for other forms of communication as well.
FM deviation ratio
One of the issues with the modulation index is
that it will vary according to the instantaneous
values of deviation and modulating frequency.

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On typical audio transmissions, both the frequency deviation and modulating frequency will
vary. The frequency deviation will vary according to the level of the audio at that moment.
Also the modulating frequency will vary as normal audio consists of a variety of frequencies,
which vary to give the speech or music, etc.
For many applications it is more useful to have a figure for the maximum permissible values.
Accordingly the FM deviation ratio can be defined as: the ratio of the maximum carrier
frequency deviation to the highest audio modulating frequency.
One common example of the FM deviation ratio can be seen by taking the figures for a typical
FM broadcast station. Fir these stations the maximum frequency deviation is ±75 kHz, and
the maximum audio frequency for the modulation is 15 kHz.
Using the formula above, this means that the deviation ratio is 75 / 15 = 5.
FM bandwidth & modulation index.
Frequency modulation is used in a variety of applications.
Different levels of deviation are used in different applications. For
broadcast FM transmissions the aim is to be able to transmit high
quality audio and to achieve this high levels of deviation are used
and the bandwidth is wide. For communications purposes,
quality is not the issue, but bandwidth is more important.
Accordingly deviation levels are less and the bandwidth is much
smaller.
The bandwidth of the FM signal is particularly important because it needs to be wide enough
to carry the information correctly, whilst also not occupying too much spectrum. If the
bandwidth is too wide, then it can spread outside the required channel and cause interference
with other users on other channels.
As spectrum usage increases as more wireless and general radio applications increase
(everything from short range wireless communications to traditional voice two way radio
communications, data links and many more), the need to manage the frequency spectrum
and ensure that transmissions stay within their allotted bandwidths becomes more important.
There are two main classifications for frequency modulated signals and these can be related
to the modulation index and deviation ratio.
 Wideband FM: Wideband FM is typical used for signals where the FM modulation
index is above about 0.5. For these signals the sidebands beyond the first two terms
are not insignificant. Broadcast
FM stations use wide-band FM
which enables them to transmit
high quality audio, as well as
other facilities like stereo, and
other facilities like RDS, etc.
The wide bandwidth of wide
band FM is enables high quality
broadcast transmissions to be
made, combining a wide
frequency response with low wide-band filter

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 noise levels. Once the signal is sufficiently strong, the audio signal to noise ratio is
very good.
Sometimes high fidelity FM tuners may use a wide-band filter for strong signals to
ensure the optimum fidelity and performance. Here the quieting effect of the strong
signal will allow for wide-band reception and the full audio bandwidth. For lower
strength signals they may switch to a narrower filter to reduce the noise level,
although this will result in the audio bandwidth being reduced. However on balance
the narrower bandwidth will give a more pleasing sound when the received signal is
low.
 Narrowband FM: Narrow band FM, NBFM, is
used for signals where the deviation is small
enough that the terms in the Bessel function is
small and the main sidebands are those
appearing at ± modulation frequency. The
sidebands further out are negligible.
For NBFM, the FM modulation index must be
less than 0.5, although a figure of 0.2 is often
used. For NBFM the audio or data bandwidth is
small, but this is acceptable for this type of
communication.
Many two way radio communications
Narrowband FM is widely used for two way walkie talkies like these PMR446 radios
radio communications. Although digital use narrowband FM
technologies are taking over, NBFM is still
widely used and very effective. Many two way radios or walkie talkies use NBFM,
especially those which conform to the licence-free standards like PMR446 and FRS
radio communications systems.
Frequency Modulation, FM Sidebands & Bandwidth
The bandwidth of a frequency modulated, FM signal depends on a variety of factors including
the level and frequency of the modulation, and their levels are important for broadcast and
radio communication applications.
The bandwidth, sideband formation and spectrum of a frequency modulated signal are not as
straightforward as they are for an amplitude modulated signal.
Nevertheless the sidebands and bandwidth of
the FM signal are still very important and used
within the planning, design and even the
maintenance of radio broadcast and radio
communication systems.
Using a well know rule called Carson's Rule it is
possible to provide a good estimate of the
bandwidth of an FM signal. This estimate is
sufficiently good for virtually all requirements and
as a result Carson's rule is widely used.

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Knowing the levels of the sidebands and the signal bandwidth is very important for broadcast
transmitters and receivers as well as those sued for radio communication applications.

Frequency modulation sidebands

The modulation of any carrier in any way
produces sidebands. For amplitude modulated
signals, the way in which these sidebands are
created and their bandwidth and amplitude are
quite straightforward. The situation for frequency
modulated signals is rather different.
The FM sidebands are dependent on both the
level of deviation and the frequency of the
modulation. In fact the total spectrum for a
frequency modulated signal consists of the
carrier plus an infinite number of sidebands spreading out on either side of the carrier at
integral multiples of the modulating frequency.
From the diagram it can be seen that the values for the levels of the sidebands rise and fall
with varying values of deviation and modulating frequency.
It may also be helpful to have some tabulated values - from this it can be seen that for a
modulation index of 2.41, the carrier falls to zero, and all the power is contained within the
sidebands.
It can also be seen that for low levels of modulation index, the only sidebands that have any
significant levels of power within them are the first, and possibly the second sidebands.

In theory the sidebands of a frequency modulated signal extent out for ever. Fortunately
outside the main signal area itself, the level of the sidebands falls away and for practical
systems filtering all but removes them without any main detriment to the signal.
For small values of modulation index, when using narrow-band FM, NBFM, radio
communication systems, the signal consists of the carrier and the two sidebands spaced at
the modulation frequency either side of the carrier. The sidebands further out are minimal and
can be ignored. On a spectrum analyzer the signal looks very much like the spectrum of an
AM signal. The difference is that the lower sideband is out of phase by 180°.

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As the level of the modulation index is increased other sidebands at twice the modulation
frequency start to appear. Further increases in modulation index result in the level of other
sidebands increasing in level.
Carson's Rule for FM bandwidth
The bandwidth of an FM signal is not as straightforward to
calculate as that of an AM signal.
A very useful rule of thumb used by many engineers to
determine the bandwidth of an FM signal for radio broadcast
and radio communications systems is known as Carson's Rule.
This rule states that 98% of the signal power is contained within
a bandwidth equal to the deviation frequency, plus the
modulation frequency doubled. Carson's Rule can be
expressed simply as a formula:
To take the example of a typical broadcast FM signal that has a deviation of ±75kHz and a
maximum modulation frequency of 15 kHz, the bandwidth of 98% of the power approximates
to 2 (75 + 15) = 180kHz. To provide conveniently spaced channels 200 kHz is allowed for
each station.
The rule is also very useful when determining the bandwidth of many two way radio
communications systems. These use narrow band FM, and it is particularly important that the
sidebands do not cause interference to adjacent channels that may be occupied by other
users.
Summary of frequency modulation bandwidth & sidebands
Frequency modulation is still in widespread use, both for broadcasting and for two way radio
communications. As a result, a knowledge of the signal bandwidth and the way in which the
sidebands are produced is useful for these systems.
It is worth summarising some of the highlight points about frequency modulation sidebands,
FM spectrum & bandwidth.
 The bandwidth of a frequency modulated signal varies with both deviation and
modulating frequency.
 Increasing modulating frequency increases the frequency separation between
sidebands.
 Increasing modulating frequency for a given level of deviation reduces modulation
index. As a result, it reduces the number of sidebands with significant amplitude. This
has the result of reducing the bandwidth.
 The frequency modulation bandwidth increases with modulation frequency but it is not
directly proportional to it.
Frequency modulation bandwidth is a key issue as it is very important to ensure that these
transmissions stay within their allocated channel. Accordingly FM signals need to be carefully
tailored to ensure all the significant sidebands remain within the channel allocation.

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