Learning Styles Inventory

Experiment No.: 1 Date: 22/12/2023

Experimenter: DDR Participant: P G

Learning is a complex process that includes picking up new abilities, attitudes, behaviours, and
knowledge. Learning is defined as "a change in behaviour or in potential behaviour that occurs as a
result of experience" (p. 326) by the American Psychological Association (APA, 2020). Various
cognitive processes, including perception, problem-solving, attention, and memory, are included in
this process (Ormrod, 2016).

History of learning
The debate over education began many centuries before the present day, in the philosophies
of Plato and Aristotle in ancient Greece. Before learning was referred to as a theory, philosophical
perspectives on information and how it developed in humans—that is, how people "learn"—were
the source of learning. Rationalism and empiricism were the two main stances held during this time
(Schunk DH.2020).
First came rationality, which held that knowledge is innate, ultimately derived from reason,
and capable of occurring even in the absence of outside stimuli. Immanuel Kant, René Descartes,
and Plato are well-known proponents of this viewpoint. Plato held that knowledge could arise only
from natural reasoning, while Descartes and Kant thought that knowledge might be influenced by
prior learning and outside stimuli, respectively.(Schunk DH.2020).
Empiricism, on the other hand, holds that knowledge is not intrinsic, but rather results
exclusively from experience with the outside world. Prominent proponents of this viewpoint include
Aristotle, John Stuart Mill, George Berkeley, David Hume, and John Locke. Aristotle held that
associative learning—a subset of empiricism—strengthens memory through the association of
items.(Schunk DH.2020).
With the beginning of systematic psychology study in the early 19th century, learning
theories were treated more scientifically, thanks to the work of psychologists like Wilhelm Wundt
and Hermann Ebbinghaus. In Leipzig, Germany, Wundt established the first psychology department
in 1875. There, he carried out tests and started a journal dedicated to psychological study (Illeris
K.2018).
Simultaneously, prolific researcher Ebbinghaus pioneered groundbreaking memory studies
that resulted in the Forgetting Curve (Murre JMJ.2016) Replications of the curve in contemporary
articles have since supported his research findings (see Murre and Dros, 2015). Later on, some
scientists—including John Dewey and James Angell, well-known functionalists—as well as
Edward Titchener, the creator of structuralism, proceeded to refine the ideas that would eventually
become modern learning theories.
It was these theories that eventually gave rise to behaviourism, which was developed and
popularized by the likes of Edward Thorndike, Ivan Pavlov, Burrhus Frederic, and others, and has
since become one of the most popular learning theories since the 1950s (Mukhalalati BA. 2019).

Theories of learning
The theories of learning aim to describe and form a hypothesis on how learning happens.
Over the years numerous such theories have been put forward that attempt to describe the basis of
learning. (Horneffer, P. 2021).
The developmental approach, originated by Jean Piaget, took a more "interactionist" view,
suggesting that learning was an active process in which interaction between the
environment and the individual played an influential role in the formation of internal organizing
frameworks, which Piaget called cognitive schemata. The schemata were constantly changing and
being refined as the individual learned new things, and the changes occurred in a predictable
developmental sequence. Individuals interacted with each other and with objects and events in their
environment, actively constructing meanings and creating movement from one stage of
development to the next. Using a similar approach, Malcolm Knowles devised a developmental
theory to explain adult learning. Much of the criticism of developmental theories - or "stage"
theories, as they are called - has revolved around the issue of predictable developmental stages,
which do not seem to hold for all individuals in all areas of learning. (Dierking, L. 1991)
Behaviourism. This is a school of Psychology which states that learning occurs when stimuli from
an external environment cause behaviour change. This theory is formulated on the basis that
learning occurs through observation of behavior, and that a certain series of steps is to be followed
(Torre DM. 2006). The learning environment is controlled to produce the desired changes, along
with the use of reinforcements and punishments (Mukhalalati BA. 2019). Psychologists have
proposed the following theories to understand the learning of behaviour:
Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlov behaviourism) is the process of
associating a neutral stimulus with a voluntary or natural response, resulting in a
conditioned response. For instance, a neutral stimulus like a ringtone on your phone
might cause you to smile because you know it’s your best friend calling. However, over
time, classical conditioning becomes dominant. You smile every time you hear that
ringtone, even when it’s coming from another person’s phone because that’s your
conditioned reaction. (MSEd, K. C. 2023)
Operant conditioning (also called instrumental conditioning) is a form of behaviour
modification that uses both positive and negative reinforcement. For instance, let’s say
you’re teaching your child to clean their hands after they’ve been petting your family’s
dog. You’ll reward them with a chocolate kiss every time they wash their hands and
wipe them off. If they don’t wash their hands right away, they won’t get a treat. They’ll
soon be washing their hands all the time without being prompted—or even treated.
(MSEd, K. C. 2023)
Learned Helplessness is a psychological phenomenon discovered by psychologist
Martin Seligman through experiments with animals. It occurs when individuals
repeatedly face situations where they have no control over the outcome, leading them to
believe that they are powerless to change their circumstances. As a result, they may
passively accept negative events and fail to take action even when opportunities for
change arise. Learned helplessness can have significant effects on mental health,
contributing to feelings of depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem. This concept has
been applied to various areas, including education, therapy, and organizational behavior,
highlighting the importance of empowering individuals and promoting resilience in the
face of adversity.
Social Learning Theories- Is the crossroads between Behavioural and cognitive
learning. Talks about how learning happens through observing behaviours, followed by
a cognitive learning response. (Torre DM. 2006). Albert Bandura proposed social
learning theory. During the 1960s, he performed the Bobo doll experiment and observed
children’s behavior after watching an adult violently treat a doll-like toy. He
documented the children's reaction when the aggressive adult was punished, rewarded,
or faced no outcomes after attacking the doll. Social Learning Theory has the following
4 elements:
Attention: The lessons must be unique or with unique activities to enable children to
focus.
Retention: The students must internalise information to be able to recall it
afterwards.
Reproduction: The student must apply previously learned behaviour when it is
applicable.
Motivation: The students are motivated by seeing other classmates being punished
or rewarded for different conduct. (Main, P. 2023)
Cognitivism. States that learning is an outcome of one’s internal environment and cognitive
structures (Torre DM. 2006). Focuses on an individual’s information processing,
internal reflections and breaking down of concepts for understanding (Taylor DCM.2013).
Metacognition refers to the ability to monitor one's thoughts and actions. This includes self-
awareness, insight, and reflection. These metacognitive processes allow us to understand our
thought patterns and behaviors.
Experiential. States that learning happens through experiences and ‘interaction with one’s
authentic environment’ (Mukhalalati BA. 2019). Certain special skills and behaviors are developed
through exposure to specific environments(Taylor DCM.
2013).
Constructivism Learning Theory. is a relatively recent idea that emphasizes how learning is
compounded and the cognitive processes learners use to critically reflect on prior information.
(Mukhalalati BA. 2019). Teachers may recognize that every student brings prior knowledge to the
classroom with them thanks to constructivism. In constructivist learning environments, teachers
play the role of a guide, assisting students in developing their knowledge and skills. They provide
pupils with the opportunity to construct their reality and thought processes from prior encounters.
Encouraging pupils to apply their information in their future learning practices is crucial. ( Main, P.
2023)

Learning styles
The theory of learning styles proposes that individuals have unique ways of learning and processing
information, which can be classified into different “styles.” ( Main. 2023)
Visual - Visual learners are more likely to remember information when it is presented
visually, such as through arrows, diagrams, charts, symbols, and so on. Visual learners
thrive with clear images of information hierarchy, similar to how designers emphasise
specific design elements.
Auditory - Auditory learners are sometimes referred to as "aural" learners, as they prefer to
listen to information presented to them verbally. Auditory learners thrive in group settings
with vocal collaboration, and may even read aloud to themselves.
Reading - Reading and Writing learners focus on the written word and are more likely to
perform well when they can reference written text.
Kinesthetics - Kinesthetic learners are physically active and are more hands-on in their
coursework, which is why they tend to perform well in scientific studies. This is important
because one will typically comprehend the content better and remember it longer when it is
taught in a way that fits one’s unique learning style. (London, U. 2023)
Types of learning styles
VARK Model
Fleming (2001) established the VARK model, which divides learners into four main styles:
Visual learners - Diagrams, charts, and movies are preferred learning tools (Fleming, 2001).
Auditory learners- are superior in verbal communication and listening (Fleming, 2001).
Reading/Writing learners - Textual materials and writing exercises are preferred by for
learning (Fleming, 2001).
Kinesthetic learners- benefit greatly from practical instruction and exercise (Fleming, 2001).

Kolb Experiential Learning Theory (ELT)

Four stages make up Kolb's Experiential Learning Theory (ELT), a cyclical process of
learning (Kolb, 1984):
Reflective Observation: Contemplating the event.
Concrete experience: Direct interaction with the topic matter.
Abstract Conceptualization: Developing notions that are abstract through introspection.
Active Experimentation: Using newly acquired knowledge in real-world contexts.

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences Theory

Gardner (1983) proposed the Multiple Intelligences Theory, which identifies eight distinct
intelligences:
Linguistic Intelligence: Proficiency with language, including reading, writing, and verbal
communication.
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: Problem-solving skills, logical reasoning, and
mathematical abilities.
Spatial Intelligence: Ability to perceive and manipulate visual and spatial information.
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: Physical coordination, dexterity, and skill in movement.
Musical Intelligence: Sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, and musical patterns.
Interpersonal Intelligence: Understanding and effectively interacting with others, including
empathy and social skills.
Intrapersonal Intelligence: Self-awareness, introspection, and understanding of one's own
emotions and motivations.
Naturalistic Intelligence: Sensitivity to and understanding of the natural world, including
plants, animals, and ecosystems.
Every intelligence reflects a unique method of information processing and influences a
person's preferred method of learning (Gardner, 1983).
 Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences is crucial in understanding learning styles
because it acknowledges the diverse ways in which individuals perceive, process, and apply
information. Each intelligence represents a potential avenue for learning, and individuals may have
varying strengths and weaknesses across these intelligences. For example, a student with high
linguistic intelligence may excel in learning through reading, writing, and verbal communication,
while another student with strong bodily-kinesthetic intelligence may prefer hands-on, experiential
learning activities.
Teachers can create instruction that meets each student's unique strengths and preferences
by acknowledging and incorporating these diverse intelligences. This will improve student
engagement, motivation, and learning outcomes (Gardner, 1999).
To sum up, the Theory of Multiple Intelligences proposed by Gardner offers a useful framework for
comprehending the variety of human cognition and learning preferences. Through recognition and
utilization of diverse intelligence, educators can establish inclusive and efficient learning
environments that cater to the requirements of every student.

Review of literature
The Learning styles among professional Northern and Central India medical students during
Digitisation by Rachna Parashar,1 Sandip Hulke, and Abhijit Pakhare where the purpose of the
study was to know the pattern of learners among first- and second-year medical students from
different institutions in India. For this purpose, they have used the latest English Version 7.0 of the
Visual-Aural-Read/write-Kinesthetic. Results of the study suggest that to improve learning, one
should try to use multimodal styles with special emphasis given to auditory and kinesthetic modes
especially among first professionals in medical education during digitization.
Learning style preferences among older adults by and study attempted to determine the
learning style preferences of older adults and the association of gender, age, and educational level to
these preferences as very little is known about the learning styles of older adults. D. A. Kolb's
(1985) Learning Style Inventory was used to identify the preferred learning styles of 172 older
adults from Northeast Georgia. Results found the older adults in this study fairly evenly distributed
across the styles of Accommodator, Assimilator, and Diverger, with fewer preferring the Converger
style, which involves thinking and doing while learning. More of the 55 to 65 age group preferred
the Accommodator learning style (learning by feeling and doing), more of the 66 to 74 age group
preferred the Diverger style (learning by feeling and watching), whereas the 75 and older group
preferred the Assimilator style (learning by thinking and watching). Therefore, it is suggested that
not all older learners are active, hands-on learners as adult education literature suggests, but rather
with age, there is a tendency to become more reflective and observational in the learning
environment. (Truluck, B. C. C. J. E. 1999)

Development
The Learning Style Inventory (LSI) is a tool designed to assess an individual's preferred
learning style, providing insights into how they best absorb and process information. Developed by
David A. Kolb, an American educational theorist, in the 1970s, the LSI emerged from Kolb's
experiential learning theory (ELT). Kolb's ELT posits that learning is a cyclic process involving
four stages: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active
experimentation.
Initially, Kolb's creation of the LSI stemmed from his desire to operationalize his
experiential learning theory and measure an individual's learning style preferences. The LSI was
developed through extensive research and empirical validation, drawing on insights from
psychology, education, and organizational behaviour. Kolb's work in this area culminated in the
publication of his seminal book, "Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and
Development," in 1984.
The LSI has been widely used across various cultural contexts due to its adaptable nature.
While initially developed in the United States, the LSI's framework is broad enough to
accommodate diverse cultural backgrounds.India's cultural diversity presents a unique landscape for
understanding learning styles. The LSI's adaptability allows it to accommodate the varied cultural
backgrounds, languages, and learning traditions found across different regions of India. However,
it's crucial to consider cultural nuances and sensitivities when interpreting learning style preferences
within an Indian context. Factors such as collectivism, respect for authority, and the influence of
familial and societal expectations can impact how individuals engage with learning experiences
The reliability and validity of the Learning Style Inventory have been extensively studied
and established in both educational and organizational settings. For example, a study by Boyatzis
and Kolb (1995) examined the reliability and construct validity of the LSI. They found evidence
supporting its reliability over time and its ability to discriminate between different learning styles.
Additionally, research by Zhang, Zhang, and Zhang (2017) explored the psychometric properties of
the Chinese version of the LSI, demonstrating its reliability and validity within a Chinese cultural
context.

Limitations
1. In a case study, researchers assume that the set of learning styles is differently apportioned
in an online course than in a face-to-face course Typically, online learning systems include
 fewer sound or oral segments than traditional face-to-face courses and these online learning
systems have more capacity of read/write assignment components. Students with visual
learning styles and read/write learning styles may do better in online courses than their
complement in face-to-face courses.
2. The VARK model oversimplifies the complexity of the learning process by reducing it to
four distinct categories. In reality, learning is a multifaceted and dynamic phenomenon
influenced by various cognitive, affective, and contextual factors.
3. The learning style is its reliance on self-reporting. The categorization of learners into
specific styles is often based on self-assessment surveys or questionnaires. However,
individuals may not always accurately self-assess their own learning preferences, leading to
misclassification and potentially ineffective instructional strategies.
4. The learning style does not account for other factors that influence learning, such as
motivation, prior knowledge, cultural background, and individual differences in cognitive
abilities.
5. The learning style oversimplifies the complexity of the learning process by reducing it to
four distinct categories. In reality, learning is a multifaceted and dynamic phenomenon
influenced by various cognitive, affective, and contextual factors.

Uses
1. The potential to use Visual, Aural, Read/Write, and Kinesthetic (VARK) learning styles to
predict the educational preferences of college students.
2. Physician assistant programs can potentially improve student learning by administering a
learning style inventory.
3. Student self-disclosure based on their learning style leads to a deeper learning.
4. Use of the learning styles for Students of an Undergraduate Course in Systems Analysis and
Development

Application
1. The learning style is applied in the Data Structures and Algorithms course: Data Structure
and Algorithms is a fundamental course in Computer Science, but many students find it
difficult because it requires abstract thinking. For this reason, besides the traditional way of
explaining (reading/listening), using visualization tools, and watching videos and animations
is very helpful.
2. Learning style is a method for measuring learning: The issues of developing strategies and
approaches to teaching introductory-level economics courses at university have been long-
 standing. It is important to recognise this difference in student preferences for learning styles
and to apply a variety of learning styles and opportunities for students to learn and develop
skills.
3. The learning style is effective and it is a good practice to be used in the classroom because it
makes the students learn better: It is a good practice to be used in the classroom because it
makes the students learn better since they will perform an activity that matches their profile
learning. Use of the VARK Model for Students of an Undergraduate Course in Systems
Analysis and Development.
4. Learning Preferences of PG and students: Application of VARK:-Learning style is an
accepted concept in psychology. People can learn best if they know their learning styles.
Since education is supposed to identify how people learn best, the concept of learning styles
remains extremely popular. The present paper makes an earnest attempt.

Method
Aim: To assess learning preferences of the subject using the learning styles inventory by Dr. S.V
Surya Rekha.
Plan: The learning style inventory is administered and scored and the learning preferences of the
subject is identified.
Materials:
1. The Learning Style Inventory with 40 questions.
2. Scoring Key and norms
3. Writing Materials
Subject Details:

Name: P G
Age: 18
Sex: Female
Education: Undergraduate Student

Procedure:
The subject is seated comfortably and given a copy of the learning styles inventory. The
instructions are given. The inventory is self-administered. After the subject completes the inventory,
the experimenter scores the responses and analyses the subject’s learning preference referring to the
norms.
Instructions:
“Given below are several statements about your preferences while learning. Read each
statement and put a tick mark next to it if you agree with it. If you do not agree with the statement,
do not put any mark against it. This is not a timed test but work as fast as you can.
Controls:
1. Make sure the subject has understood the instructions.
2. Avoid giving additional contextual or situational information as this may bias the response
to the questionnaire.
3. The subject should be instructed to answer the questions for himself/herself and not for
others.

Analysis of Results:
Refer to the scoring key, and identify the preferences of the subject for each type of learning. For
example: if a subject has marked statement no 1, it means that she has marked one preference for
visual learning style. Marking statement 10 means she has marked a preference for Aural and so on.
Find out the total statements preferred in each style separately. Now refer to the norms and see
whether she has a high, moderate or low preference for each of the styles.

Results and Discussions

The learning styles inventory was administered on the subject. The Learning Style Inventory (LSI)
is a tool designed to assess an individual's preferred learning style, providing insights into how they
best absorb and process information. .It was developed by David A. Kolb, an American educational
theorist, in the 1970s. The inventory consists of several statements about your preferences while
learning. The subject is required to read each statement and put a tick mark next to it if they agree
with it. If they do not agree with the statement, no mark is put against it. The subject is an 18 year
old female, PG. She is pursuing her B.sc in Christ (deemed to be University) and hails from
Bangalore. The result of the subject is illustrated in the tables below

Table 1: the scores received by the participant for each learning style
Learning Style Score
Visual 8
Aural 7
Read/Write 8
Kinesthetic 6
Table 2: average mean score for each learning style obtained by the group
Learning style Score
Visual 8
Aural 7
Read/Write 6
Kinesthetic 6

From table 1 it can be seen that for the learning styles visual, aural, read/write, and kinesthetic the
subject obtained the scores 8, 7, 8, and 6 respectively. In contrast, as can be seen in table 2 the
group mean for visual, aural, read/write, and kinesthetic learning styles are 8, 7, 6, and 6
respectively.

Conclusion
From the above scores, it is seen that the learning style preferred by the participant is Visual/
Reading learning style. The learning style preferred by the group is also the Visual learning style.

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Appendices