Powering Cities in The Global South Proof

POWERING CITIES
IN THE GLOBAL SOUTH

HOW ENERGY ACCESS FOR ALL BENEFITS
THE ECONOMY AND THE ENVIRONMENT
POWERING CITIES
IN THE GLOBAL SOUTH
HOW ENERGY ACCESS FOR ALL BENEFITS
THE ECONOMY AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Editors
Bindu G
Ajith Jospeh K
Chandu PJ
Lasse H Pettersson
Nansen Environmental Research Centre (India), Kochi, Kerala
my first book
ISBN 978-81-951447-2-3 Powering Cities in the Global South
How Energy Access for all Benefits
the Economy and the Environment
© Editors, 2023 Tamil Nadu, India
English, Pages: xviii + 134 14 × 21.5 cm
MFB 3
My First Book, 16/34, Palace Road, Thuckalay-629175, Tamil Nadu

The subject of this book and the views, beliefs, opinions, etc expressed in this
book are solely that of the authros/editors. The book has been published in good
faith that the work is original and the publisher disclaims any responsibility
for the originality, accuracy, reliablility and completeness of the content.
Chief Minister’s Message v
Chief Minister’s Message

Chairman’s Message vii
Chairman’s Message
Today, about 55% of the world’s population lives in urban area and
the United Nations projections indicate that 68% of us will live
in urban areas by 2050. The current level of urbanization is most
profound in North America (with 82% of its population living in
urban areas in 2018), Latin America and the Caribbean (81%),
Europe (74%), and Oceania (68%). Still, about 54% of the urban
population lives in the cities in Asia. Furthermore, close to 90%
of this increase is projected to occur in Asia and Africa, with 35%
of the projected growth in urbanisation to occur in countries like
India, China, and Nigeria. This is according to the UN 2018 Revision
of World Urbanization Prospects (UN DESA, 2018)1, and together
with the overall increasing population on Earth an additional 2.5
billion people are projected to live in urban areas in a not-too-
distant future.
The 33 world-wide mega-cities (10+ million inhabitants) are
expected to increase by an additional 10 cities by 2030. However,
most of the fastest-growing urban agglomeration is expected to
occur in cities with less than 1 million inhabitants. Among other, the
UN SDG´s were formulated to cope with the challenges associated
with increased urbanization and population growth, contributing to
a new framework of urban development. The continued and growing
urbanization will impose challenges and a new management
1 https://population.un.org/wup/?_gl=1*1gwwcf*_ga*NDE0MTY2NTUuM
TY5MDUzMDIwOQ..*_ga_TK9BQL5X7Z*MTY5MDUzMDIwOC4xLjAuMTY
5MDUzMDIwOC4wLjAuMA.
viii Chairman’s Message
framework of development to meet the needs associated with the

increased population in the cites, world-wide. The new city citizens
need of course jobs and basic social services including health care
and education, but the cities of the present and future should be
prepared to offer adequate housing, transportation, energy systems
and other infrastructure, often referred to as ‘smart cities’.
The increased pressure on urban areas requires smart city
planning, assuring an integrated and holistic socio-environmentally
sustainable development in balance to the benefit of both the
citizens and the environment. This will require significant changes
in both the planning and the actual living conditions in the urban
areas. Supply, utilization and generation of energy and power are
important issues for the development of smart cities, where access
to space is a major constraining factor in urban areas.
The conference, ‘Powering Cities in the Global South: How
Energy Access for All Benefits the Economy and the Environment’,
addressed energy challenges for smart cities in the southern Asia.
The workshop objective was to share and disseminate knowledge
and information based on renewable energy sector in India. Further,
to explore possibilities for extended collaboration in the future
from the global south and within different smart cities across India.
The workshop addressed particularly three major topics: (i)
Green Energy and Sustainable City Planning; (ii) Smart Energy
Systems for Urban Areas; and (iii) Challenges for Renewable in
India. Based on the presentations and discussions, the conference
made the following recommendations for implementation towards
smart city development in southern Asia, India and Kerala in
particular:
yy An integrated framework and guideline for the adaption

of sustainable energy practices by cities with a large
population.
yy Mandate clean energy technologies in emerging applications
viz mobility, green hydrogen, cooking, cooling, etc.
yy Explore offshore wind power harnessing, along the lengthy
coastline of Kerala.
Chairman’s Message ix
yy The unexplored biofuel generation from aquatic weeds has

a large potential in the state. Specific studies need to be
undertaken for an assessment of its potential.
yy Distributed renewable energy for livelihood applications
needs to be examined in detail.
yy Financial interventions to accelerate renewable energy
uptake through co-operative banks and non-banking
financial companies.
yy Regulatory framework (Virtual Net Metering) for
distribution of energy credits among subscribers of
renewable energy installations.
To elaborate the state-of-the-art knowledge and the
contributions from various disciplines on renewable energy for
sustainable development of smart cities, meeting the needs of
the present and future, we have challenged scientists, developers,
planners, managers, and politicians to contribute. Some of the
presentations shed light on where the state of Kerala stands with
respect to the concept of renewable energy. The presentations
given sparked discussions around challenges and opportunities in
renewable energy solutions, viz: solar, wind, hydroelectric, tidal and
biomass, adaptable to both urban and rural areas. The technologies
and solutions on smart energy systems for efficient transportation,
energy supply, increasing the energy efficiency and reducing carbon
footprints, both at national and community levels were discussed.
Furthermore, the conference demonstrated how virtual reality
technology can contribute to visualize the cities of the future and
then facilitate the acceptance of the changes needed. In addition
to the lower costs associated with fossil energy, the main barriers
to renewable energy procurement are policy and regulations,
technology options, financial constraints, and capacity building.
The governments should develop enabling policies, regulatory
frameworks and financing schemes and enable renewable energy
solutions for livelihood applications. Distributable renewable
energy for livelihood applications is a solution for energy
management challenges.
x Chairman’s Message
The Nansen Centres in Norway and India and the entire URSA-
MAJOR project partners hope that this book will provide some ideas
and contributions to the development of smart cities that meets the
need of their inhabitants.
Bergen Lasse H. Pettersson

July 2023 Chairman—NERCI Board
Preface xi
Preface
Increased pressure on urban areas requires ‘smart city’ planning,

ensuring integrated and holistic socio-environmentally sustainable
development in balance to the benefit of both the citizens and the
environment. Energy is fundamental to economic productivity and
livelihoods, and cities have a major role to play in how it is provided,
distributed and consumed. Generation and utilisation of energy and
power are the important issues for the development of smart cities,
where access to space is a major constraining factor. Cities in the
global south face three fundamental energy challenges: the urgent
need to increase access to clean, affordable, and reliable energy; how
to meet increasing electricity demand while addressing inadequate
supply and system inefficiencies; and the imperative to chart a new
model of development that slows the growth of carbon emissions
and is not fossil fuel-intensive. The conference ‘Powering Cities in
the Global South: How Energy Access for All Benefits the Economy
and the Environment’ addressed particularly three major themes:
1. Green Energy and Sustainable City Planning

2. Smart Energy Systems for Urban Areas
3. Challenges of Renewable energy in India.
The objective was to share and disseminate knowledge and
information based on the renewable energy sector in India. Further,
xii Preface
to explore possibilities for more collaboration in the future from

the global south and within different smart cities across India.
‘Smart City’ is a concept that has been put forward to
describe an interconnected urban environment that activates the
feedback of citizens. The project ‘URban Sustainability in Action:
Multidisciplinary Approach through Jointly Organized Research
Schools’ (URSA MAJOR), integrates interdisciplinary advances into
a holistic socio-environmental programme for ‘Smart Cities’. URSA
MAJOR is coordinated by the Nansen Environmental and Remote
Sensing Centre (NERSC), Norway and funded by INTPART-2020—
International Partnerships for Excellent Education, Research and
Innovation Project of the Research Council of Norway. The project
has its focus on regions of accelerated and amplified climate change
where urban areas have urgent needs to improve their sustainability
and resilience strategies, and where the cost of maladaptation is
intolerably high and beyond precautionary actions. URSA MAJOR
seeks a multidisciplinary approach to urban nature-based solutions
by strengthening access to digital communication and remote
sensing. Under the work package, Road to the South activities in the
project, a two-day international conference on ‘Powering Cities in
the Global South: How Energy Access for All Benefits the Economy
and the Environment’ was organised by the Nansen Environmental
Research Centre (India). The objective was to share and disseminate
knowledge and information based on the Renewable Energy sector
in India and to explore possibilities for more collaboration in the
future from the global south and within different smart cities across
India.
The sessions of the conference were planned in such a manner
that they included sharing of experiences by various stakeholders.
The conference had twelve speakers from diverse backgrounds and
esteemed institutions like The Arctic University of Norway/Nansen
Environmental and Remote Sensing Center, Jawaharlal Nehru
University, Cochin International Airport Ltd, West Bengal Housing
Infrastructure Development Corporation Ltd, Energy Management
Centre, Kerala, National Institute of Advanced Studies and Centre for
Earth Research and Environmental Management, National Institute
of Solar Energy, NTPC School of Business, Norwegian University
of Science and Technology, SINTEF, Ernst & Young, Kerala State
Preface xiii
Electricity Board, World Resources Institute etc. Representatives

from universities, research institutes, LSGD, private companies,
smart cities, research scholars and students participated in the
conference. The conference programme schedule is given in
Annexure
During the inaugural address Hon. Mayor, Kochi Municipal
Corporation, Adv. M. Anil Kumar, highlighted the renewable energy
practices in Cochin, such as the power-neutral airport, metro, and
electric autorickshaws. He discussed the effects of climate change,
particularly the monsoon vagaries, city transformation, wetland
conversion, sea level rise, and water logging and the importance
of initiatives and efforts that could integrate climate change with
energy issues and energy conservation. He concluded that the two-
day international conference on powering cities in the global south
would be an excellent beginning for the city of Cochin to become a
sustainable smart city in all aspects.
Nota Bene
The content of this book has elaborated from the conference,
Powering Cities in the Global South: How Energy Access for All
Benefits the Economy and the Environment, organized on 31 October
and 1 November, 2023 by the Nansen Environmental Research
Centre—India (NERCI) in Kochi, Kerala, India. The conference and
the book were initiated under the international project URban
Sustainability in Action Multidisciplinary Approach through Jointly
Organized Research schools (URSA-MAJOR), coordinated by the
Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Center (NERSC). URSA-
MAJOR is funded by the Research Council of Norway under the
International Partnerships for Excellent Education, Research, and
Innovation program (INTPART), grant #322317.
This book has been carefully prepared and the information presented
herein is provided in good faith. The book is a compilation of papers
and reports based on various presentations, some of which have
been revised for consistency. However, it cannot be guaranteed that
the contents are accurate or comprehensive, and the responsibility
for the accuracy of the information lies with the coordinators of
xiv Preface
these projects. Neither the Nansen Environmental Research Centre

(India) nor URSA MAJOR can be held liable for the contents of the
book or for any use that may be made of the information presented.
If the readers require up-to-date information on a particular topic,
they are requested to contact the authors directly.
Bindu G
Ajith Jospeh K
Chandu PJ
Lasse H Pettersson
Acknowledgements xv
Acknowledgements
We extend our sincere appreciation to all those who contributed

to the success of the URSA MAJOR Conference. We are grateful to
the Research Council of Norway (grant #322317) for funding this
project, and to the Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing
Centre (NERSC), Norway, for coordinating it.
We acknowledge the speakers and participants of the
international conference on ‘Powering Cities in the Global
South: How Energy Access for All Benefits the Economy and the
Environment’ under the URSA MAJOR project’s Road to the South
activities. We thank them for sharing their valuable insights on the
renewable energy sector in India and exploring possibilities for
collaboration within different smart cities across India.
Finally, we express our gratitude to all the contributors to
this book, which is a compilation of papers and reports presented
during the conference. Their efforts and valuable insights have
made this book a comprehensive resource for understanding and
implementing smart city solutions with respect to renewable
energy.
Bindu G
Ajith Jospeh K
Chandu PJ
Lasse H Pettersson
Contents xvii
Contents
1. Smart Urban Climate Requires Smart Energy Solutions 1
2. Economic, Social And Environmental Challenges

and Opportunities While Applying Sustainability
Concepts: Focus New Town Kolkata 15
3. Extended Reality For Sustainable Urban

Development and Citizen Engagement 23
4. Wastes to Energy as a Pathway to Socio-Economical

and Environmental Sustainability 43
5. Photovoltaic Systems at Møllenberg: how to Increase

The Social Acceptance of Photovoltaic Systems 55
6. Peak Time Power Supply from Renewables—Scope

of Time-of-Day Framework for Feed-in-Tariff 61
7. Rooftop Solar: India’s Journey 69
8. Energy and Green Rating of Buildings 85
9. 100% Renewable Energy by 2050: Challenges and

Opportunities for India 91
10. Green Initiatives of Cochin International Airport

Limited: Cial Success Story in Renewable Energy Sector 97
xviii Contents
11. Decentralized RE Applications and Energy Acess in

Agriculture Sector—Innovations at NISE 101
12. Global Scenario of Cities 105
13. Smart Electric Vehicle Charging: Integrating Renewable

Energy Sources and Power System
Flexibility in India by 2030 111
14. Renewable Energy Transition in India:

Opportunities and Challenges 113
15. Transition to Sustainable Energy in Urban India:

Challenges 119
16. A New Vision Plan in Renewable Energy for Kerala 123
Concluding Remarks 125

Annexure 127
v
Smart Urban Climate Igor Esau
UiT–The Arctic University
Requires Smart Energy of Norway
Tromsø, Norway
Solutions Nansen Environmental
and Remote Sensing
Center, Bergen, Norway
igor.ezau@uit.no
Introduction
Human well-being, the essence of our civilization
paradigm, strongly depends on access to abundant
and affordable energy. Figure 1a illustrates one kind
of dependence, namely, the gross domestic product
(GDP) per capita presented against energy use per
capita in different countries. The higher the energy
use, the higher per capita income it generates. The
efficiency of energy use varies significantly across
different countries, though Figure 1b illustrates the
strong dependence between a human development
index (HDI) and primary power consumption.
Energy-rich countries with per capita power
consumption greater than about 5 kW per person do
not demonstrate significant further HDI increase. At
this end, other socio-economic and environmental
factors dominate HDI variations. By contrast, the
countries with low primary power consumption—
those at the Global South—are able to strongly
increase HDI when energy becomes more accessible.
2 Powering Cities in the Global South
(a)
(b)
Figure 1 Dependence between human well-being measured
(a) through the gross domestic product (GDP) by country and
(b) through a human development index (HDI) by country on
energy use per capita. Courtesy: (a) Our World in Data (https://
ourworldindata.org/grapher/energy-use-per-capita-vs-gdp-per-
capita?yScale=log); (b) Bruce Dale (http://empowereq.ca/energy-
poverty-awareness/). License CC BY.
Smart Urban Climate Requires Smart Energy Solutions 3
The established connection between human development

and energy consumption is the foundation of the United Nations
Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) for abundant and clean
energy (SDG-7). SDG-7 promotes electrification and transition
to renewable energy sources. Indeed, further increase in global
energy production cannot rely on fossil energy sources (coal, oil,
natural gas, etc.) as emission of carbon dioxide results in global
warming, which again affects the Global South the most. As the
role of intermittent renewable energy sources increases, the
role of weather and climate factors in energy supply increases as
well. Staffell and Pfenninger (Staffell and Pfenninger, 2018) study
revealed that the weather factors are about to affect more than 50%
of electric power production in the UK in 2017 (Figure 2). The role
of intermittent weather resources is expected to increase further as
fossil fuel power generation will be decommissioned in the future.
Figure 2 The role of weather factors in the UK energy production after

(Staffell and Pfenninger, 2018).
Smart energy production changes the role of consumers.

Consumers become prosumers. Our transition to smart energies
requires more holistic effort than just transitioning to use clean and
renewable energy sources. Intermittence and spatial distribution of
renewable energy sources require rewiring the entire production,
supply, and distribution chain as illustrated in Figure 3 (from the
‘Energy Atlas’). Prosumers begin to play an active, participating
role in the energy system both producing, exchanging, and
consuming energy. Prosumers in smart cities are pioneering the
transition to the smart energy system of tomorrow (Anthony
Jnr, 2020; van Wees et al, 2022). The complexity of the urban
electricity grid is more permissive to innovations and rewiring.
Indeed, urban energy systems supply many small consumers,
which could be wired within energy positive districts. Solar energy
generation and electric vehicle storage are promising technologies
for such rewiring in both the Global South and the Global North
(Sagaria et al, 2022). For example, an average Norwegian household
(high energy consumption country) will need only 330 m2 of solar
panels to fully meet its electricity needs1. This area of solar panels
reduces to just 50 m2 in India; about 25% of this reduction is due
to higher solar flux density and 75% is due to lower energy needs
(house and water heating, e-vehicle charging, etc).
This contribution surveys the multidisciplinary nature of
dependences between the local climate and energy solutions in
smart cities. To mitigate both local and global climate change
and meet the SDGs, cities must transform themselves into
low-carbon, resilient, and livable settlements. Kammen and Sunter
in their Science perspectives (Kammen and Sunter, 2016) stated
that ‘Cities not only contribute to global climate change by emitting
the majority of anthropogenic greenhouse gases but are also
particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change and extreme
weather’. We need to explore options for sustainable and smart
urban energy systems, which are not only focused on decoupling
HDI from energy consumption; this is unlikely a beneficial option
to the Global South (Figure 1). Advancements in power density
1 This is own estimate based on energy consumption data for 2019 from the
Norwegian Statistical Central Bureau.
and city-integrated renewable energy are also suited to satisfy the

growing energy demands in urban areas.
Figure 3 The ‘Energy Atlas’ illustrates differences between traditional

and smart organization of energy production, distribution, and
consumption. In the smart energy system, the role of consumer
is active and participating. The consumers become prosumers.
A smart urban climate is a

wicked socio-environmental problem
Urban climate is frequently distinct from regional climate
(Liu et al, 2022). The major influencing factors are related to specific
land use—land cover types, anthropogenic heat release, and climate
zone conditions (Manoli et al, 2019). The climate anomalies are

unevenly distributed within urban areas; the more economically
disadvantaged groups of city dwellers experience a larger burden
of urban warming (Hsu et al, 2021). Attempts to improve urban
climate standards are concentrated in wealthier, more affluent
districts and may even enhance the climatic vulnerability of most of
the urban population. In 1973, Horst Rittel and Melvin Webber (the
University of Berkley in California) proposed in their Policy Sciences
paper that there is a whole realm of social planning problems that
cannot be successfully treated with traditional ‘Problem–Solution’
approaches. Those so-called wicked societal problems require
a nexus approach where improvements to the entire system are
considered in an iterative manner. Urban socio-environmental
interactions represent one of such wicked problems, for it requires
consideration of energy system transitions and its interlinked
impact on both society, environment, and climate. For example, in
India, urbanization factors are potent to greatly exacerbate global
warming in urban areas (Cui et al, 2016). Traditional nature-based
solutions to meeting the urban heat island, such as urban greening,
show diminishing efficiency in tropical cities (Wang et al, 2022).
Thus, new approaches are required that would also reduce energy
use and redistribute anthropogenic heat release in cities (Kammen
and Sunter, 2016).
Smart urban energy system

A smart urban energy system connects producers, consumers,
and increasingly prosumers of energy. Photovoltaic solar energy
harvesting is the most perspective solution for cities. This
technology emits no greenhouse gases, air pollutants, or noise. It
is almost maintenance-free. The solar panels occupy space that
is otherwise not in use, such as rooftops, parking lots, and even
roads. The solar panels may also cover water reservoirs helping to
mitigate water conservation needs.
Although a typical southern city has enough space for solar panel
installation to satisfy the needs of its residents, a lack of economic
incentives and approaches to mitigate high intermittency of solar
generation has set back the solar energy transitions. Photovoltaic

climate in southern cities is rather optimal (Ascencio-Vásquez et al,
2019; Skandalos et al, 2022). High-efficiency solar facilities on
suitable rooftops could satisfy up to 31% of the daily electricity
demand and 47.7 to 94.1% of the morning peak electricity demand
of Mumbai, India (Singh and Banerjee, 2015).
Solar panels themselves cool the cities (Masson et al, 2014).
High reflectivity and energy-conversion efficiency of solar panels
have a potential to reduce the urban heat anomalies. More accurate
estimation of environmental effects in urban energy-positive
districts requires sophisticated three-dimensional modelling with
complex parameterizations of the surface energy fluxes. Such models
are now under active development by several group; e.g., the PALM
modelling system demonstrated encouraging results in modelling
of urban surface characteristics and micro-climate features
(Geletič et al, 2022, 2021; Salim et al, 2022).
To further evaluate the impact of surface features on urban
weather and climate, it is necessary to advance urbanisation
schemes in coupled numerical weather prediction models.
Here, envisioned Urban Integrated Modelling Systems (UIS) are
demanded (Grimmond et al, 2020). Moreover, as in the case of
transition to smart energies, UIS development is a wicked societal
challenge—a model structural deficiencies may favour non-optimal
options (Esau et al, 2021) but their transfer into an Integrated
Urban hydrometeorological, climate and environmental Services
(IUS. Examples are known from southern cities where urban
greening and cooling could lead to increased water demand and
scarcity of supply (Nouri et al, 2019) as well as from northern cities
where urban densification could lead to excessive frost reduction
in soils and subsequent building collapse (Rajendran et al, 2021).
Despite the need for further in-depth studies, it has been shown
that solar panels reduce the energy needed for air-conditioning (by
12% in Paris) and also the Urban Heat Island (UHI) during hot days
(Masson et al, 2014).
Figure 4 Influence of urbanization factors on surface urban heat island

intensity after Cui et al. (Cui et al, 2016).
Co-benefits of nexus
nature-based solutions in smart cities
Urban smart energy and smart climate issues are often considered
separately. There is, however, an intrinsic link between energy
prosumer needs and climate adaptation challenges in cities. Smart
and sustainable cities must meet their needs with smart renewable
energy production. The urban energy-climate nexus is feasible.
For example, it has been shown that transitioning to enhanced
solar energy production will also reduce urban overheating.
This example could be generalized, considering the co-benefits
of nexus nature-based solutions in smart cities. Current urban
policy in smart cities begins shifting its focus from technology-
based to nature-based solutions, broadly defined as solutions
to societal challenges that are inspired and supported by nature
(Raymond et al, 2017).
Nature-based solutions seek the provision of co-benefits,
such as the improvement of place attractiveness, environmental
quality, and health. A holistic framework for assessing co-benefits
(and costs) across socio-cultural-economic systems is still under
development. Controversial ideas emerge. Policy options are
frequently not validated against rigorous quantitative models.

Raymond et al (Raymond et al, 2017) reviewed over 1700
documents from science and practice within and across 10 societal
challenges relevant to cities globally. They proposed a seven-stage
process to integrate the nature-based solutions. The process could
be adopted for the integration of smart renewable energy solutions
into climate-smart cities.
The stages are:
1. identify the problem or opportunity;

2. select and assess the solution and related actions;
3. design implementation processes;
4. implement;
5. frequently engage stakeholders and communicate co-
benefits;
6. transfer and upscale; and
7. monitor and evaluate co-benefits across all stages. Unlike
many technology-oriented policy processes, this process
considers community values. It builds on the concepts
of natural capital and ecosystem services and the
landscape values methodology to link local perceptions
of place to a broader measure of environmental values
(Raymond et al., 2009). Not surprisingly, perhaps, the
highest values were assigned to natural capital assets
such as water and ecosystems, especially those proving
cultural services. Urban citizens believe that people are
integral to the environment but also pose a high threat to
natural capital and ecosystem services (Figure 5).
Figure 5 Co-benefits of ecosystem services in smart cities (Raymond et al,

2017).
Conclusions
Challenges related to smart energy grids and smart and sustainable
cities have been addressed in many publications. There is an
unfortunate tendency to consider them separately. Analysis of
several key publications from different disciplines, however, reveals
the energy-climate nexus in urban areas have much to provide. The
possible co-benefits ranges from mitigation of the urban heat island
through cooling by solar panels to promotion of energy-positive
districts in less advantaged urban communities.
The energy system of tomorrow will likely be less centralized
and dependent on large capital. Small energy prosumers rewired
by a smart grid will reduce the energy imports of cities. There is

enough space within southern cities to mitigate the energy needs
of households. There are, however, some challenges to overcome.
They are related to intermittent nature of renewable energy
production, the need for backup and storage systems, and not least
to significant societal changes in urban communities.
References
Anthony Jnr, B., 2020. Smart city data architecture for energy prosumption
in municipalities: concepts, requirements, and future directions. Int. J. Green
Energy 17, 827–845. https://doi.org/10.1080/15435075.2020.1791878
Ascencio-Vásquez, J., Brecl, K., Topič, M., 2019. Methodology of Köppen-Geiger-
Photovoltaic climate classification and implications to worldwide mapping of
PV system performance. Sol. Energy 191, 672–685. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
solener.2019.08.072
Cui, Y., Xu, X., Dong, J., Qin, Y., 2016. Influence of urbanization factors on
surface urban heat island intensity: A comparison of countries at different
developmental phases. Sustain. 8. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8080706
Esau, I., Bobylev, L., Donchenko, V., Gnatiuk, N., Lappalainen, H.K., Konstantinov,
P., Kulmala, M., Mahura, A., Makkonen, R., Manvelova, A., Miles, V., Petäjä, T.,
Poutanen, P., Fedorov, R., Varentsov, M., Wolf, T., Zilitinkevich, S., Baklanov, A.,
2021. An enhanced integrated approach to knowledgeable high-resolution
environmental quality assessment. Environ. Sci. Policy 122, 1–13. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.envsci.2021.03.020
Geletič, J., Lehnert, M., Krč, P., Resler, J., Krayenhoff, E.S., 2021. High-Resolution
Modelling of Thermal Exposure during a Hot Spell: A Case Study Using PALM-
4U in Prague, Czech Republic. Atmosphere (Basel). 12, 175. https://doi.
org/10.3390/atmos12020175
Geletič, J., Lehnert, M., Resler, J., Krč, P., Middel, A., Krayenhoff, E.S., Krüger, E.,
2022. High-fidelity simulation of the effects of street trees, green roofs and
green walls on the distribution of thermal exposure in Prague-Dejvice. Build.
Environ. 223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2022.109484
Grimmond, S., Bouchet, V., Molina, L.T., Baklanov, A., Tan, J., Schlünzen,
K.H., Mills, G., Golding, B., Masson, V., Ren, C., Voogt, J., Miao, S., Lean, H.,
Heusinkveld, B., Hovespyan, A., Teruggi, G., Parrish, P., Joe, P., 2020. Integrated
urban hydrometeorological, climate and environmental services: Concept,
methodology and key messages. Urban Clim. 33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
uclim.2020.100623
Hsu, A., Sheriff, G., Chakraborty, T., Manya, D., 2021. Disproportionate exposure
to urban heat island intensity across major US cities. Nat. Commun. 12, 2721.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-22799-5
Kammen, D.M., Sunter, D.A., 2016. City-integrated renewable energy for urban
sustainability. Science (80-. ). 352, 922–928. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.
aad9302
Liu, Z., Zhan, W., Bechtel, B., Voogt, J., Lai, J., Chakraborty, T., Wang, Z.-H., Li, M.,
Huang, F., Lee, X., 2022. Surface warming in global cities is substantially more
rapid than in rural background areas. Commun. Earth Environ. 3, 219. https://
doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00539-x
Manoli, G., Fatichi, S., Schläpfer, M., Yu, K., Crowther, T.W., Meili, N., Burlando,
P., Katul, G.G., Bou-Zeid, E., 2019. Magnitude of urban heat islands largely
explained by climate and population. Nature 573, 55–60. https://doi.
org/10.1038/s41586-019-1512-9
Masson, V., Bonhomme, M., Salagnac, J.-L., Briottet, X., Lemonsu, A., 2014. Solar
panels reduce both global warming and urban heat island. Front. Environ. Sci.
2, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2014.00014
Nouri, H., Chavoshi Borujeni, S., Hoekstra, A.Y., 2019. The blue water footprint
of urban green spaces: An example for Adelaide, Australia. Landsc. Urban Plan.
190, 103613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2019.103613
Rajendran, S., Sadooni, F.N., Al-Kuwari, H.A.S., Oleg, A., Govil, H., Nasir, S.,
Vethamony, P., 2021. Monitoring oil spill in Norilsk, Russia using satellite data.
Sci. Rep. 11, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-83260-7
Raymond, C.M., Bryan, B.A., MacDonald, D.H., Cast, A., Strathearn, S.,
Grandgirard, A., Kalivas, T., 2009. Mapping community values for natural capital
and ecosystem services. Ecol. Econ. 68, 1301–1315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ecolecon.2008.12.006
Raymond, C.M., Frantzeskaki, N., Kabisch, N., Berry, P., Breil, M., Nita, M.R.,
Geneletti, D., Calfapietra, C., 2017. A framework for assessing and implementing
the co-benefits of nature-based solutions in urban areas. Environ. Sci. Policy.
77, 15–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2017.07.008
Sagaria, S., Duarte, G., Neves, D., Baptista, P., 2022. Photovoltaic integrated
electric vehicles: Assessment of synergies between solar energy, vehicle types
and usage patterns. J. Clean. Prod. 348, 131402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jclepro.2022.131402
Salim, M.H., Schubert, S., Resler, J., Krč, P., Maronga, B., Kanani-Sühring, F.,
Sühring, M., Schneider, C., 2022. Importance of radiative transfer processes in
urban climate models: a study based on the PALM 6.0 model system. Geosci.
Model Dev. 15, 145–171. https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-145-2022
Singh, R., Banerjee, R., 2015. Estimation of rooftop solar photovoltaic

potential of a city. Sol. Energy. 115, 589–602. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
solener.2015.03.016
Skandalos, N., Wang, M., Kapsalis, V., D’Agostino, D., Parker, D., Bhuvad, S.S.,
Udayraj, Peng, J., Karamanis, D., 2022. Building PV integration according to
regional climate conditions: BIPV regional adaptability extending Köppen-
Geiger climate classification against urban and climate-related temperature
increases. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 169, 112950. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
rser.2022.112950
Staffell, I., Pfenninger, S., 2018. The increasing impact of weather on electricity
supply and demand. Energy. 145, 65–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
energy.2017.12.051
van Wees, M., Revilla, B.P., Fitzgerald, H., Ahlers, D., Romero, N., Alpagut, B., Kort,
J., Tjahja, C., Kaiser, G., Blessing, V., Patricio, L., Smit, S., 2022. Energy Citizenship
in Positive Energy Districts—Towards a Transdisciplinary Approach to Impact
Assessment. Buildings. 12, 186. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12020186
Wang, C., Ren, Z., Dong, Y., Zhang, P., Guo, Y., Wang, W., Bao, G., 2022. Efficient
cooling of cities at global scale using urban green space to mitigate urban heat
island effects in different climatic regions. Urban For. Urban Green. 74, 127635.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2022.127635
v
Economic, Social And Debashis Sen
Ex. Additional Chief
Environmental Challenges Secretary
Government of West
And Opportunities While Bengal
&
Applying Sustainability Chairman
Concepts: Focus New New Town Kolkata

Development Authority
Town Kolkata Kolkata, West Bengal
nkgsccl@gmail.com
Introduction
New Town Kolkata is a sustainable smart city in
the eastern part of the Kolkata metropolis in West
Bengal. It is an Indian Green Building Council
(IGBC) certified project initiative of the urban
local body, New Town Kolkata. These initiatives of
the city have already been recognised by the UN
High Level Dialogue on Energy. As per the state
government’s policy, New Town is the pilot city
for implementing and showcasing electric and
green mobility solutions. This paper describes the
different policy and project initiatives taken by the
authorities of The New Town Kolkata Development
Authority (NKDA) and the challenges.
Commitments of NKDA
In its Energy Compact accepted by the UN, New Town has set a
highly ambitious target for sustainable energy usage. The Energy
Compact commits to the following:
yy Stable modern energy connection to all.

yy A 5% gain in energy efficiency.
yy Explore geothermal energy by 2030.
yy 2% renewable energy in the energy mix used by 2030.
yy Non motorization of 50% of intra city transport.
yy A liquid hydrogen fuel plant with advanced technology.
Sustainability initiatives in New Town

1. Policy Level
yy The preparation of Green House Gas (GHG) inventory with

mitigation strategies is at the final stage.
yy NKDA has partnered with Jadavpur University to finalise the
policy.
yy Biodiversity Management Committee was formed for the city
and people’s Biodiversity Register is being prepared.
yy Building rules are amended to encourage and facilitate the use
of solar energy greening and cycling.
yy A tree census has been conducted and large-scale tree-
plantation drives are being implemented in a continuous
manner to mitigate climate change.
yy A committee for Non-Motorised Transport is formed to actively
promote non-motorised mode of transportation.
yy Policy drafted to setup Canal Top Solar Power Plant in Public-
Private Partnership (PPP) mode.
Economic, Social and Environmental Challenges… 17
2. Project Level
Development of solar power plants and solar street lights

yy 1500 kwh power generated daily from canal top solar plants.
yy 7000 kg carbon offset daily.
yy Saved Rs 13 lakh per month on electricity charges
yy Installation of multi-level roof top solar power plants.
yy Almost all government buildings are installed with rooftop
solar plants.
yy 180 kwh solar dome was set up in eco park.
yy Net metering feeds surplus to grid.
yy Installed 900 solar streetlights in New Town.
Waste to energy project

yy 100% door-to-door collection of waste that is monitored
through real-time app-driven.
yy Smart home tag.
yy Waste is segregated at source collection points.
yy Five tonnes of biodegradable waste per day are fed to
methanation plant.
yy 100 streetlights are illuminated by power generated from
biomethanation plants.
Zero Shop: upcycling initiative

yy Old clothes and other used materials are recycled.
yy Zero Shop is the brand developed and promoted for upcycling.
yy Livelihood generated for self-help women groups.
Plastic-free Community Market

yy Alternatives to plastic carry bags introduced at subsidized rate.
yy Cloth bags are distributed at neighbouring blocks.
yy AI-based plastic bag detection systems are introduced.
Plantation and greening projects

yy Around 10,000 trees are planted every year in New Town.
yy Dedicated spaces to setup green verges are reserved.
yy Adoption of Green Verges by institutions and NGOs to involve.
community participation in plantation.
yy Setting of multiple open spaces and greening of metro–pillars
to increase city’s green cover.
yy Introduction of Smart Plaza, Shanku Park, Apur Sansar Park,
Neem Banani, Activity Park and many other initiatives.
Promotion of electric vehicles

yy New Town has been declared the pilot city for electric vehicles.
yy 26 EV charging stations has been installed.
yy The installation of 45 more EV charging stations is in progress.
yy Electric buses are introduced in a phased manner.
Promotion of Non-motorized transport

yy Setting of hundreds of kilometres of exclusive footpaths.
yy Setting of dedicated cycle lane and cycle track for 35 km.
yy An app-based public bicycle sharing system has been used by
more than 50,000 users in two years.
yy The monthly average carbon offset has been reduced by an
average of 67,000 kg.
Self-reliant utilities and buildings

yy All streetlights are converted to LED technology.
yy Lora Wan-based street lighting systems has saved Rs 65 lakh

per month.
yy A SCADA-based water supply monitoring system has been
introduced that monitors the quality and quantity of water
supplied and prevents water loss and revenue.
Air Quality Monitoring Stations

yy Six air quality monitoring stations are set up in the city.
yy Air quality monitoring stations provide accurate data on
different parameters.
Social Context:
Challenges and Opportunities
Biomethanation projects
NIMBY Balaka Housing Bio-methanation based power plant
illuminates 100 street lights. People welcome these initiatives.
But ‘Not in My Back Yard’ (NIMBY) issues raise in the immediate
neighbourhood. The plant besides the Balaka Housing often
has waste management-related objections from the residents.
Technological interventions and taking the residents into confidence
remains a challenge to solve the NIMBY issue.
Electric Vehicles and Vanos

In the Public Bicycle Sharing (PBS) system, around 100 electric
bikes are operated for long-distance travel. Often irresponsible
users take this outside the city, resulting in inconvenience to the
operators and requiring police intervention. Vanos—rickshaw
vans fitted with makeshift two stroke engines—regularly enter
city limits. Vanos carrying construction materials and vegetables
pollute the city with smoke and noise. Restricting their movements
is a serious challenge to maintain air quality.
Dedicated cycle lanes are built to promote non-motorised
transport. But two-wheelers driving on these lanes, parking cars
two-wheelers blocks these lanes. Continuous surveillance and
awareness are required to handle this challenge.
EV Charging in Gated-societies
Government of West Bengal has declared New Town a pilot city
for electric vehicles. For this, setting up of EV charging stations
in gated-societies is promoted. But this electric vehicle charging
stations require a non-residential power connection in a residential
complex. This leads to higher tariff and other compliance issues
that has to be solved.
Zero Shop
Volume of waste in the dumping ground is reducing due to upcycling
in the Zero Shop. The popularity of upcycled products is slowly
gaining ground. Setting up more Zero Shops at different locations
and maintaining them through wide publicity and increase sales
poses a challenge.
Solid Waste Management

The solid waste is collected after segregation at houses. However,
unsegregated waste also reaches the dumping ground. Sometimes,
to segregate saleable and recyclable material from waste, ragpickers
burn it. Others also burn grass and other waste for various purposes.
All these fires cause severe smoke and deteriorate air quality. This
poses a serious challenge to maintaining a sustainable environment
in the city. Though authorities handle these with aerial surveillance
using drones, fire extinguishers and awareness programmes the
challenge continues.
Vertical Gardens
Vertical gardens have been set up on metro railway pillars in New
Town to create more green cover and reduce heat islands. These
are sensor-enabled for watering and manuring. However, due to
extreme outdoor conditions, often the sensors fail and the plants
are spoiled. To preserve them, jet pump-fitted tankers are used to
water and apply fertilisers. These tankers are also used for road
sweeping to keep the city clean.
Regulation of Plastic Bags

As a pilot initiative, alternatives to plastic bags are being promoted
with subsidies and free supplies. Artificial intelligence-based
detection system, monitored through CCTVs, identifies buyers
carrying plastic bags and alerts the management. The tariff and
convenience of the alternatives compared to plastic bags restricts
usage by both buyers and sellers. Plastic-free awareness campaigns
and strict enforcement of alternatives are in place to make the
plastic ban a reality.
Civil Aviation Regulations

New Town is a growing city. It is the most popular residential and
commercial destination in the Kolkata Metropolitan Area. So, more
open green spaces are required to meet the increasing population
and construction. Densification of trees and restricting the height
of buildings are the main tasks. Since the city close to the airport,
the civil aviation regulations restrict the height of construction
providing space for more greens.
Conclusions
Consistent policy and implementation of green projects with a
continued thrust on sustainability are being followed in New Town.
The challenges are being handled through positive engagement
with all stakeholders and new opportunities are being explored to
ensure the sustainability of the city through scouting for investment
and technology. Continuous awareness campaigns and community
participation programs are organized to ensure a sustainable green
smart city.
v
Extended Reality For Bjørn Rude Jacobsen,
Sobah Abbas Petersen
Sustainable Urban SINTEF Digital
Trondheim, Norway
Development And {sobah.petersen, bjorn.
rude.jacobsen}@sintef.no
Citizen Engagement
Introduction
Sustainable urban transitions are complex and
include challenges from diverse perspectives
such as energy efficiency, public spaces as well as
the needs and wishes of the citizens. A dominant
percent of CO2 emissions come from fossil fuels,
which has led to worldwide efforts to transition to
a more environment-friendly and greener sources
of energy. The engagement and participation of
citizens in energy transitions are necessary for
several reasons. Citizens are seen as ‘agents of
change’, who engage with the subject (eg energy)
as a part of their own practices, and are urged to
‘play their part’ in the transition (Wahlund & Palm,
2022). In energy transitions, citizens play an active
role in producing renewable energy as individuals
and as communities. The European Energy Agency
reports several such initiatives in Europe that are
both driving citizen-led initiatives as well as local and national

governments towards sustainable transitions.1
Policymakers and decision-makers are challenged with
difficult decisions and obtaining the acceptance of citizens.
Further, governments and public institutions are often blamed
for responding inadequately to environmental challenges. And at
times, it appears that the environmental values that the citizens
hold are not represented by the governments. The need to go
beyond understanding what the citizen may think through polls
and voting to what the citizens would think or may want from their
public institutions is required to address the current environmental
challenges. This may be achieved through deliberative democratic
processes (Gerwin, 2022; Smith, 2003, 2011). Engaging the citizens
in the decision-making process would not only lead to a more
democratic process, but it can also contribute to public support
for the decisions and increase the likelihood of public acceptance,
eg in energy-related decisions (Wahlund & Palm, 2022).
Citizen engagement is necessary for sustainable transitions
as it can make citizens feel more involved in what is happening
around them. Citizens have been involved in many ways in policy
and decision-making processes. Existing means include informing
citizens through brochures, leaflets or information meetings.
Arnstein’s ladder of participation (Arnstein, 1969) identifies these
as ‘tokenism’ because the degree to which citizens contribute
and affect the process is limited. More recently, the ways that
citizens could contribute have broadened through the use of
digital technologies, for example, by reaching out and engaging
more people in online surveys and polls. Concepts such as Living
Labs and co-creation activities (Concilio & Molinari, 2014; ENoLL,
2017) have emerged as means of engaging citizens for innovative
solutions.
Recent research has shown that while there has been an
increase in citizen engagement in sustainable transition activities,
1 EEA Report No. 1/2022: Energy prosumers in Europe—Citizen participation

in the energy transition. (n.d.). [Publication]. European Environment
Agency. Retrieved February 27, 2023, from https://www.eea.europa.eu/
publications/the-role-of-prosumers-of
Extended Reality for Sustainable Urban… 25
there is a need to enhance the diversity of citizen engagement

(Huttunen et al, 2022). Several forms of citizen engagement in
sustainable transitions have been identified, one of which is the
creation of sustainable futures, through enhancing the knowledge
of the citizens. Understanding sustainable transitions encompasses
not only an understanding of a complex entity such as a city as a
socio-ecological-technical system (Krueger et al, 2022) but also the
impact of changes in the future.
Envisioning such future scenarios is not an easy task for many of
us. Furthermore, cities consist of mental, social and physical spaces
(Kuļikovska, 2020), and changes and transformations in cities
or urban spaces should take into account these different spaces.
Many such challenges in engaging citizens in diverse situations
could be supported by digital technologies. Extended Reality (XR)
technology is seen as one that could support the engagement of
citizens in many ways.
XR is an umbrella term for technologies such as Augmented
Reality (AR) which overlays images onto the real world, and Virtual
Reality (VR) which creates a computer generated environment.
Perhaps the best-known example of AR is the free, location-based
mobile game Pokémon Go, which took the world by storm, engaging
people of all ages and walks of life. Pokémon Go players explore
their surroundings by pointing their mobile phones in all directions
with the hope of capturing a Pokémon entity, which is overlaid onto
the real-world surroundings. PokéStops are special sites of interest
in the real world, such as monuments, statues, and portals, where
players can find Pokéballs and other useful tools. PokéGyms, like
PokéStops, are places where players can train their Pokémon.
The phenomenon of Pokémon Go is a clear demonstration of
the technology’s affordances in engaging its users and keeping
them motivated in their pursuit of the cosmic entities. Further, the
level of engagement and enthusiasm among the players, combined
with some of the concepts incorporated in the game, enhanced
social interactions among the players. It also contributed to their
interaction and exploration of the physical space they live and move
around in. We have used this universal phenomenon of the location-
based game Pokémon Go to give a brief insight into the power and
potential of XR technologies in engaging citizens and enhancing

their awareness of the environments they live in.
XR has been used for extending community participation and
citizen engagement in urban planning in a few cities (Kuļikovska,
2020). Helsinki, Finland, has developed simulations of future city
scenarios using AR by augmenting city spaces with digital overlays.
Tallin, Estonia, has conducted an education and awareness raising
campaign by augmenting a part of the landscape with bees and
butterflies to enhance biodiversity in the area. Ideas for sharing
Open Data with citizens and contextualising the data by augmenting
a map of the city with the data have been of interest in Toronto,
Canada (Carnevale, 2017).
The benefits of XR in citizen engagement in sustainable urban
transitions are many and it can support meaningful participation in
the transition process. It can present the current or future situation
in a life-like and entertaining way, and contextualise the ideas with
the physical location or space of interest. It is envisaged as a means
to enhance the interest and engagement of citizens as well as bring
new perspectives to a plan or design.
The main objective of this paper is to provide an overview of XR
technologies for people who are less familiar with the technology.
We will present and discuss the benefits and challenges of using
XR for informing and engaging citizens in sustainable urban
transition processes, and we will describe the different types of XR
technologies and provide examples of each of them.
Extended Reality technologies

Extended Reality (XR) technologies is an umbrella term for
different reality technologies, such as AR and VR. The terms of these
technologies can be ambiguous and confusing, and attempts have been
made to explain what they are and to distinguish them. For instance,
the Reality-Virtuality (RV) Continuum is a framework that attempts to
explain what Mixed Reality is and how it relates to AR and VR (Milgram
et al, 1995). The paper proposes a continuum where AR and VR are
related, and where AR is a subclass of MR. The RV continuum has been
revisited by several researchers and clearer distinctions have been
made about the different technologies (Skarbez et al, 2021). Other
proposals suggest that MR consists of a mixture of digital and physical

worlds where the two worlds interact2. For the purpose of simplicity
and clarity, we will use the definitions proposed by Rauschnabel et al
(2022) as shown in Figure 1.
In their paper, they propose a coherent and inclusive framework
where XR consists of VR and AR only. The fundamental difference
between AR and VR is based on the answer to the question ‘Is the
physical environment, at least visually, part of the experience?’ If
the answer is ‘Yes’, it is AR, where the user sees the real world in
addition to the digital world. In AR, objects are overlaid onto the
real world, such as the Pokémon Go characters in our physical
surroundings. On the other hand, in VR, the answer to the above
question is ‘No’, and the user sees only the virtual environment.
This creates a clear distinction between AR and VR and leaves little
room for misinterpretations.
Figure 1 XR framework from Rauschnabel et al. (EEA Report No. 1/2022)

XR technologies make it possible for citizens to immerse
themselves in different spaces or in someone else’s designs in
the urban space, experience them in different contexts such as a
different season, with different objects in the space and experience
the feeling of being in the space, without actually being there
physically. In addition, with possibilities such as teleportation,
2 https://www.interaction-design.org/literature/article/beyond-ar-vs-vr-
what-is-the-difference-between-ar-vs-mr-vs-vr-vs-xr
the ability to transport or be transported instantly across space

and distance in virtual space, could induce a feeling of magic such
as with flying carpets in fairy tales. Examples of the use of XR
technologies in urban spaces and how they have been used in the
context of enhancing citizen awareness about the environment they
live in and engaging them in the plans for transformations of the
area are available (Kuļikovska, 2020).
Augmented Reality (AR)

AR is a hybrid experience that combines virtual content with
the user’s perception of the physical environment in real-time.
Virtual objects can be overlaid on the physical environment with
optical see-through displays, a display showing a live camera
view, or projections. Dedicated AR Head-mounted displays
(HMDs) often use optical see-through displays, where you see the
real world through transparent glasses with the virtual objects
on top. Microsoft HoloLens, shown in Figure 2, is such a device,
which tracks the environment around the user with cameras and
a depth sensor, and digital content can be positioned in physical
space. The content is perceived stereoscopically (to have true
depth) by displaying a slightly different perspective to each eye.
The HoloLens is a dedicated AR device, but this is not necessary to
experience AR. A smartphone can provide video see-through AR
by superimposing virtual content over the live camera view, and
perhaps the most well-known everyday use of AR is the simple
automobile reversing cameras that visualises the trajectory on top
of the live camera view.
To explain different types of AR, we will use the term ‘local
presence’ as defined by Rauschnabel et al (2022, p. 8): ‘the degree
to which a user experiences AR objects as being actually present
in his or her own physical environment’. For instance, when using
an AR HMD, a user will likely perceive a virtual text box that is
head-stable (locked to the orientation of the user’s head) as
pronouncedly artificial which will result in a low degree of local
presence. On the other hand, a realistic, virtual chair that is world-
stable (appearing to have a consistent position in the physical
environment) will contribute towards a higher degree of local
presence, especially if it can be occluded by physical objects, such

as a table in front of it.
Figure 2 Microsoft HoloLens (Source: https://www.microsoft.com/nb-

no/d/hololens-2/91pnzzznzwcp)
Dedicated AR devices such as Microsoft HoloLens can provide
experiences with a high degree of local presence by using eye
tracking, hand tracking and see-through stereoscopic displays, but
they can be expensive. Smartphone AR experiences, such as IKEA
Place, Pokémon Go, Snapchat filters, will have a lower degree of
local presence. In their paper, Rauschnabel et al (2022) use the
terms ‘assisted reality’ for low levels of local presence, and ‘mixed
reality’ for high levels of local presence.
The degree of local presence affects the experience, but this does
not mean that an experience with a low degree of local presence is
necessarily better or worse than an experience with a high degree
of local presence. For example, when receiving an important
notification, a factory worker may not benefit from the fact that it is
seamlessly integrated into the physical environment as opposed to
just dropping into his field of view. However, a higher local presence
may increase the user’s engagement. When interactive virtual
objects are perceived to be a part of the physical environment, the
experience becomes more immersive, and users may feel more
connected to the virtual objects because they behave in a manner
that feels familiar and yet novel, as digital media is most commonly
experienced in 2D and from video displays or projections.
AR can provide experiences that are novel, and natural and
intuitive interactions can promote exploration and curiosity-driven
action, all of which increase engagement. The ability to manipulate
virtual objects in real-time can be very rewarding, and result in a
sense of agency and control.
Examples of AR
Pokémon Go, as explained in the introduction, is a clear example of
the technology’s ability to engage users. An example of a Pokémon
entity on a mobile phone is shown in Figure 3. Another well-
known example of mobile AR is the popular AR filter feature in
Snapchat. This is a very popular technology that overlays virtual
effects or objects over the user’s face and responds to movement
and actions. It is a way of unique creative expression that can be
shared with friends, and because the technology maps and matches
the user’s own face, and the transformations happen in real-time,
the experience feels personal.
Another example of mobile AR is the app used by Katika et al
(2022) to improve citizen awareness and engagement with
circular economy principles. As in Pokémon Go, the application
activates content based on the location of the user. The experience
contained 20 different elements covering different difficulty
levels, and the elements ranged from sustainable tree planting,
composting, waste and pollution elimination, material re-use and
regeneration of natural systems. 3D objects relevant to the content
were superimposed over the camera view in real-time, and the
user could move and rotate the objects in the environment. After
this AR visualisation, the user was prompted to answer a question
to validate their knowledge of the subject they were exposed to.
The application was also helped by a virtual assistant and

gamification elements.
Figure 3 Pokémon Go. (Source: www.verdict.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/

2021/11/shutterstock_458010427.jpg)
The examples above are cases of AR applications on
smartphones. The widespread use of smartphones makes this
the most accessible form of AR, but dedicated AR devices, often
expensive, can provide an experience with a greater sense of realism,
interactivity, and intuitive controls. For instance, the Microsoft
HoloLens has multiple sensors that result in high-quality spatial
tracking, and the added realism of stereoscopic 3D improves the
quality of the experience. Because the HoloLens is head-mounted,
both hands are free, and the hand-tracking capabilities enable
interactions in 3D space, which combined with eye-tracking, allows
for a wide variety of interactions to be used.
Researchers in Helsinki, Finland, have used an open source
mesh model (object information used to represent real objects in
synthesised scenes for multimedia such as XR and simulations) of
the city to develop AR applications for interactive walkthroughs
of parts of the city, where citizens could contribute their
opinions and ideas using virtual stickers, hotspots and comments
(Kuļikovska, 2020). Another example of the use of AR technologies

is the project Augmented Urbans, which aims to make complex
urban planning processes and scenarios easier to understand
by visualising them with AR. Four countries and five cities in the
Baltic region—Tallinn and Viimsi, Estonia; Gävle in Sweden; Cesis
in Latvia and Helsinki in Finland—have used AR applications to
improve stakeholder participation and enhance the understanding
of the linkage between long-term visions and short-term actions in
the cities, for enhancing urban resilience. A video of the Augmented
Urbans project is available at (https://youtu.be/w8KVLBi_iz4).
Of particular interest to this project is also to engage the citizens in
protecting the environment and biodiversity of the regions.
Virtual Reality
Virtual Realty (VR) is an experience where the user’s visual
perception of the physical environment is completely replaced by
a virtual 3D environment, usually with head-mounted displays
(HMD), with one screen for each eye viewed through a lens, creating
a stereoscopic effect. Photos of a group of students having an
immersive experience using VR and HMDs, in a recent workshop,
are shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4 Photos from a VR workshop.

HMDs can perform spatial tracking through external sensors
or sensors on the headset itself, usually cameras. While some VR
devices need a PC for processing, the technology has advanced
and ‘standalone’ devices that do not need any external devices or
sensors have gained popularity; the most common one is Meta
Quest 2, shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5 Meta Quest 2. (Source: www.eurogamer.net/meta-quest-2-

getting-100-price-hike)
VR experiences support 3 or 6 degrees-of-freedom (Maldoff);
3 DoF only tracks rotational movement (roll, pitch and yaw) while
6 DoF also tracks positional movement (movement along the x, y
and z axis). This means that 3 DoF hardware and software ‘lock’
the user to one position, but let the user rotate their head to look
around, such as when seeing 360° videos on YouTube or using a
smartphone as a VR screen in the so-called ‘cardboard VR’. VR
games support 6 DoF, letting the user move their head in positional
space, such as with Meta Quest 2.
One of the main strengths of VR is the ability to give the user
a feeling of ‘being’ in the virtual environment, or being ‘immersed’
in the experience. In their paper, Rauschnabel et al (2022) use the
term ‘telepresence’ for this capacity. 6 DoF provides a higher degree
of telepresence than 3 DoF, as it let the users move and explore the
environment as they would do in the physical environment. While
passive VR experiences can be immersive, letting users interact in
the virtual environment can increase the degree of telepresence.
Interactions are usually made possible through motion controllers,
which usually support 6 DoF, but controllerless interactions through
hand-tracking and eye-tracking are becoming more common.
The degree of telepresence can have a positive effect on user
engagement due to different factors. One factor is that being
present in the virtual environment contributes towards intensifying
emotions; for instance, a scary experience is more frightening if it
is perceived to be real, and the same is true for other emotions.
The increased emotional response increases engagement. Further,
telepresence encourages exploration of the virtual environment,
and natural and intuitive interactions can create a sense of agency
and control. All in all, telepresence makes users more likely to stay
engaged for longer, be more invested in the experience and enjoy
themselves.
Examples of VR
Today, VR is primarily used for games and entertainment, and one
of the most well-known games is Beat Saber, a musical rhythm
game with simple and intuitive mechanics. Figure 6 shows an image
of a user playing Beat Saber. The user has a red and a blue light
saber in his hands, which he must use to cut through blocks of the
corresponding colour that move towards him to the beat of the
music. Slashing through the blocks correctly can be very satisfying,
especially as one progresses to more fast-paced songs and higher
difficulty levels. Hitting blocks and dodging obstacles requires the

user to move their body quickly and continuously, and makes for
very active gameplay, which in turn increases engagement. Striking
visuals, catchy music and gamification elements such as leader
boards also enrich the experience.
Figure 6 Beat Saber. Image from https://www.engadget.com/2019-02-

12-beat-saber-players-too-fast-for-steam-vr.html? guccounter=1
According to Leeuwen et al (2018), in the context of participatory
urban planning activities, VR can increase engagement towards
social topics compared to traditional methods of engagement.
Architects, urban planners and citizens and other stakeholders
can view development projects in VR at an early phase to uncover
challenges and possibilities and to ensure that the interests of
different actors are met. Further, VR enables realistic visualisations
and simulations of different situations and phenomena related to
sustainable urban solutions such as installation of solar panels
and batteries, energy consumption of proposed solutions, heat
loss and air flow. Indeed, VR has been identified as a means of
overcoming specific challenges related to complex situations and
communicating the complexity and the variety of information that
may be involved.
The Norwegian Research Centre on Zero Emission

Neighbourhoods3 (ZEN) for Smart Cities has explored the use
of VR to visualise and communicate the amounts of carbon
dioxide and greenhouse gas emissions from the various buildings
in an area of the city (Wiberg et al, 2019). There is a need to
handle both ‘top down’ neighbourhood level data with ‘bottom
up’ building and material level data. This can quickly become
overwhelming particularly when dealing with non expert users
such as planners, architects, researchers and citizens who play a
key part in the design process of future ZENs. Visualisation is an
invaluable means to communicate complex data in an interactive
way that makes it easier for diverse stakeholders to engage in
decision making early and throughout the design process. The
main purpose of this work has been to make ZEN key performance
indicators (KPIs).
VR is also identified as a means to visually communicate how
well a building or a neighbourhood meets the criteria as a Zero
Emission Building (ZEB) or a ZEN and as a means of communicating
this with the different stakeholders in the early phases of urban
development projects.
Another example of a VR visualisation experience is Sea
Level Rise Explorer,4 which is a short, informative experience that
visualises effects of climate change on local communities, and
provides supplementary information through an audio narration.
This application shows the user a miniature 3D model of a residential
area, and the user can interact with a slider that affects the sea
level to see how the residential area could be partly or entirely
submerged in the future. The user may also select a viewpoint that
places them in an air balloon, providing a life-size view of the area.
Having an immersive experience of watching the sea make its way
across the streets of a neighbourhood and climb up the walls of the
houses and buildings makes a greater impact on the viewer than
watching it on a 2D screen. Such visual experiences provide an
alarm of climate change and sea level rising.
3 https://fmezen.com
4 https://sealevelriseexplorer.com
Benefits and challenges of XR

XR technologies can play an important role in engaging citizens
and stakeholders in sustainable urban transitions such as a shift
to green energy. The possibility to overlay virtual content in the
physical space enables users to experience a sense of what the
space could become and also experience other people’s designs and
plans for the future. It is an effective means of making the citizens
see a possible scenario in a realistic context.
XR technologies enable citizens to dive into a new reality,
possibly a radically different one, which could help them see
things from different perspectives. Citizens could be exposed to
undesirable situations and environments in virtual space without
the risk of actual harm. Situations could also be presented in an
entertaining way using gamification elements. Innovative means
of visualising and communicating information are seen to enhance
retention of information as well as stimulate an emotional affiliation
with the content.
XR technologies could also be a means to ensure that the
different perspectives of the different stakeholders are addressed.
Most importantly, the immersive capabilities of XR have been shown
to be most effective in citizen engagement scenarios. Further, the
interactive capabilities of the technology enable citizens to provide
their input through the technology.
XR technologies appeal to new audiences in the context of
citizen engagement as they may appeal to the younger generations
and transformations must take into consideration the perspectives
of the younger generations. Thus, XR technologies show promise as
a relevant and effective technologies for the future.
While the benefits of XR are many, a few disadvantages have also
been identified. Using immersive technologies could reduce social
engagement and interactions among citizens if the application lacks
mechanisms for social interactions or is not conducted in a context
that facilitates social interactions. Further, a high cost is associated
with dedicated XR equipment such as HMDs, and the development
of XR applications is also costly and requires specific competencies
and skills. Given the rapid advances in XR technologies, the cost
of equipment is becoming more affordable and as the popularity

of XR applications rise, and the threshold for developing an
application will no doubt become lower as open source software
modules become available. This can be seen in the development of
applications for smartphones.
One of the challenges with digital technologies is their
accessibility and availability for all citizens. This can be a challenge
in many ways. For example, the Pokémon Go game, which appeared
to be rather accessible to almost anyone with a smartphone,
appeared to be less accessible to people with limited mobility, and
people who were able to travel a lot had an advantage (Birtchnell
et al, 2020). We have used this example to illustrate the point that
citizen engagement activities need to be designed carefully to ensure
that the desired effect is achieved, while supporting a sustainable
future for society and the environment. Another challenge is that
organizations such as municipalities or industrial managers often
lack vision about how such technologies could be leveraged to
benefit their causes (Soni et al, 2022).
As with any technological solution, replicating existing
processes with XR technologies, such as focus groups or co-creation
workshops, may not yield the optimum results. It is important to
analyse the situation and the context in which the XR technology
would be used before selecting a solution. The biggest value lies in
the process of urban transition planning and not in the technology
(Kuļikovska, 2020). Hence, the focus should be on the sustainable
transition and the citizen engagement process rather than the
technology and the design of the digital solution. The design of the
digital solutions should be driven by the needs of the process and
the sustainable transition needs.
Summary
In this paper, we have described XR technologies as a means
of engaging citizens in sustainable urban transformations. XR
technologies extend our reality, such as our physical environment,
by augmenting it with virtual objects or creating a completely
virtual environment for the users. XR technologies could be
considered both AR, where the physical environment is a part of
the solution, and VR, where the physical environment is not a part
of it. The affordances of the technologies show promise as a means
of engaging citizens and raising their awareness about sustainable
and resilient urban environments.
The paper has provided descriptions of the technologies and
some examples where XR technologies have been used in citizen
engagement. The main benefit of XR technologies is the possibility
for a user to have an immersive experience. While the benefits
are easy to grasp, there are challenges in realising XR solutions.
Perhaps one of the main challenges is developing a vision for how
such technologies could be leveraged.
This paper has been aimed at people who have little or no
knowledge of XR technologies, to provide them an introduction
to the technologies. Furthermore, the aim of the paper has been
to provide them with an overview of XR technologies, identify
their main benefits for citizen engagement and identify the main
challenges in deploying them.
The most important question to be asked about citizen
engagement in sustainable urban transitions is why we want
the citizens to be engaged. The answer to this question will help
define how engagement should be supported and the means for
supporting it, such as using XR technologies. Furthermore, the
process of planning an urban transition and the phase(s) of the
transition processes are also important in designing the citizen
engagement activities, methods and technologies.
Acknowledgements
The work presented in this paper has been supported by the
INTPART project, URSA MAJOR (https://www.sintef.no/en/
projects/2021/urban-sustainability-in-action-multi-disciplinary-
approach-through-jointly-organized-research-schools/), funded by
the Norwegian Research Council, under the grant agreement 337245.
References
Arnstein, S. R. (1969). A Ladder Of Citizen Participation. Journal
of the American Institute of Planners, 35(4), 216–224. https://doi.
org/10.1080/01944366908977225
Birtchnell, T., McGuirk, P., Moore, C., & Vettoretto, L. (2020). Pay to
play? Subverting the digital economy of Pokémon Go in the smart city.
Digital Geography and Society, 1, 100004. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
diggeo.2020.100004
Carnevale, M. J. (2017). Toronto Augmented Reality Map: Enhancing citizen
engagement with open government data using contemporary media platforms
[Masters, OCAD University]. https://openresearch.ocadu.ca/id/eprint/1680/
Concilio, G., & Molinari, F. (2014). Urban living labs: Learning environments
for collective behavioural change. 9th International Forum on Knowledge Asset
Dynamics 2014 (IFKAD), 746–763.
ENoLL. (2017, July 13). European Network of Living Labs. https://enoll.org/
about-us/
Gerwin, M. (2022). European Citizens’ Assembly—A New Model for Decision-
Making. Center for Blue Democracy.
Huttunen, S., Ojanen, M., Ott, A., & Saarikoski, H. (2022). What about citizens? A
literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research.
Energy Research & Social Science, 91, 102714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
erss.2022.102714
Katika, T., Karaseitanidis, I., Tsiakou, D., Makropoulos, C., & Amditis, A.
(2022). Augmented Reality (AR) Supporting Citizen Engagement in Circular
Economy. Circular Economy and Sustainability, 2(3), 1077–1104. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s43615-021-00137-7
Krueger, E. H., Constantino, S. M., Centeno, M. A., Elmqvist, T., Weber, E. U., &
Levin, S. A. (2022). Governing sustainable transformations of urban social-
ecological-technological systems. Npj Urban Sustainability, 2(1), 10. https://
doi.org/10.1038/s42949-022-00053-1
Kuļikovska, G. (2020, April 3). Extending Community Participation with XR for
Urban Planning. AIXR. https://aixr.org/insights/xr-for-urban-planning/
Rauschnabel, P. A., Felix, R., Hinsch, C., Shahab, H., & Alt, F. (2022). What is XR?
Towards a Framework for Augmented and Virtual Reality. Computers in Human
Behavior, 133, 107289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107289
Skarbez, R., Smith, M., & Whitton, M. C. (2021). Revisiting Milgram and Kishino’s
Reality-Virtuality Continuum. Frontiers in Virtual Reality, 2, 647997. https://
doi.org/10.3389/frvir.2021.647997
Smith, G. (2003). Deliberative Democracy and the Environment (0 ed.).

Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203207994
Smith, G. (2011). Deliberative democracy and mini-publics. In Evaluating
Democratic Innovations. Routledge.
Soni, S., Yadav, U., & Soni, A. (2022). Virtual Reality & Augmented Reality: A way to
Digital Transformation of Customer Engagement. 2022 International Conference
on Machine Learning, Big Data, Cloud and Parallel Computing (COM-IT-CON),
573–577. https://doi.org/10.1109/COM-IT-CON54601.2022.9850954
Wahlund, M., & Palm, J. (2022). The role of energy democracy and energy
citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review.
Energy Research & Social Science, 87, 102482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
erss.2021.102482
Wiberg, A., Løvhaug, S., Mathisen, M., Tschoerner, B., Resch, E., Erdt, M.,
& Prasolova-Førland, E. (2019). Visualisation of KPIs in zero emission
neighbourhoods for improved stakeholder participation using Virtual Reality.
IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 323, 012074. https://
doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/323/1/012074
v
Wastes to Energy as Jayasree Vaidyanathan
Senior Scientist
a Pathway to Centre for Earth Research
and Environment
Socio-Economical and Management
Kochi, Kerala
Environmental jayasree_nias@yahoo.com
Sustainability
Introduction
Aquatic weeds are problematic in water bodies
and wetlands because of their rapid growth and
erratic dispersal. Of all aquatic weeds, Eichhornia
crassipes, the water hyacinth, has been regarded
as the world’s most invasive weed that is highly
environmentally damaging and an economic
burden to manage (Irina et al, 2021). This aquatic
weed from the family Pontederiaceae is an erect,
free-floating, stoloniferous perennial herb and one
of the fastest-growing plants known. (Because of
its high density and thick biomass, it can form a mat
layer on the water surface, clogging the waterways
and affecting the hydrology and ecosystem
(Rands et al, 2010, Vila et al, 2011). Globally, water
hyacinth (WH) growth is challenging the ecological
stability of freshwater ecosystems because of their
high reproductive output, broad environmental
tolerance, and capacity for rapid colonisation in newer areas.

It has serious socio-economic, environmental, and agricultural
consequences as well as health consequences (Enyew et al, 2020;
Harun et al, 2021; Karouach, 2021; Basaula, 2022).
Faster regrowth is the major concern when removing WH from
water bodies. Though removal of WH from water bodies is practised,
these are deposited in landfills leading to an unhygienic environment
and release of harmful gases including greenhouse emissions.
Several studies reported climate change and anthropogenic factors
fastening the growth and survival of WH (You et al 2014, NASA
2020). Due to these reasons, the plant, originally native to the
tropics, is now spreading even to sub-tropical regions. Extensive
use of chemicals, fertilisers, pesticides, waste dumping, etc, adds to
its vulnerability (Jayasree, 2022) and is a serious concern all over
the globe (Xu et al, 2012).
The unchecked growth of the WH has made weed management
a priority, calling for urgent action. Several control and eradication
programmes are used. They include physical, biological, and
chemical methods, of which the first two are the most preferred.
While some countries adopt a monoculture approach to weed
management, others follow an integrated control method.
However, most of these methods are not successful because of
various environmental challenges and financial constraints. Today,
the science of hyacinth management is known, but its practical
applicability and control are challenging.
With many of the eradication methods failing, converting the
plant into usable products has been found to be a strategic solution
for its management. A number of studies have been carried out
on harnessing weeds for economic and environmental benefits.
Some of its uses are in waste water treatment, heavy metal and dye
remediation, as a substrate for bioethanol and biogas production,
electricity generation, industrial uses, medicines, animal feed,
agriculture, soil reclamation, and sustainable development (Wang
and Yan, 2017; Patel, 2012). The utilisation of WH for such purposes
is a viable strategy for management, aiding in resource recovery,
energy security, reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions,
reduced carbon footprints, profitability, social gains, etc.
Wastes to Energy as a Pathway... 45
Of all the uses of WH, its applications in bioenergy are

noteworthy. The nuisance crop is a potential bioenergy crop
because of its low lignin and high carbon–nitrogen content,
1: 24.3 ratio (Olawale et al, 2018) which aids in easy fermentation
of cellulose and semi-cellulose contents. There are a number of
studies and reviews addressing the valorisation of WH at various
levels of biomass-to-energy production, ranging from biofuels,
insolation panels, briquettes, and even electricity generation for
public utilities (Li et al, 2021). WH can be used to produce solid,
liquid and gaseous forms of biofuels that are beneficial in terms of
rapid degradation, low emission and toxicity, and high flashpoints.
Biogas, biomethane, and bioethanol are some forms of energy
generated through simple, eco-friendly techniques. Use of plants for
biofuel development not only takes care of waste disposal but also
helps to generate fuel gas for cooking, lighting and other electricity
needs. Such methods also aid in zero carbon emissions with high
environmental benefits. Biofuel production is generally viable in
terms of efficiency, affordability, accessibility, and acceptability.
Even with the umpteen benefits of WH as a biofuel crop, its
applicability and adoptability for bioenergy have been limited,
especially in Kerala.
Therefore, this study explores the potential and possibilities
of using Water Hyacinth from the water bodies in Kerala for
biofuel production, more specifically in electricity generation for
electrifying towns and small cities. WH being the raw material,
this paper discusses its invasions and current utilisation in Kerala,
adopting an environmentally and energy friendly approach of
promoting Waste to Energy (WtE) technologies. This paper also
discusses the viability and efforts towards electricity generation
and its potential benefits to Kerala.
Water Hyacinth—Invasion and Utilization

Most of the small and large water bodies, including canals in Kerala,
are infested with WH. The prominently affected large water bodies
are Vembanad lake system and other wetland ecosystems in the
state (Priya, 2017, Simpson et al, 2022), Bharathapuzha, (Philip
and Rakendu, 2020). Water hyacinth invasions in selected water
bodies are shown in Figure 1. The government of Kerala is spending

crores of rupees for removal of WH, manually through MNREG
scheme. The removed weeds are dumped in the nearby landfills,
which adversely impact the ecology and environment as well as the
health of riparian communities.
Figure 1 Invasion of Eichhornia crassipes in the water bodies of Kerala

(Source: World wide web)
There have been some efforts on effective utilisation of weeds
in selected areas, especially in the Kuttanad and the Kottapuram-
Kodungallur, region where the hyacinth growth is extensive. The
Centre for Research on Aquatic Resources (CRAR, Alleppy) has
experimented with WH stems and has produced a wide range of
products such as paper boards, pulp-based products, disposable
plates, canvas, and handicraft items, fish feed, briquettes, biogas
production, vegetable cultivation, etc. (Prabhu, 2021).
There are a few fragmented efforts of WH utilisation which

are mainly for crafts (KIDS, 2021) and biogas for cooking needs
(Yamuna, 2021, Coons 2019, Ateesh and Kisku 2022) as shown in
Figure 2. A local entrepreneur, PayalJwala, has been experimenting
with water hyacinth for water-positive agriculture and biogas
production for household cooking. ATREE’s research centre in
Alleppy has come up with eco-friendly sanitary pads using WH
fibres. During the discussion with local panchayat officials in
Alleppy, the author found that dried WH stems are transported to
Tamil Nadu and other states in India (Jayasree, 2022). Knowing the
potential of WH fibre for various usages, buyers from neighbouring

states of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka are collecting dried stems of
the weed from Alleppy, which are mainly used to convert to fibres
that are used for a variety of purposes. However, there are not many
initiatives reported from other parts of the state on operational
utilisation of the weeds mainly due to unconventional eradication
practices, lack of knowledge on the latest technologies and know-
how as well as the community attitude towards such issues.
Figure 2 Value-added products produced from Water Hyacinth (Source:

World wide web)
Bioenergy Production from WH

The ever-growing demand for energy and concerns about the
combustion of fossil fuels for energy generation prompt the search
for feasible alternatives such as green bioenergy. Tremendous
progress has been made technologically in the last few years in the
area of biofuel production, fuelled by the ever-increasing price and
shortage of fossil fuel.
Biomass, being the least expensive and most globally available
resource, can be used to produce bioenergy. In Kerala, where
biomass is plentiful, the scope for biomass energy production is

quite high. According to a study conducted by WWF (2013), by 2050,
the bio-gasification and biomass combustion supply potentials will
be 0.21 and 0.62 billion units, respectively.
The use of water hyacinth biomass surplus is appropriate due to
i) low cropping energy investment and ii) lower water, carbon, and
ecological footprints due to biomass cropping and processing. In
recent years, there has been increased interest in producing biofuel
from sewage, which means there is a scope for converting this waste
into energy—mainly electricity. WH is a highly favourable feedstock
as its biomass has high amounts of cellulose and hemi-cellulose
that can be easily converted to fermentable sugar and later to bio-
ethanol through proper processing. Also, the low lignin content is
highly favourable for the generation of biofuels.
Two main forms of bioenergy production are biogas and
biomethane (IEA, 2020). Though their contribution to overall
energy production is small, they play a significant role in the
transformation of energy systems. These low-carbon gases could
gain a firmer foothold in the future because of the number of
benefits they possess like local, decentralised sources of energy,
efficient waste management, energy security, and a good fit with
the concept of a circular economy.
Biogas, the most common form of bioenergy, has become
more popular in recent times because it is very easy to produce
and use. As it can process any kind of organic waste, it requires
low investment and yields high returns. It provides a clean,
renewable, and reliable source of energy. A brief procedure for
biogas formation using WH as biomass is depicted in Figure 3. The
water hyacinth, after chopping and crushing, is put into the digester
(Rathod et al, 2018). It is produced from the fermented products
of organic wastes decomposed by microorganisms via anaerobic
digestion (Rao et al, 2010).
The biogas production process is:
1. biodigesters, in which organic wastes diluted with water

are broken down by naturally occurring microorganisms.
2. landfill gas delivery systems in which solid wastes are

decomposed under anaerobic conditions to produce
biogas; and
3. wastewater treatment plants recover organic matter,
soil, and nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorous from
sewage sludge, which is used as input to produce biogas
in anaerobic digesters.
There are two final products: energy-rich biogas and nutrient-
rich digestate (Soeprijanto et al, 2021). The methane thus formed
can be converted to biomethane either through ‘upgrading; or by
gasification of solid biomass followed by methanation, which can be
further utilised for electricity generation. Details of the conversion
of methane to biomethane are described elsewhere (Adnan et al,
2019, Langerak, 2022). Upgrading the biogas into biomethane
could aid in future growth.
Figure 3 Process of biogas generation (Source: Picture redrawn from

World wide web)
Figure 4 The process of electricity generation (Source: Picture redrawn

from World wide web).
The process of electricity generation from water hyacinth has
been depicted in Figure 4. The process at waste-to-energy (WtE)
plants involve burning the organic waste in a solid waste chamber
to produce heat, which then turns water into steam in a boiler,
followed by steam passing through a turbine, making the blades
rotate to generate electricity. Electricity generated is then stepped
up through a transformer to produce higher voltage which is then
connected to the grid.
Waste-to-Energy in Kerala
Kerala initiated its first water hyacinth-based electricity generation
in Kodimatha Kottayam vegetable market to electrify Tiruvalla Town
in 2011 with the plant cost of Rs. 2 crores. This project was part of
the Kuttanad package, constructed by RAIDCO (the Regional Agro-
Industrial Development Cooperative of Kerala) and implanted by
FIRMA (the State Fisheries Resource Management Society), funded
by the Rashtriya Krishi Vigyan Yojana (RKVY) of the Department
of Agriculture. Unfortunately, the plant stopped operations within
two weeks of its launch. Project implementation issues like
collection of WH, monitoring and evaluation, labour constraints,
and disagreement between FIRMA and the local municipality were
cited as the reasons for the shutdown.
Subsequent efforts to restart this project have not been
successful yet (Sajan, 2014). Similar projects are underway:
Njenliyanparamb plant in Calicut (450 tonnes of waste treated to

produce 6 MW energy/day) to benefit the Ramanattukara, Feroke,
and Koyilandi municipalities; the Brahmapuram plant in Kochi; and
Kurepuzha in Kollam (ToI, 2020). Many such projects have been
planned in other districts, too. It is expected that once these projects
are fully functional, they will add to the state’s energy security.
Conclusion
Bioenergy has great potential as a renewable energy source
because of its economic and environmental viability. Aquatic
weeds in general and water hyacinth in particular are the most
invasive plants destroying aquatic ecosystems; and controlling
and managing this weed growth is extremely difficult. However,
they have proven capabilities to be converted for various value-
added products, thereby easing the weed mitigation. A number
of bioenergy options such as biogas, biomethane, biohydrogen,
bioethanol, and electricity are possible by processing WH. By doing
so, it solves the weed menace while aiding in energy security and
reducing GHG emissions, and the technology is viable in terms of
affordability, accessibility, acceptability, and sustainability.
Most of the water bodies in the state of Kerala are infested with
weed growth, which poses threats to the economy, environment,
and livelihoods of the riparian communities. While the production
of biogas using WH is being adopted by many rural households,
the scalability of electricity generation is still crawling due to
various factors, including high investments, technical issues, and
bureaucratic obstacles. Alternatively, local electricity generation
in decentralised plants could become a feasible alternative and be
used to electrify nearby areas and smaller towns. The state with
extensive aquatic weed growth has high potential for bioenergy and
utilisation of the weeds for such beneficial purposes is advantageous
in terms of reducing the carbon and ecological footprints, support
to climate action and contribute to sustainable development goals
SDGs2,3,6, and 7–14.
References
Adnan AI, Ong MY, Nomanbhay S, Chew KW, Show PL. Technologies for
Biogas Upgrading to Biomethane: A Review. Bioengineering (Basel). 2019 Oct
2;6(4):92. doi: 10.3390/bioengineering6040092. PMID: 31581659; PMCID:
PMC6956267
Enyew BG, Assefa WW, Gezie A. Socioeconomic effects of water hyacinth
(Eichhornia crassipes) in Lake Tana, North Western Ethiopia. PLoS One. 2020
Sep 2;15(9):e0237668. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0237668. PMID: 32877434;
PMCID: PMC7467254.8.
Fadoua Karouach, Widad Ben Bakrim, Amine Ezzariai, Mansour Sobeh,
Mulugeta Kibret, Abdelaziz Yasri, Mohamed Hafidi,and Lamfeddal Kouisini.
2022. Controlling and managing proliferation of water hyacinth (Eichhornia
crassipes): Review. Front Environ. Sci. Vol9,2021.
Fanghua Li, Xin He, Arora Srishti, Shuang Song, Hugh Tiang Wah Tan, Daniel
J. Sweeney, Subhadip Ghosh, Chi-Hwa Wang, 2021. Water hyacinth for
energy and environmental applications: A review, Bioresource Technology,
Volume 327,2021, 124809, ISSN 0960-8524, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
biortech.2021.124809.
G N Prabhu, 2021. Value added products from Water Hyacinth. Paper presented
in the workshop organised by TKM College of Arts and Science, Kollam, on
18/9/2021.
Harun I, Pushiri H, Amirul-Aiman AJ, Zulkeflee Z. Invasive Water Hyacinth:
Ecology, Impacts and Prospects for the Rural Economy. Plants (Basel). 2021
Aug 6;10(8):1613. doi: 10.3390/plants10081613. PMID: 34451658; PMCID:
PMC8401593.
https://www.dreamstime.com/bharathapuzha-river-covered-water-
hyacinth-other-types-plants-bharathappuzha-also-known-as-nila-river-
image196723563
IEA (2020), Outlook for biogas and biomethane: Prospects for organic growth,
IEA, Paris https://www.iea.org/reports/outlook-for-biogas-and-biomethane-
prospects-for-organic-growth, License: CC BY 4.0
Irina Harun, Hafizah Pushiri, Ahmad Juhari Amirul-Aiman, and Zufarzaana
Zulkeflee 2021. Invasive Water Hyacinth: Ecology, Impacts and Prospects for
the Rural Economy. Plants (Basel). 2021 Aug; 10(8): 1613}.
JayasreeV. 2022. Water hyacinth Water Hyacinth: A Resource for Energy, Rural
Enterprise, and Women Empowerment in Kuttanad region. Unpublished
report submitted to KIRAN Division, Department of Science and Technology,
New Delhi, India.
Jort Langerak 2022. Biogas to biomethane conversion technologies. https://

www.bioenergyconsult.com/biogas-to-biomethane/
KIDS, 2021. Kottapuram https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-explore/how-
a-wicked-weed-that-killed-keralas-rivers-is-now-empowering-its-women
Lakshmi Priya, 2017 In. https://wwwthebetterindia.com/123463/water-
hyacinths-killing-your-pond-these-kerala-researchers-will-save-it/
Morgan David Simpson,Vahid Akbari, Armando Marino, G Nagendra Prabhu,
Deepayan Bhoumik, Srikanth Rupavatharam, Aviraj Datta, Adam Klezkowski,
J Alice, Sujeetha, Girish Gunjotikar Anantrao, Vidhu Kampurath Poduvattil,
Saurav Kumar, Savithri Maharaj and peter D Hunter. 2022. Detercting water
hyacinth infestation in Kuttanad, India, using Dual Pol Sentinel-1 SAR Imagery.
Remote Sen. 14,2845. https:/doi-org/10.3390/rs14122845
NASA (2020) https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/147198/a-global-
water-hyacinth-invasion).
Olawale O.E, Ajobola, Eniola O, Suley and Oladele J Adeyeye. 2018. Water
hyacinth as a fuel for generation of electricity. Nigerian J of Ecology, Vol 17(1),
Patel, S. (2012). Threats, management and envisaged utilizations of aquatic
weed Eichhornia crassipes: An overview. Reviews in Environmental Science and
Bio/Technology, 11(Number 3), 249–259. Doi: 10.1007/s11157-012-9289-
Rajendra Basaula, Hari Prasad Sharma, Kumar Sapkota, 2022, The Invasion of
Water Hyacinth and Its Impact on Diversity of Macro-Invertebrates in the Lake
Cluster of Pokhara Valley, Nepal, Prithvi Academic Journal, Volume 5, May 2022
[pp. 1-16]
Rands, M., Adams, W., Bennun, L., Butchart, S., Clements, A., Coomes, D.,
Entwistle, A., Hodge, I., Kapos, V., Scharlemann, J., Sutherland, W. and Vira, B.,
2010. Biodiversity conservation: Challenges beyond 2010. Science 329: 1298-
1303.
Rao, P.V., Baral, S.S., Dey, R. & Mutnuri, S. (2010) Biogas generation potential by
anaerobic digestion for sustainable energy development in India. Renew Sust
Energ Rev 14(7), 2086–2094.
Rebecca Coons 2019 https://biofuelsdigest.com/nuudigest/2019/02/ 04/
finding-new-uses-for-aquatic-weeds-in-india/
Sajan Thomas Matprop 2014. Project Proposal for eradication and utilisation
of water hyacinth in Kerala.
Shinmol Philip and R Rakendu 2020. Thermal insulation materials based
on water hyacinth for application in sustainable buildings. Materials Today:
Proceedings 33(7). DOI:10.1016/j.matpr.2020.06.219
Soeprijanto Soeprijanto, I Dewa, Ayu Agung Warmadewanthi Melania

Suweni Muntini, Armo Anzip (2021 )The utilisation of water hyacinth for
biogas production in a plug flow anerobic digester. Int. J. Renewable energy
Development. 10(1) 27-35 IJRED_ISSN-2252-4940
TOI (2020) https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kozhikode/six-more-
waste-to-energy-plants-soon-cm/articleshow/73128820.cms
V.P. Rathod, P.V. Bhale, R.S. Mehta, K. Harmani, S. Bilimoria, A. Mahida, H.
Champaneri, 2018. Biogas Production from Water Hyacinth in the Batch type
Anaerobic DigesterMaterials Today: Proceedings, Volume 5, Issue 11, Part 2,
2018, ISSN 2214-7853,
Vila, M., Espinar, J., Hejda, M., Hulme, P., Jarosk, V., Maron, J., Pergl, J., Schaffner,
U., Sun, Y. and Pyšek, P., 2011. Ecological impacts of invasive alien plants: a
meta-analysis of their effects on species, communities and ecosystems. Ecology
Letters 14: 707-708.
Vineeta Ateesh and Samuel Kisku 2022. Documentation of several application
of water hyacinth. A review. J Emerging technologies and innovative research.
Vol 9. Issue .5. 2349. K1-k10.
World Wildlife Fund 2013. The Energy report Kerala. 100% renewable energy
by 2050. 272 p
Xu, H., Qiang, S., Genovesi, P., Ding, H., Wu, J., Meng, L., Han, Z., Miao, J., Hu, B.,
Guo, J., Sun, H., Huang, C., Lei, J., Le, Z., Zhang, X., He, S., Wu, Y., Zheng, Z., Chen,
L., Jaroš k, V. and Pyšek, P., 2012. An inventory of invasive alien species in China.
NeoBiota 15: 126. doi: 10.3897/neobiota.15.3575.
Yamuna S. 2021. https://www.onmanorama.com/lifestyle/news/2021/07/06
/water-hyacinth-beds-vegetable-cultivation.html
You, W., Yu, D. Xie, D. & Yu, L. 2013. Overwintering survival and regrowth of the
invasive plant Eichhornia crassipes are enhanced by experimental warming in
winter. Aquatic Biology 19, 45–53.
Zhi Wang and ShaohuaYan 2017. Direct and Strong Influence of Water
Hyacinth on Aquatic Communities in Natural Waters. In the book Water
Hyacinth:Environmental challenges, Management and Utilization. Publisher:
CRC press, Taylor & Francis
v
Photovoltaic Systems Bauer, M., Bergset, M.,
Boden, M., Granli, H.,
At Møllenberg: How Paulson, V., Seland, A., &
Tafrate, J.
To Increase The Social Students
URSA MAJOR Autumn
Acceptance Of School
Norwegian University of
Photovoltaic Systems Science and Technology
Trondheim, Norway
varghesepaulson12345@
gmail.com
This project aims to investigate how social

acceptance can be increased for the use of
photovoltaic (PV) systems in the historic
Møllenberg district of Trondheim, Norway, without
compromising the cultural heritage value of the
area. The district mainly consists of two-story
wooden houses (Figure 1) built in the 1880s and
1890s, which have been designated as a heritage
area by the Trondheim municipality. However, the
renovation of these houses is necessary to improve
energy efficiency, and the installation of PV systems
can be a sustainable and economical solution to
this issue.
One of the main challenges in implementing
PV systems in Møllenberg is the difficulty of getting
permission for renovations due to the area’s
cultural heritage status. Furthermore, the public
and private sectors need to be engaged, and the
inhabitants of the district must be involved in the
planning and implementation of the solar panels. Social acceptance

of solar energy, especially in locations with suboptimal weather
conditions, is another challenge that needs to be addressed.
Figure 1 Houses across Møllenberg

The Trondheim municipality’s 2017–30 energy and climate
plan aim to make the city a zero-emission business, which requires
major changes in the way people live their everyday lives. The
implementation of PV systems in the historic Møllenberg district
can be a step towards achieving this goal while conserving the
area’s cultural heritage value. However, the project requires careful
planning and engagement with all stakeholders involved.
This study aimed to identify effective ways of increasing social
acceptance of installing photovoltaic (PV) systems on rooftops in
the Møllenberg area. The researchers conducted a literature review
of existing research on climate goals, energy efficiency, and existing
solutions, as well as stakeholder analysis to evaluate the influence
and attitudes of various stakeholders. They then distributed a
survey using Microsoft Forms to gather the attitudes and opinions
of residents in the area. The survey received responses from 50
participants, with the majority being workers or students and most
planning to live in the area for five years or longer.
In order to develop effective strategies for increasing social
acceptance of PV installation in Møllenberg, it was important to
first identify the relevant stakeholders and assess the attitudes of
citizens towards this technology. To achieve this, a literature review
was conducted, which included an analysis of previous research
carried out by the Helios project. Additionally, the Trondheim
Photovoltaic Systems at Møllenberg... 57
municipality’s action plan for climate and energy was reviewed to

identify specific climate goals that could be linked to the project.
Research was also conducted on existing energy-efficient solutions
and technologies.
Based on the insights gained from the literature review, several
solution proposals were developed with a focus on participation
through visualisations. To further understand the attitudes of
citizens towards PV installation in Møllenberg, a stakeholder
analysis was conducted to identify the most important stakeholders
in the areas of public, private, and people. The analysis evaluated
the influence of each stakeholder on the project, as well as their
expected and desired attitude towards the project. The differences
in attitudes and desires among stakeholders led to different
measures of persuasion.
To directly engage with people living in Møllenberg, a survey
was conducted using Microsoft Forms. Flyers with a QR code were
created and distributed at NTNU, Campus Gløshaugen and in
mailboxes at Møllenberg. The survey included 8 questions, with
4 questions focused on collecting information about attitudes
towards PV systems, and the remaining 4 questions focused on
demographic information, such as age, occupation, duration of stay,
and housing situation. The survey allowed citizens to provide their
direct opinions through open-ended questions, providing valuable
insights into their attitudes towards PV installation. This survey, in
combination with the stakeholder analysis and literature review,
helped inform the development of effective strategies for increasing
social acceptance of PV installation in Møllenberg.
The survey results showed that the majority of residents were
positive about installing solar panels, with concerns about price, lack
of information, financing and municipal restrictions being common
barriers. The study concluded that involving affected groups in
the decision-making process is important and proposed several
solutions with a focus on participation through visualisations.
Overall, this study provides valuable insights into the attitudes and
opinions of residents towards solar energy in the Møllenberg area
and highlights the importance of involving residents in decision-
making processes.
Solar renewable energy certificates (SRECs) can be an effective

tool to encourage citizens to invest in solar energy by placing a
higher economic value on solar energy generation when compared
to other energy sources. The Indian government has introduced a
central financial assistance scheme to provide a 30% subsidy on grid
solar systems for installation costs for rooftop PV systems. People
are willing and interested in installing PV panels, and community
engagement and visualisations can help involve them in the planning
process. Private sector stakeholders, including financial institutions,
have a neutral attitude towards the project, and carrying out more
pilot projects with clear research outputs can help gain their
support. Overall, investing in solar energy can benefit homeowners
financially and help reduce environmental impacts.
XR-technology, including Augmented Reality (AR), Virtual
Reality (VR), and Mixed Reality (MR), can be a useful tool for
engaging citizens in the planning process of urban development
projects. In the case of Helios at Møllenberg, an AR solution could
show residents how proposed changes would alter their buildings,
providing hands-on examples of what their environment could look
like in the future. AR technology can also be used to engage the local
preservation authority, Byantikvaren, by reducing concerns about
how solar panels would affect the aesthetic of the area. By using
AR-technology, citizens can provide direct feedback on proposed
installations and make informed decisions about the project’s
impact. Visualisations encouraged by new AR-technologies
(Figure 2) are essential in convincing the public that green energy
solutions can be aesthetically pleasing.
The installation of solar panels in Møllenberg faces a funding
barrier, which can be addressed through different financing models.
One solution is crowdfunding, where private individuals and the
public sector jointly raise money to purchase PV systems (Figure 3).
In the leasing model, a service provider provides all the technology
and customers pay a monthly amount, with the risk lying with
the provider (Figure 4). Another model is PPPP (Public-Private-
People Partnership), where private individuals, the public sector
and companies jointly raise money to purchase PV systems, with
the income divided proportionally (Figure 5). Investment in the
Helios project can inspire confidence in the technology, leading to
Photovoltaic Systems at Møllenberg... 59
further sustainable solutions. Møllenberg can serve as a blueprint

for private investment in solar energy in other urban areas.
Figure 2 AR technology-based visualisations
Figure 3 Crowd-funding model
Figure 4 Leasing model

Figure 5 PPPP model

To increase social acceptance of PV systems at Møllenberg, it is
important to address the concerns of the Byantikvar regarding price
and aesthetics. The public sector, including the Byantikvar, should
engage with the people who are mostly positive towards the project.
Engaging tools that model the visual changes in an appealing way
should be developed. Additionally, creating a sustainable funding
model that includes all stakeholders could lower the barriers
to investing in PV systems in the future. By implementing these
recommendations, Møllenberg can serve as a blueprint for other
urban areas to invest in solar energy, thereby contributing to a
sustainable future.
v
Peak Time Power Supply Sasi K Kottayil
Retired Professor &
from Renewables—Scope Energy Consultant
Palakkad, Kerala
of Time-of-Day Framework sasikottayil@gmail.com
for Feed-in-Tariff
Introduction
The Californian Duck Curve (Figure 1) clearly
indicates the limits to the growth of solar
photovoltaics (PV) on the electric utility grid. The
higher the PV penetration, the higher the ramp
rate needed in conventional power plants. We need
technical solutions to overcome this challenge. As
far as PV is concerned, there is a supply-demand
mismatch since solar energy is out of phase with
the peak load on the grid. Though wind power is
available in all time zones of power utilisation, it is
intermittent and variable. Hydropower is the only
form of firm power to meet the peak load, but it is
seasonal. Feed-in-Tariff (FiT) for renewable energy
(RE) generated electricity on utility grid today is a
fixed value round-the-clock (RTC). But consumer
tariffs are based on Time-of-Day (ToD) even for
domestic consumers. ToD tariff helps peak shaving.
Yet, peak hour generation is in high demand and that justifies the
introduction of a ToD tariff for electricity generation too.
Figure 1 The Duck Curve

Commercial energy storage systems are necessary to flatten
the Duck curve. Battery Energy Storage (BES) and Pumped Hydro
Energy Storage (PHES) are proven technologies on the grid.
Commercial operation of these is yet to start in India. Techno-
economic investigations on energy storage systems added to
RE power plants shall serve as a prelude to pilot plants. Central
and State Electricity Regulatory Commissions have a big role in
recognising and regulating peak power generation and its tariffs
for different types of RE sources.
Investigations on the techno-economic feasibility of RE
systems to feed peak time power to the electric utility grid have
been studied and presented here. While BES has been considered
with solar PV, pumped hydro storage has been used in the case of
small hydropower (SHP) plants. The benefit of the ToD tariff has
been studied in the case of wind power plant without any storage
scheme.
Peak Time Power Supply from Renewables… 63
PV–BES scheme
The PV–BES scheme is shown in Figure 2. It charges the battery all
through the day and delivers power to the grid exclusively during
peak times every day. BES capacity has been chosen so as to match
daily generation by a 100 kWp PV plant located in Kerala’s climate.
PV cost has been considered 40 `/Wp and BES cost as 300 $/kWh
for Li-ion batteries whereas it is 150 $/kWh for lead acid batteries.
Figure 2 PV-BES scheme

The investigation is done for four scenarios, as described below.
yy Scenario 1: Li-ion battery without capital subsidy

yy Scenario 2: Li-ion battery with capital subsidy of 50%
of total cost
yy Scenario 3: Lead acid battery without capital subsidy
yy Scenario 4: Lead acid battery with capital subsidy of
50% of total cost
The results of the study are given in Table 1. The Annual
Maintenance Cost is taken as 0.5% of the capital cost. Internal Rate
of Return (IRR) and Return on Investment (RoI) are computed and
included in the table.
Table 1 Key Performance Indices of the PV–BES Peak Power Plant Rework
Determinants &
Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4
Performance Indices
PV capacity (kWp) 100
Daily generation
(kWh/kWp) 3.5
AMC (%) 0.5
Loan (%) 70
Interest rate (%) 9
Plant life (years) 25
BES type LI-ion Lead acid
BES capacity (kWh) 350 580
Capital subsidy (%) 0 50 0 50
Total capital cost (`/ 11 M 5.5 M
MW) 12.4 M 6.2 M
Grid FiT for P time
supply (`/kWh) 12 6 12 6
Loan Payback period 8.5 8.5
(years) 10.5 10.5
Full payback period 11.5 11.5
(years) 13.5 13.5
IRR (%) 9.5 9.5 11.5 11.5
RoI(%) 0.5 0.5 2.5 2.5
Even with a 50% subsidy on the total project capital cost, a

Feed-in-Tariff above `6 per unit of electricity makes it a not-very-
attractive option.
ShP PlAntS wIth SolAr

Pv-drIven PumPed hydroStorAge
The SHP scheme that pumps back water from the tail race using
solar power is shown in Figure 3. The PV capacity required to pump
water sufficient to operate the generator at rated capacity for one
hour during the peak time zone is considered. The ToD tariff is
applied for energy fed by the plant to the grid. ` 5.72 is the RTC
tariff declared by Kerala State Electricity Regulatory Commission
(KSERC) for the normal (N) and off-peak time (O) zones while
20% extra is admitted for the peak time (P) generation. The SHP
plant chosen for the study is situated at Palakkad in Kerala, the
operational data of which shows 24 h/day operation for four
months in a year, 3 h/day for three months and 1 h/day for five
months. The operation strategy with the storage can extend peak
time generation by another hour daily for eight months.
Figure 3 Small Hydropower Plant including Solar PV-driven Pumped

Hydrostorage
Two scenarios, one without a capital subsidy, and the other with
a 50% subsidy on PV pump system cost are considered for the study.
SHP cost has been taken as 10 Cr `/MW. Solar pumped hydro energy
storage (PHES) cost for the required capacity of 3 MWp is 4 Cr `.
Table 2 shows the results of the study.
Table 2 Key Performance Indices of the SHP–PHES Power Plant
Determinants & Performance Scenario1 Scenario2

Indices
SHP capacity (MW) 3
AMC (%) 7.5
Loan (%) 70
Interest rate (%) 9
Grid Feed-in-Tariff (N&O) (`/Wh) 5.72
Grid Feed-in-Tariff (P) (`/kWh) 6.86
Capital subsidy 0 50% of PHS cost
Capital cost (`) 34 Cr 32 Cr
Loan payback period (years) 9.5 7.5
Full payback (years) 11.5 10.5
IRR (%) 10.5 11.5
RoI(%) 1.5 2.5
It may be noted that a 50% subsidy on solar pumping and 20%

extra on RTC tariff for peak-time generation make only marginal
gains. However, the capacity utilisation factor (CUF) of the plant
rose to 40.4% from 37.6% of its original value.
ImPAct of tod-bASed
fIt on wInd electrIcIty generAtIon
Wind turbine generators (WTG) feed power to the grid in N, P and
O times on RTC tariff. WTG is considered for this investigation
without any energy storage, unlike PV and SHP. This study considers
a ToD tariff that accepts the KSERC rate for N and O times, that is
3.94 `/kWh, and FiT chosen for P times is 1.2 times of that. Wind
data from a site near the Kerala–Tamil Nadu border is used for this
study. Wind regime at the site has power densities of 335, 250 &
180 W/sqm for N, P & O times, at a hub height of 120. The study
computed annual energy production (AEP) by commercially
available WTG models like Siemens Gamesa 2.1 MW, Siemens
Gamesa 2.2 MW, Suzlon 2.25 MW, Inox 2 MW, Envision 2.5 MW, and,
GE 2.7 MW; the minimum of the six values has been chosen as the
AEP in this study. 90% exceedance probability is further considered
to address the uncertainties. Peak-time generation is found to be
16% of the total AEP for the case studied. WTG costs ` 7.5 crore per
MW and no subsidy is considered. Key Performance Indicators of
the Wind Power Plant under study are shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Key Performance Indicators of the Wind Power Plant
WTG capacity (MW) 2

Capital cost (`) 15 Cr
AMC (%) 1.5
Loan (%) 70
Interest rate (%) 9
Grid Feed-in-Tariff (N&O) (`/kWh) 3.94
Grid Feed-in-Tariff (P) (`/kWh) 4.73
Loan Payback period (years) 12
Full payback (years) 15
IRR (%) 9.5
RoI(%) 0.5
Changing over to the ToD framework from the RTC tariff

shows marginal profit whereas the RTC tariff with the chosen
determinants makes no profit. Therefore, the suggested policy may
revive the wind industry. The major benefit will be at sites that have
a major share of wind flow in the evenings.
concluSIon
The Central Electricity Regulatory Commission should consider
granting ToD tariff for RE-based electricity generation fed to
power utilities. Government policy shall either support capital
subsidies for grid-connected PV-BES development as well as for
solar PHS construction in SHP power plants, or grant enhanced FiT.
The determination of such FiT rates shall be based on real-field
experience gained through the operation of pilot plants. The central

and state utilities should venture on pilot plants of BES for PV and
solar PHS for SHP exclusively for peak power supply. In case of wind
power, the Central and State Electricity Regulatory Commissions
should initiate a change over from RTC tariff to ToD framework.
The union ministry of new and renewable energy (MNRE) and its
state nodal agencies should identify wind sites that have high peak
power potential; The National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE)
may facilitate it.
v
Rooftop Solar: Nithyanandam Yuvaraj
Dinesh Babu
India’s Journey Executive Director
Strategy & Transactions
and Climate Change
Assurance &
Sustainability Services
Ernst & Young Services
Private Limited
Delhi
yuvaraj.dinesh @in.ey.com
Introduction
The journey of rooftop solar (RTS) adoption in
India has been exciting thus far, despite the gamut
of challenges faced by this sector. It is heartening
to witness the increasing awareness and an
impressive adoption by several end use segments in
the country. These have signalled RTS’s inevitable
transformation, though delaying the target set by
the Government of India.
It is fair to assume the enormity of the target
when it was set for this sector way back in 2014.
With a promising enabling ecosystem in the form of
predictable and long-term policies and regulations
coupled with access to financing, RTS was touted
to be a game changer in the Distributed Renewable
Energy (DRE) market.
Given India’s democratic power sector setup
with states differing in implementing prioritised
(read consumer-friendly) schemes, the RTS sector
is suffering the most. The Central Electricity
Regulatory Commission through the Forum of
Regulators provided the crucial model regulation for implementing

Net Metering way back in 2013 which was further modified to
include transforming features in 2019. In 2014, Ministry of New and
Renewable Energy (MNRE) launched financial incentives (Phase I)
for solarizing government and institutional sectors as well. Many
states that were expected to make the most of the model regulations
and incentives missed the golden opportunity resulting in a varied
and complex implementation regime. Distribution Companies
(DISCOMs) are still shying away from having a comprehensive
understanding of the impact of RTS; many have instead approached
regulatory commissions and restricted net metering and other
enabling RTS features to consumers. These shaky pillars of support
further triggered uncertainty in the availability of standardised
financing product(s) and constrained investments leading to dismal
uptake.
Interestingly, smart developers successfully engaged with the
commercial and industrial consumers (the so-called low hanging
fruits) and the third-party investment model, Renewable Energy
Service Company (RESCO), coupled with CAPEX model triggered
the growth of RTS market in India.
MNRE’s Rooftop Solar Programs

In the meantime, MNRE discontinued the Phase I programme and
launched the Phase II programme in August 2019, this time focusing
on incentivising solarization in the residential sector.
Several DISCOMs have demonstrated their interest in solarizing
the residential sector under MNRE’s Phase II programme. For
example, Gujarat’s residential consumers have already installed
more than 1 GW of RTS, thanks to MNRE and the Surya Gujarat
program. Further, MNRE’s recent announcement to simplify the
RTS installation for the residential sector through Direct Benefit
Transfer (DBT) is expected to be a game-changer though with
intrinsic challenges. Small- and medium developers along with
entrepreneurs/start-ups have come a long way in playing an active
role in the RTS sector resulting in a significant number of green jobs.
These vulnerable developers are trying to cope with the shocks
from an abrupt increase in domestic and imported module costs
Rooftop Solar: India’s Journey 71
in addition to restrictions imposed under ALMM (Approved List

of Models and Manufacturers) guidelines besides post pandemic
impacts.
Key Challenges and Solutions

Despite several Government of India and State initiatives, there
are multiple challenges on institutional, regulatory, financing, and
consumer awareness aspects that hinder the uptake of rooftop solar
in India. One of the major issues has been the large variations in the
regulations issued by states for rooftop solar. It has been observed
that the regulations vary in terms of the limits on individual rooftop
solar capacities, distribution transformer capacities, process for
applying for metering connections, voltage connection levels,
integrated billing, settlement tariffs and exemption limits for
inspection by the Chief Electrical Inspector to Government (CEIG).
In addition, it is observed that there are variations in processing net
metering applications within the various electricity distribution
companies in a state. These large variations in regulations,
interconnections and metering application processes increase
the implementation time and administrative costs of compliance
for solar project developers. Further, the non-uniformity creates
confusion among consumers who are already less aware of rooftop
solar.
The announcement of a ceiling for net metering (10kW) and
gross metering (above 10kW) across the sectors by the Ministry
of Power under the Rights for Consumers (Electricity) Rules 2020
is anticipated to further constrain the growth of the rooftop solar
sector. While the third-party investors and captive consumers
are finding this as a disservice to the sector, the MSMEs will be
significantly affected as they could have gained from savings from
rooftop solar to remain competitive in their respective commercial
and industrial segments. Even after amendments based on
aggressive feedback from stakeholders, the amended Ministry of
Power’s Rights of Consumers Rules 2020 is not helping the sector
either with its revised ceiling of 500 kW for net metering as it is
misconstrued as the new ceiling for all the states whereas it is a
guidance for states without net metering.
Further, at least a couple of states in the country (eg Maharashtra

and Rajasthan) have implemented and proposed additional
charges for grid support extended by their DISCOMs to rooftop
solar consumers. Additional challenges in such proposals are the
absence of a fair set of assumptions for determination of tariff for
rooftop solar under different categories. Tamil Nadu, for example,
has limited rooftop solar installations to Low-Tension connections
below 150 kW.
Implementing uniform policy and regulation for rooftop solar
across the country with minor adaptations to states’ situations
offers great potential to reduce the ambiguity in the market, leading
to increased uptake of rooftop solar. Adoption of the draft model
regulations approved by the Forum of Regulators during 2019 for
grid-interactive distributed renewable energy systems by the states
will provide this uniformity and market certainty for investments.
Regulators may follow a standard methodology nationwide for
assessing the overall impact of rooftop solar on DISCOMs’ revenues
and allow DISCOMs to charge an additional levy on rooftop solar
after the state has achieved its target. MNRE launched State
Rooftop Solar Attractiveness Index (SARAL) in August 2019 and the
regulatory best practises identified in the index may be utilised in
developing uniform policy and regulation as well.
The benefits of DRE need not be overemphasised given the
current power (constrained) scenario and the long-term benefits
that rooftop solar could accrue to DISCOMs. Rooftop solar sector
has already witnessed an unprecedented progress on technology,
design, demand aggregation, business models, financing avenues,
best operation and maintenance practices etc. DISCOMs need to
undertake comprehensive impact assessments and play a central
role in promoting rooftop solar which could turn out to be a win-
win situation. DISCOMs should secure market feedback and work
closely with the policymakers and regulators to provide long term
certainty. It would be prudent and a timely decision (for DISCOMs)
to participate in the RTS proliferation and stay as a part of this
imminent transformation of DRE-based power generation.
On the financing front, NBFCs, banks and financing institutions
need to gear up and launch standard debt products based on
experience showcased by SBI, PNB, IDBI, Indian Bank, Canara Bank,

Co-operative banks, Tata Cleantech Capital, Electronica Finance,
etc, and comply with the debt allocation as mandated by RBI by
categorising renewable energy under Priority Sector Lending.
The financing community should in unison develop, support
and participate in risk mitigating solutions (eg credit guarantee
mechanisms) to ease financing for MSMEs which significantly
contribute to India’s GDP.
Central and State Governments should join hands with the
Public Sector Units and launch national level mass awareness
programmes and solarization of government buildings covering
all key sectors viz., townships/residential complexes, health,
education, sports, defence, law, etc.
Rooftop Solar Financing

and Technical Assistance Programmes
MNRE’s partnership with international financial institutions has
resulted in an increase in the amount of debt financing available
for accelerating the Grid-connected rooftop Solar PV (GRPV)
deployment in the country. The World Bank and Global Environment
Facility (GEF), a large debt financing programme launched in 2016
financed US$648 million (under the Perform for Results (PFR)
lending instrument) to the State Bank of India (SBI), to support
India’s Rooftop Solar PV ambition to debt finance GRPV projects
and enhance the capacity of various stakeholders involved in GRPV
implementation. The World Bank–SBI Line of Credit has triggered
an explosive market growth, in particular from commercial and
industrial consumers who found a clear business case for adopting
rooftop solar systems. The World Bank debt financing scheme has
proven to be a catalyst that has fast tracked the debt market RTS in
the country by promoting RESCOs, establishing a performance track
record for RTS, helping achieve economies of scale and reducing the
costs of roof top solar (RTS) system. Under this line of credit, SBI
has so far sanctioned INR 3300 crore towards installing 600 MW
rooftop solar projects.
As a part of the debt financing programmme, a Technical

Assistance (TA) programme1 was also launched through a Project
Management Consultant (PMC) under the Ministry of New &
Renewable Energy (MNRE)-led Steering Committee. Ernst & Young
(EY) consortium executed this TA programme for Grid-Connected
rooftop solar PV projects. SUPRABHA TA programme (2017–2022)
has created an enabling ecosystem by modifying the National
Model Rooftop Solar Regulations, developing Rooftop Solar
Policies for North Eastern States, training 3300 key stakeholders
(DISCOM officers, SBI officers, entrepreneurs and master trainers),
developing and deploying Unified Web Portal and aggregated
demand to the tune of 1.4 GW in 15 Indian states besides extensive
national media and outreach activities.
MNRE’s price benchmarking for rooftop solar projects

The major objectives of benchmarking for solar power systems
have always been to determine the industry’s competitiveness,
central subsidy and as a reference for regulatory commissions to
determine various solar parameters, ie, cost of supply, timeline, etc.
In specific, cost benchmarking identifies the competitiveness
of pricing in industry terms subsequently showing areas for
competitive pricing improvement. Observing the rapid decline
in the price of the solar modules, MNRE has been publishing the
benchmark rates (BMR) for off-grid and grid-connected rooftop
solar (GRPV) for several years now. These BMR have been a
guideline for the industry in different bidding tenders and paved
the way forward for pricing of Rooftop Solar Systems (RTS) across
the subsidised sectors.
1 The Sustainable Partnership for Rooftop Solar Acceleration in Bharat

(SUPRABHA) is a USD 13 million program which is led by The World Bank
and SBI and implemented in partnership with MNRE. SUPRABHA offers
Technical Assistance to 17 Partner States allocated by MNRE (Assam,
Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland,
Sikkim, Tripura, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Rajasthan, Chandigarh and Delhi) towards establishing an enabling
ecosystem for an accelerated deployment of grid connected rooftop solar.
MNRE benchmark rates for the last few years have been
observed not to be a true reflection of market price. Given that the
percentage of subsidy is similar across the country, the benchmarks
are continued to be provided separately for general category states
and special category states.
MNRE’s benchmark rates usually cover the total cost of
solar power systems including installation, commissioning,
transportation, insurance, five-year annual maintenance and
applicable fees and taxes. The benchmark rates explicitly refer to
the individual components and exclude the cost of net meter and
battery back-up.
There has been a constant reduction in benchmark prices in
each category and recently the benchmark prices were observed
to be slightly better as compared to the previous year. However,
during 2021, an average reduction of slightly over 40% across all
the three categories has been observed as compared to BMR of FY
17–18. Annually the percentage reduction in BMR stood between
10 % and 24 %.
A quick analysis from various market sources (largely vendors)
during 2021 shows that the tentative cost for the system comes
out to be approximately 34.00 INR/Wp with the solar module
comprising 50% of it. However, the costs that are additional to the
rates quoted under BMR by vendors include the cost of (customer)
acquisition, logistics and annual maintenance for five years.
While the module cost and cells kept on decreasing until
2017–2018, the trend reversed and the module prices started
stagnating and increasing in the present years. Major attributes to
these are the introduction of GST, safeguard duty in previous years
and the supply constrained demand in 2020.
Despite the tender-based discovered rates in the GRPV sector
largely being lower than these BMRs, every year, developers have
observed that BMR is essentially not the only tool to reflect market
price trends and quality of installation. There has always been a
strong demand to evaluate the efficacy of these BMRs over the true
price on the ground and the overall performance of such subsidised
GRPV systems.
In several states, it has been observed that the rates discovered

have been higher than the MNRE BMR. A few states approached
MNRE to permit consumers to choose higher-priced systems with a
cap on the central subsidy to the BMR, but in vain.
It is hoped that the price of the system will come closer and
closer to benchmark cost as time progresses and after a few years
the price coming through tenders would not be very different from
benchmark cost. Benchmark costs will also get rationalised as
technologies improve.
MNRE’s expectations have been far exceeded given that the
market prices (for subsidized sectors) have largely converged to
BMR and tender-based price discoveries are lower than BMR and
BMR has been rationalised as technologies have improved.
At the same time, what needs to be noted and addressed is
that MNRE BMR may become impractical for several small vendors
who already fall under the neglected MSMEs. MNRE as envisaged
during 2014, should closely monitor market trends and systems’
performance and adjust the BMR on a biannual basis. It may also
allow consumers to choose their own systems by limiting the
subsidy limit to BMR.
Launch of National Rooftop Portal

India’s rooftop solar journey has been a roller coaster and yet the
achievement of 10 GW is a significant milestone given the host
of challenges on all fronts and tough times the sector is going
through even today. The Commercial and Industrial (C&I) sector’s
significant share in the installed capacity (>75%) is a success story
to share though limited by varying state policies and regulations.
At the same time, the uptake in the government, institutional and
residential sectors is equally impressive, thanks to initiatives by
the Central Government through MNRE Phase I and Phase II Grid-
connected Rooftop Solar (RTS) Programmes. The recent launch of
the National Rooftop Portal by the Indian governement is potentially
a game changer as it empowers the residential consumers to install
rooftop solar systems of their choice on market mode and enables
receipt of transfer of direct benefits (capital grant) from MNRE.
The MNRE Phase I Grid-connected Rooftop Solar Programme

seeded the popular concept of demand aggregation and sensitization
of the government agencies to implement RTS projects via L1
tenders. State governments across the country have successfully
deployed both third-party investment model and capex model for
RTS installation.
The MNRE Phase II Grid-connected Rooftop Solar Programme
was launched with direct engagement with the DISCOMs for
implementing RTS systems in the residential sector. Till June 2022,
the 88 DISCOMs across the country were restricted to tendering
RTS capacities for residential sector based on sanction from MNRE
through the L1 selection process. Achievements from this DISCOM
engagement on L1 mode alone has resulted in installation of over
1.3 GW in the country with Gujarat leading with >1GW of installed
RTS capacity. However, this process had several limitations
related to the time consumed for various pre- and post-tendering
processes, the time gap between the first sanction and the second
sanction period by MNRE, non-standardised bids, unhealthy L1
price discovery, quality compromise by vendors, documentation
non-compliance delaying release of subsidy to vendors, etc.
To overcome the above lacuna, encourage vendors to supply
RTS systems of consumers’ choice and enable Direct Benefit
Transfer (DBT), the National Portal for Rooftop Solar was designed
and launched by MNRE. The major features of NP–RTS include
direct registration (for RTS installation) by the consumers across
the country, online sharing of such registrations to the respective
DISCOMs, online calculator to estimate costs after subsidy, choice
of DISCOM tender or self-selection of vendor for the consumers,
online processing of RTS applications by DISCOMs (through Unified
Web Portals), online dashboard for consumers to track his/her
application status, and release of subsidy directly to consumer’s
account after complying with MNRE’s requirements, access to key
information about RTS, Vendors etc. MNRE has also announced a
different benchmark and subsidy for consumers opting for NP–RTS
to implement RTS systems.
The NP–RTS is set to define the open market mode of
engagement by the residential consumers and initial response
has been observed to be moderate. Preparedness and readiness

by DISCOMs to optimise the benefits for consumers from the
NP–RTS and vendor engagement with DISCOMs to complete the
MNRE mandatory empanelment are the two major critical factors
of success. DISCOMs with MNRE’s support are already gearing up
in terms of launching massive consumer awareness and outreach
activities which are need of the hour. On the digital side, integration
of DISCOMs’ Unified Web Portal and NP–RTS will further increase
transparency as regards approval processes. NP–RTS upon
accomplishing these key aspects is all set to accelerate deployment
of RTS systems in the residential sector and contribute to the overall
target of 280 GW of solar power by 2030.
MNRE’s Rooftop Solar

Phase II Programme Extension
The necessity for the extension of the MNRE’s Rooftop Solar Phase II
Programme need not be overemphasised. Reasons are aplenty viz.,
recently launched National Portal for Rooftop Solar, a significant
amount of unutilized subsidy and incentives, country gearing up for
scaling implementation of rooftop solar, banks stepping up funding
for rooftop solar, emerging viable storage solutions, progressive
DISCOMs promoting rooftop solar, increasing quality supply and
service providers, etc.
A quick glance at the current status of MNRE’s Rooftop Solar
Phase II Programme shows that under Component A, MNRE has
sanctioned 3 GW against the target of 4 GW and under Component
B, MNRE has released INR 300 crore as incentives for DISCOMs for
annual incremental rooftop solar installed capacities.
Recently, Indian government has launched Mission LiFE—
Lifestyle for Environment—which is expected to be an India-led
global mass movement that will nudge individual and collective
action to protect and preserve the environment. Rooftop solar
for the residential sector is undoubtedly one such individual and
collection action. Citizen-centric actions such as rooftop solar for
meeting individual power needs will go a long way in meeting
India’s updated Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC)
submitted to (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate

Change (UNFCCC) during August this year.
The State of Gujarat has led the way in empowering its residents
and has democratised use of solar energy through its SURYA (Surya
Urja Rooftop Yojana). Gujarat has enabled the installation of over
1.2 GW in the residential sector by matching MNRE subsidies with
state subsidies which led to an accelerated implementation. Gujarat
has empanelled over 700 rooftop solar vendors to meet the demand
aggregated through exemplary outreach activities and awareness
creation, a unified digital platform and a dedicated DISCOM
workforce. Other determined states can replicate Gujarat’s success
by incorporating the best practises. Gujarat’s and India’s first solar
village, Modhera also showcases how the entire residential areas
could be powered through rooftop solar plants. Kerala, Rajasthan,
Haryana and Uttar Pradesh are the other top four states that have
emerged successful in enabling creation of an ecosystem for rooftop
solar growth in the residential sector.
MNRE’s engagement of Public Sector Units (PSUs) to assist State
DISCOMs to design and deploy outreach activities and awareness
programmes is the need of the hour as DISCOMs are resource
constrained.
Several Indian banks have debt-lending schemes for residential
rooftop solar plants, direct lending, home improvement loans
and new home loans with solar plants. MNRE has published this
data online as well on its rooftop solar website which will further
encourage other banks to lend given that RBI’s Priority Sector
Lending increased lending quantum for renewable energy. The
World Bank’s dedicated concessional line of credit of $165 million
for residential rooftop solar plants is expected to further boost
financing for this underserved residential segment. This line of
credit will not only assist MNRE’s rooftop solar target but also
serve as a catalyst for increased residential sector lending by banks.
Debt facilitating platforms are also emerging to increase access to
financing residential rooftop solar systems.
The extension of the MNRE Phase II Rooftop Solar Programme
will enable consolidation of the residential rooftop solar market
as the market has started sensing the huge demand in this sector.
Be it quality products and services, growing active vendors, access

to finance, mass outreach activities, digital solutions, battery
storage solutions, etc, rooftop solar sector is recently witnessing
it at par with any other fast moving consumer goods (FMCG).
Continued support by the MNRE through subsidies, expanding its
access through its recently launched Nation Rooftop Solar Portal
and encouraging grants for virtual net metering projects for rural
areas (urban areas are recommended to be included as well) will
certainly catapult installation of rooftop solar in the residential
sector and ensure its sustained operation beyond 2026 as well.
Digitisation: Requirement and its Utility

Digitisation plays a vital role in every sphere of the RTS ecosystem,
be it feasibility assessments, vendor and consumer on-boarding,
DISCOM approvals, monitoring or financing. For instance, lack of
data regarding the total capacity of RTS plants interconnected to
a distribution transformer (DT) and the limits imposed by state
net metering (NEM) regulations on NEM connections based on
DT capacity leads to data asymmetry and process inefficiencies.
Online DT mapping for the entire DISCOM coverage area, will
assist DISCOMs to efficiently manage the distribution network and
provide timely approvals.
Secondly, for successful RTS tenders, if potential pipeline is
offered upfront through an online data room, true and competitive
price discovery is undeniable. Thirdly, the Unified Web Portal (UWP)
enables DISCOMs to provide a seamless experience for consumers
to apply for grid interconnection, manage vendor activities and
claim subsidy, all on a single digital platform. Fourthly, post-vendor
empanelment, the consumer on-boarding process can be digitised
by floating online expression of interests (EoI), thereby reducing
the transaction costs and fostering RTS deployment.
Finally, online performance monitoring of RTS projects
will empower key stakeholders with competitive performance
benchmarking, access to components’ performance ratings,
overall visibility of the RTS plants’ performance including target
environmental parameters, demand forecasting, planning and
scheduling, RPO compliance, provision of generation-based
incentives, participation in peer-to-peer energy markets (block chain

enabled), certified and validated generation data-facilitating bankers
in project yield assessment, reliable operation and maintenance
information, performance ratings for developers etc, For financiers,
the entire loan process involving application, verification, approval,
monitoring and closure can also be automated through online
document submission systems, chatbots, digitised tracking systems
combined with the online performance monitoring.
Several market players and DISCOMs have already implemented
many of the above leading digital initiatives viz., launch of UWPs
and online consumer aggregation, online monitoring, online
DT mapping (eg Telangana DISCOM), online loan processing by
Banks (eg IDBI) etc. SUPRABHA—the World Bank–SBI rooftop
solar technical assistance programme—has already made a
comprehensive digital impression in more than 15 states in
developing UWPs. It has also established more than 12 online data
rooms covering more than 4000 sites with 350 MW capacity across
12 States. Such data rooms have been a key contributor to the price
discovery for over 200 MW tenders. SUPRABHA also developed
a vendor management portal to assist DISCOMs in managing the
post-bid processes. SUPRABHA supported the National Institute
of Solar Energy (NISE) in establishing a remotely monitored RTS
platform and has also initiated work on an online site monitoring
mechanism and an automated loan process mechanism for banks.
Post COVID-19, SUPRABHA believes that RTS digitisation is the way
forward to intensify the momentum towards achieving the desired
targets.
Role of India’s National Carbon Market

The Government of India’s recent introduction of National Carbon
Market (NCM) through an amendment to the Energy Conservation
(Amendment) Act 2022 is the right step towards encouraging
citizens and corporations equally to contribute towards reducing
the country’s carbon footprint and ensuring a sustainable energy
mix thereby enabling them to meet the Net Zero by 2070 target,
committed at COP 26, Glasgow in 2021.
Though coal-fired Thermal Power Plants (TPS) are the largest

source of greenhouse gas emissions, they will be the major source
for meeting India’s electricity demand for at least two decades from
now. However, Distributed Renewable Energy (DRE) technologies
especially rooftop solar syatem can assist to displace these GHG
emissions by generating clean and affordable power at source to
households and businesses. Moreover, the deployment of rooftop
solar systems can also reduce the pressure on India’s electricity
grid, improving its reliability, reducing need for new TPS and
creating new (green) job opportunities.
India’s National Carbon Market has been established with
the goal of reducing the country’s GHG emissions and promoting
sustainable development. Under this NCM, carbon credits will be
made available for trading from (a) conversion Energy Savings
Certificates (ESCerts) and Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs)
(b) Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) already issued for
Indian GHG emission reduction projects by the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) under the
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and (d) emission reduction
from new GHG mitigation (clean energy, forestry, agriculture, etc.)
projects under India’s Carbon Standards.
Demand for carbon credits is expected from Indian Corporations
especially from the service sector which has declared its net zero
targets and has limited in-house options to reduce GHG emissions.
Demand is also expected from Indian Corporations and Industries
that are willing to display the commitment to neutralize the impacts
of Scope 3 GHG emissions. Scope 3 emissions are GHG emissions
from the supply chain which is essentially the third-party vendors
for any industry or corporations that have limited or no ability to
offset their GHG emissions.
Rooftop solar projects and other DRE projects offer an
attractive portfolio of carbon credits as they demonstrate multiple
value additions viz., energy democracy, consumer centric,
multistakeholder engagement, long term substitution of fossil
power etc. The State Regulatory Commissions of Chandigarh, Kerala
and Andhra Pradesh have already approved business models for
scaling rooftop solar implementation. Market pundits observe that
carbon credits from such rooftop solar/DRE projects developed

under such business models will have the scale to offer huge
volumes of carbon credits. Community-level rooftop solar projects
eg virtual net metering projects, peer-to-peer trading (blockchain
enabled), group net metering projects (for C&I segment) will be
considered as attractive for buyers to procure carbon credits from
such projects. Existing methodologies approved under CDM or
Voluntary Standards are adequate for developing such projects on
a fast-track basis. Such projects could be developed under a single
umbrella of project documentation to reduce transaction costs.
India’s National Carbon Market is well poised to incentivize
GHG emission reductions, create new business opportunities,
encourage international cooperation and ultimately enhance energy
security. And with the right policy and regulatory frameworks and
increased access to financing, rooftop solar systems and other DRE
technologies offer significant potential to shape a country’s carbon
market and contribute to a more sustainable energy future.
With the concerted efforts of all the stakeholders coupled with
a coordinated push by the Government of India is certain to gallop
and achieve a significant milestone in the RTS sector.
v
Energy and Green Tomson Sebastian
Energy Technologist
Rating of Buildings Energy Management
Centre, Kerala
tomson@keralaenergy.
gov.in
Introduction
Energy conservation in buildings is becoming
increasingly important as society seeks to reduce its
carbon footprint and address the challenges of climate
change. Energy consumed in buildings accounts for a
significant portion of global energy consumption and
greenhouse gas emissions. To challenge this, several
programmes have been introduced to reduce energy
consumption in buildings, including Star labelling
and Green Building certification programmes.
Star Labelling Programme

The Star Labelling (Figure 1) Programme is
a voluntary energy efficiency programme for
buildings initiated by the Bureau of Energy
Efficiency (BEE) in India. This programme applies
to both residential and commercial buildings and
rates them on a 1–5-star scale based on their energy
consumption. Buildings that achieve a higher star
rating implies less energy consumption and lower
operational costs. Buildings with a higher rating
have increased rentability and market demand.
Figure 1 Star Labelling

The BEE Star Labelling Programme for residential buildings has
two specific labelling stages, namely the ’Applied for’ label and the
‘Final Star Label’ as shown in Figure 2. This applies to all single and
multiple dwelling units in India and encourages builders to design
and construct energy-efficient buildings. This labelling programme
aims to reduce energy consumption in residential buildings and
increase awareness of energy conservation.
Figure 2 Two stages of the BEE Star Labelling Programme

The Star Labelling Programme for Commercial Buildings applies
to office buildings, Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) buildings,
shopping malls, and hospital buildings. The programme rates
buildings on a 1–5 scale based on their energy consumption, with
5-star-labelled buildings being the most efficient. The programme,
Energy and Green Rating of Buildings 87
applicable to different climatic zones and building types, measures

Energy Performance Index (EPI) in kWh/sqm/year. Buildings
connected with a load of 100 kW and above are eligible for a BEE
star rating.
In addition to the Star Labelling Programme, Green Building
certification programmes have also been introduced to promote
sustainable building practices. Green buildings are designed
to reduce the overall impact on human health and the natural
environment, from site selection to design, construction, operation,
maintenance, renovation, and demolition. The practise aims to
reduce energy consumption, water usage, waste, pollution, and
environmental degradation.
Features of Green Buildings

Features of green building include:
Structural efficiency Aims to minimise the total environmental
impact associated with all life-cycles (Figure 3) which has the
largest impact on the cost and performance of buildings.
Energy efficiency Aims to reduce the operating energy use through
renewable energy sources such as solar power, wind power, hydro
power and biomass.
Water efficiency Aims to reduce water consumption and protect
water quality. Using non-sewage and greywater for on-site purposes
such as site-irrigation will minimise demands on local aquifers.
Materials efficiency Aims to use environment-friendly materials
and reduce toxicity. Construction materials should be renewable,
reusable, recyclable, environmentally-friendly and non-toxic such
as lumber, bamboo, straw and other natural products.
Figure 3 Structural efficiency cycle
Green Building Certification

Green Building certification programmes have been introduced in
various regions worldwide, including Kerala in India. Guidelines
for green rating and green building certification of buildings in
Kerala is approved and published (GO(Ms)No 39/2022/LSGD
dated 25/02/2022). Preparation of reference manuals and the
development of software-assisted green rating methods are in
progress in Kerala.
Kerala government has introduced tax incentives as shown in
the Figure 4 to encourage green buildings
Energy and Green Rating of Buildings 89
Figure 4 Incentives for green buildings
Conclusion
Energy conservation in buildings is crucial to address climate
change and reduce global energy consumption. The Star Labelling
and Green Building certification programmes play a vital role in
promoting sustainable building practises and reducing energy
consumption. Energy-efficient buildings not only benefit the
environment but also reduce operational costs, increase rentability,
and enhance market demand for buildings. It is imperative that
builders and individuals recognise the importance of energy
conservation and work towards designing and constructing energy-
efficient buildings.
v
100% Renewable Atul Kumar
Professor & Director
Energy by 2050: Energy Studies
Programme
Challenges and Jawaharlal Nehru
University
Opportunities for India athulkumar@mail.jnu.
ac.in
Introduction
India, a country with a large underserved
population and growing energy demand, faces
numerous challenges to meet its energy needs
sustainably. This report explores the possibility
of achieving 100% renewable energy by 2050
and the challenges and opportunities that come
with this goal. The report examines the global
scenario, deteriorating air quality, and the benefits
of renewable energy. It also presents a detailed
bottom-up technological representation of the
energy system and a multi-time-period dynamic LP
model to guide policy and technological decision-
making.
Energy and Related Challenges

India’s energy demand drivers are accelerating
rapidly with increasing income levels, urbanisation,
access to markets, financial freedom, consumption
of consumer goods, and high levels of mobility. However, the

country’s conventional energy resources are stagnating, if not
declining, and import dependence is continually on the rise.
India has abundant, underdeveloped, renewable energy sources,
and sustained economic growth and social development require
increasing energy use.
Global Scenario
The increasing conflicts and volatility in supplying nations, falling
production from aging oil fields, and growing energy needs of
countries pose a significant challenge to India. Despite new resource
discoveries, increased price volatility in the future, and increasing
supply shocks are possible. The Global oil trade is shown in
Figure 1. Coal exporting nations are also limited, making it difficult
to meet India’s energy demands.
Figure 1 The Global Oil Trade—2020 (Trade flows worldwide (million

tonnes) Source: BP Statistical review, 2021
Deteriorating Air Quality

India’s deteriorating air quality is a significant concern. Most
cities in the country had already exceeded the ambient air quality
standard (Figure 2) by 2011/12, and mortality from particulate
100% Renewable Energy by 2050: Challenges and Opportunities for India 93
matter (PM) 2.5 was 5.73 lakh in that year. In the future, the air
quality is expected to worsen, increasing mortality to 33.6 lakh in
2031/32.
Figure 2 Regional scale air quality in India-2011 and projections for

Reference Scenario 2031. Source: TERI’s Integrated MARKAL,
WRF, CMAQ Models Results
Why Renewables?
Renewables can provide centralised or decentralised energy
solutions, with zero or negligible GHG emissions, without the risk of
resource depletion, and with improved equity and energy security.
Methodological Approach
The chapter presents a detailed bottom-up technological
representation of the energy system, with over 300 technologies
and nearly 100,000 variables. It uses a multi-time-period, dynamic
LP model extending from 2001/2–2051/52. The objective function
minimises total energy system costs while incorporating elements
of sustainable development, such as risk minimisation, energy
access, self-sufficiency, and emissions reduction.
Scenarios
This report presents two scenarios: Reference Energy Scenario
(REF) and the 100% Renewable Energy Scenario (REN). REF
provides a baseline that shows how the nation’s energy trajectory

would evolve if current trends in energy demand and supply are
not changed. REN examines the possibility of a mix that comprises
100% renewable energy in the primary commercial energy supply
by 2051.
Findings
Primary Energy Supply
The report suggests that in the REN scenario, the primary energy
supply will be 30% less by 2031 and 60% less by 2051 as compared
to the REF scenario (Figure 3). In the REF scenario, fossil fuels
contribute more than 90% of the primary energy supply throughout
the modelling period, whereas in the REN scenario, around 10 per
cent of the fuel mix would need to be met by fossil fuels for niche
uses such as feedstock in industry, for which there is currently no
alternative.
Figure 3 Primary energy supply projection of India
Electricity Capacity and Generation

According to the report, in the REF scenario, electricity generation
continues to be heavily (~70%) dependent on fossil fuels.
The share of renewable-based capacity (inclusive of large hydro)
drops from 27% (2011) to 21% (2051) in REF while renewables
contribute to nearly 100% of the electricity generation in REN.
Electricity generation capacity is 50% higher in the REN due to
100% Renewable Energy by 2050: Challenges and Opportunities for India 95
lower availability factors of renewable technologies. Solar (42%) and

wind (44%) are the main contributors in REN by 2051(Figure 4).
Figure 4 Electricity generation capacity
CO2 Emissions
The report suggests that CO2 emissions will drop drastically in the
REN scenario to 25% of 2011 levels by 2051. Per capita emission
levels grow from 1.43 tonne in 2011 to 3.62 tonne in 2051 in the
REF scenario while they drop to 0.25 tonne in the REN scenario.
Key Observations
The report suggests several key observations, including the need
for aggressive efficiency improvements of the order of 59 per cent
by 2051. Fossil fuel-based plants and technologies need to be
phased out in the REN scenario much before the end of their
economic lifetime. All renewable energy forms need to be pushed
to their technical limits to achieve a move towards a 100% REN
scenario. Biofuels would need to play a key role by 2051 and
account for 90 per cent of the transport fuel requirement in order to
move towards the REN scenario. Around 10 per cent of the fuel mix
would need to be met by fossil fuels for niche uses such as feedstock
in industry, for which there is currently no substitute/alternative.
Concentrated solar thermal technologies would need to play a key
role in meeting electricity needs as well as the thermal demand
in industries. Cooking would need to rely on electricity in urban
areas. The cumulative CO2 emissions in the REN scenario are about
one-third of those in the REF scenario.
Challenges
The report highlights several challenges, such as the fact that
under the REN scenario, all industrial heating requirements up
to 700°C will be met through concentrated solar thermal (CST)
technologies by 2051. This implies that CST technologies for
thermal applications need to be commercially viable even for small
to medium manufacturers by 2031. A large part of the energy
demand in the transport sector is expected to be met through third-
generation biofuels, but this technology is still in the R&D phase. To
be available as a major fuel option by 2051, as in the REN scenario,
this technology would have to become commercially viable within
the next two decades.
Key Recommendations
The report suggests several key recommendations, including
the need to strengthen the regulatory framework to function
independently and in long-term interests, encourage efficiency and
demand management, and develop pricing frameworks that meet
energy security objectives. While certain sections of users would
need to be provided with targeted subsidies, adopting progressive
energy pricing structures together with innovative ways of
internalising the costs of the degradation of domestic natural
resources can play a role in accelerating the shift towards alternative
fuels and technologies. The report also recommends recognising the
synergistic interdependence between energy sector development and
other sectors; Urban, Health, Water, Food. Importantly, recognise
the job creation opportunities of decentralised, distributed energy
generation, particularly in support of energy access and the SME sector.
Manifold increase in R&D at technical and policy levels to support
desired transitions.
v
Green Initiatives Of Cochin Rajumon P C
DGM (Electrical)
International Airport Cochin International
Airport Limited
Limited: Cial Success Story Kochi, Kerala
In Renewable Energy Sector rajumon@cial.aero
Introduction
As part of their energy strategy, Cochin
International Airport Limited (CIAL) decided in
2012 to develop, implement, and use their own
renewable energy sources to achieve power self-
sufficiency. The initiatives by CIAL are worthy. For
energy-efficiency LED lights, a green technology,
are used for 95% of the lighting needs of the
terminal. There is a sewage treatment plant that
is monitored by the pollution control board.
Another CIAL success is the solar boat, which
was launched on February 15, 2021, as part of
the Kovalam–Akkulam waterway’s inauguration,
using 13 panels mounted in the bottom to generate
5.1 KW (Figure1). CIAL also installed hybrid
wind-mill cum solar panels and solar floating
panels at the CIAL golf club at Payyannur, which are
terrain-based solar plants, the first in south
India. Another method, Agrivoltaics, capable of
harvesting both food and energy together, reducing irrigation

requirements, and protecting crops from adverse weather
conditions is also used. Another CIAL-monitored small
hydroelectric project across the Iruvahhinji River at Arippara
is also a success, generating 4.5 megawatts. CIAL plays a
vital role in reducing our carbon footprint by generating
48.13 megawatts of green energy in the years 2021–2022.
All their accomplishments earned them the title of United Nations
Champions of the Earth for 2018.
Energy Efficient Terminal Design

Energy-efficient terminal designs included:
yy Sustainable, inclusive and modular designs.

yy Rain water harvesting technologies.
yy Low leakage envelopes.
yy U-valued roofs and walls.
yy Building management system (BMS) and Learning
management systems (LMS) enabled t buildings.
yy Hydroneumatic pumping systems (HNS).
yy Electric cars for disabled passengers.
yy Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning (HVAC)
system controlled by Automated Chiller Plant Manager.
yy Primary and secondary pumping system for chilled
water.
yy CO2 sensors for demand control ventilation.
yy Treated fresh air handling units with heat recovery
wheels.
yy Pressure independent balancing and control valves in
all air handling units (AHU).
yy Variable Refrigerant Flow (VRF) HVAC systems, LED
technology for lightings, nameboards, signboards.
Green Initiatives of Cochin International… 99
yy Extensive use of glass façades.

yy Scientifically designed LED signage for passenger
guidance.
Sewage Treatment Plants

The features of sewage treatment plant commissioned in 2013
include:
yy Treating capacity of 750m3/day.

yy Water fully utilised for gardening and maintenance of
Golf Course Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor (MBBR) waste
water treatment system for the treatment of Aircraft
Sewage.
yy Biogas generated using biogas plants are used for
kitchen purposes.
yy An online monitoring system for measuring following
parameters of treated water: Biological Oxygen
Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total
Suspended Solids (TSS), pH value, oil and grease.
Solar Boat
CIAL launched its solar boat on 15 February 2021 as a part of
the inauguration of the Kovalam–Akkulam Water way with the
following features:
yy A single module with a rating of 395 Wp.

yy Thirteen panels mounted on the boat with a capacity
of 5.1 KW.
yy Powered by two Elco Electric Outboard EP-30
propellers.
yy Functioning of motor using brushless PMAC technology.
Agrivoltaics
The method of agrivoltaics (Figure 2) is used to harvest both food
and energy together. It reduces loss of water due to transpiration,
thus minimising irrigation requirements.
It also protects crops from adverse weather conditions.
Figure 2 Agrovoltaic practise
Reduction of Carbon Footprint

The CAIL’s initiatives has
yy saved 32251.40 MT of CO2 in 2021–22.

yy generated 48.13 MU of Green Energy (Solar and SHEP
generation combined) in the same year.
yy generated renewable energy of >25 crore units till date.
yy estimated to save 12,04,750 MT of CO2 in 25 years.
v
Decentralized RE applications Vikrant Yadav
Asst. Director (Technical)
And Energy Acess In National Institute of
Solar Energy
Agriculture Sector— Gurugram, Haryana
vikrant.nise@gmail.com
Innovations At NISE
Introduction
The utility of solar power in the agricultural
segment is increasing. Advanced technologies are
developed and adopted for hot air requirements,
hot water requirements, solar water pumping
electricity requirements, cold storage systems,
solar dryer systems and processing food products
such as fruits, vegetables, milk, eggs, coffee, tea, etc.
(Figure 1). Solar energy is also used to heat
the space during the winter. The advantages of
solar dryers over conventional direct drying
methods are many. The former is more hygienic,
freer from pathogens, of better quality, and
takes less time to dry. The various solar project
installations across India, include the first
solar-powered vaccine storage facility at the
government medical college in Calicut, Kerala.
Figure 1 Growth trajectory of renewable energy sources in India
Figure 2 New Technologies—Thermal energy storage and solar compressor
Solar-powered Vaccine Cold Storage

India’s first solar-powered vaccine cold storage facility installed at
Kozhikode Medical College Hospital (KMCH) is shown in Figure 3.
It:
yy Supports cost-effective and secured preservation

of life-saving vaccines by maintaining an adequate
refrigerated cold chain network.
Decentralized Reapplications And Energy… 103
y Has a customized outdoor container with a remote

temperature monitoring system, closed-circuit
television camera surveillance and walk-in option to
easily access the stock.
y Can function on both grid power and alternative power
supplies in case of insufficient solar energy.
Figure 3 Solar cold storage unit at Government Medical College, Calicut
SolAr dryer cum

SPAce heAtIng SyStem (Soldry)
Solar drier (Figure 4) uses very efficient and cost effective solar
thermal technology for supplying heat. It is a complete off grid
system with the following features.
y Drying chamber having drying capacity 70–100 kg at

one time.
Figure 4 Solar dryer installed in Ladakh
yy Designed for 24×7 operation with thermal storage

system having a heat storage capacity of 6 kWh.
yy System designed for dual mode operation with plug-
and-play connection: drying mode and space heating
mode.
v
Global Scenario of Cities Dhilon Subramanian
Manager
Energy program
World Resources Institute
Kochi, Kerala
dhilon.subramanian@
wri.org
Introduction
The global scenario of cities has many interesting
factors (Figure 1). Two percent of the world’s cities
consume two-thirds of total energy usage. Nearly
90% of metropolitan areas are near coastlines
and are therefore more vulnerable to the effects of
climate change. In this scenario, more focus should
be on urban areas because they frequently have
greater relationships with businesses, citizens, and
institutions of government. UN Sustainable City
Programme, Race to Zero, C40 Cities, and Building
Efficiency Accelerator Programme are examples
of international programmes for sustainable city
energy use.
Kochi is one of the five cities that accommodates
the building efficiency development programme.
This study explains the benchmarking energy
performance of offices in Kochi—the first of its kind
in India (city-based). Building Performance Index
(BPI) is used to compare the energy efficiency of
buildings. The study methodology included both
quantitative and qualitative analysis.
Figure 1 Global scenario of cities. (Source: 1,2,3,4,5- C40 Cities, 6-UN

department of economics and social affairs)
The study focused to:
yy Assess the feasibility of conducting a citywide

benchmarking exercise for offices.
yy Establish an energy performance benchmark for the
offices (as BPIs).
yy Document perceptions towards EE retrofits and
services in office spaces with differing ownership and
management.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The research methodology included both quantitative and
qualitative analysis as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2 Research Methodology

Global Scenario of Cities 107
Scope of study
yy Offices (not ‘office buildings’) with connected load of 75 kW

and above were selected.
yy Offices account for 27% of large commercial consumers in
Kochi, the second largest category after retail spaces.
yy Figure 3 shows the distribution of commercial buildings in
Kochi.
Figure 3 Distribution of Commercial buildings in Kochi
Sample selection process

Building performance index (BPI)
yy BPI is defined as the ratio of actual energy consumed by the

office to the estimated energy consumed by the benchmarked
office.
yy ‘Benchmarked office’: A hypothetical office whose energy
consumption is the benchmark.
yy A multiple regression equation is used to estimate the
benchmark offices’ energy consumption.
yy Any value of BPI <1 indicates that the office is performing better
in terms of energy use than the benchmarked office and BP1> 1
indicates that the actual office is over consuming energy.
Figure 4 Building performance index ranking
Results
yy BPI values ranging from 0.39 to 2.13.

yy 22/50 offices had a BPI < 1 or were relatively more efficient
than other offices.
Global Scenario of Cities 109
yy EPI values ranging from 21.3 to 441.7 kWh/m2/year; average

EPI of 130 kWh/m2/year.
yy All seven offices where multiple tenants occupied the building,
and managed facilities are in the bottom 28.
Figure 4 shows the ranking of building performance index.
Findings and Observations
yy Benchmarking building energy use can be done in Indian cities

with minimal data.
yy Buy-in from the city builds trust and helps in data collection
for voluntary benchmarking exercise.
yy Data needed for benchmarking can be collected with the
cooperation of office manager and a trained surveyor.
yy BPIs
yy Using BPI as a metric to benchmark buildings in our
analysis provided the flexibility of factoring in the influence
of multiple parameters on a building’s energy consumption.
yy BPI is holistic in that it considers all buildings in the peer
group while determining the benchmark performance
of a certain building and compares the building’s actual
performance with its benchmarked performance.
yy Perceptions on energy efficiency services and retrofits
yy There was no evidence of the split incentive barrier.
yy There is no demand for financing high-cost upgrades.
yy Saving energy is considered important, but actions suggest
otherwise.
yy Awareness of energy service companies (ESCO) models is
low.
v
Smart Electric Vehicle C M Varghese
CEO
Charging: Integrating Evergreen Energy
Technologies Pvt Ltd
Renewable Energy Kochi, Kerala
Sources And Power &

President
System Flexibility In Kerala Renewable Energy
Entrepreneurs and
India By 2030 Promoters Association
Kerala
egetpltd@gmail.com
Electric Vehicle
charging and its significance
It is estimated that in India by 2030 EV penetration
would include 30% of private cars, 70% of
commercial cars, 40% of buses, and 80% of
two- and three-wheelers. For this, power system
integration is essential for addressing power
system flexibility from renewable energy sources.
The necessity of demand side management
for charging stations, energy storage systems,
transmission reinforcement, future energy
storage, etc has to be seriously looked into. There
are three different kinds of smart charging:
V1G (unidirectionally controlled charging), V2G
(vehicle to grid), and V2H/B (vehicle to home or
building). Some advantages of the integration of
smart charging with proper power conditioning system (PCS) in

the grid are high yield, wireless charging, load levelling, capacity
improvement, frequency regulation, and power quality. Smart
charging enables the conversion of increasing amounts of heat to
electricity, and the distribution of energy resources and electricity
is becoming more digital. The elements that will control smart
charging infrastructure are the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial
intelligence (AI), block chain, etc.
v
Renewable Energy Debajit Palit
Professor
Transition in India: NTPC School of Business
Noida, Uttar Pradesh
Opportunities and debajit.palit@nsb.ac.in
Challenges
Introduction
This paper provides some insight into the power
sector in India, especially the updated Nationally
Determined Contribution (NDC)—Panchamrit.
According to the growth trajectory of renewable
energy use in India, the last five years have seen
a production of 10 GW per year (Figure 1). Here,
Tamil Nadu comes in first place, followed by Gujarat,
mainly in terms of solar and wind energy. Solar
and wind energy are the cheapest energy sources
in India. Tariffs are increased quite a lot during
and after this period, and battery storage costs
are also reduced. By 2050, renewable energy (RE)
will be very cost-competitive and coal demand will
be significantly lower. There is an urgent need to
develop some alternate models for reviving India’s
RE policies. It is important to note the challenges
of RE variability and the challenges of achieving
500 GW by 2030. To achieve this, it is necessary to install solar

power plants wherever possible and feasible. It is necessary to
create ‘energy islands’ in both urban and rural areas. Deeper
understanding, collective action on impacts, risks, and opportunities
are the need of the hour. For this, providing equal importance
and developing enabling policies, a regulatory framework, and
financing schemes for Distributed renewable energy (DRE)/
Distributed energy system (DES) and enabling RE use for livelihood
applications are essential.
Figure 1 Growth trajectory of renewable energy sources in India
Power Sector in India
yy The electrification of villages increased from 1500 in 1947 to

600,000.
yy Electricity generation increased from < 200 MW in 1947 to
~400,000 MW
yy Beginning with the first microhydro RE plant in 1897 and
generating 100 GW of RE.
yy Aiming to increase the share of non-fossil fuels to 40 % of total
installed capacity.
yy Targets 175 GW of RE by 2022 and 500 GW by 2030.
Renewable Energy Transition in India: Opportunities and Challenges 115
yy Improvements in network infrastructure and power markets

have aided in the integration of renewable energy.
yy Transition from a traditional energy economy (1947) to a
modern energy economy (2000s) and now aim to transition to
a Clean Energy Economy to become energy secure, resilient and
sustainable.
Electricity Sector
yy RE and storage will be the economically preferred option for

new buildings by the late 2020s.
yy Before 2030, penetrations of RE in the order of 30–40% of total
generation are cost effective from a system perspective, even
after considering the additional costs of grid integration of
variable RE.
yy After 2030, continued progress in storage technologies will
allow RE share to rise above 50% at no extra cost.
yy In the medium term, a portfolio of grid management options—
improving existing gas capacity, fast ramp-up and ramp-down
of coal power stations, fast-response demand reduction
measures, and good storage facilities (especially batteries)—
are required.
Transition from Coal
yy Coal demand will rise till the late 2020s; however, need for
additional thermal capacity is dim.
yy There may be technical, social and other challenges; thus
transition has to be gradual.
yy Need to follow a Just Transition approach—Two (inter-linked)
arguments.
yy Since different degrees of coal economy exist, a transition away
from coal has to look at different aspects of transition with
varied degrees of legality and formalization.
Impact of RE Variability
yy RE generation is uncertain and non-dispatchable.

yy Inability of RE generation to follow load profiles can lead to
load loss due to its uncertain nature.
yy The uncertain and variable nature of RE thus require robust
planning to ensure there is sufficient capacity to ensure
reliability.
yy Battery energy storage system at an affordable cost.
yy Pumped hydrostorage systems.
Challenges to achieve 500 GW by 2030
yy The focus on utility solar PV has to be strengthened.

yy Implementation process has to be quadrupled to achieve the
target.
yy Long-term finance for the projects should be easily made
available.
yy Discoms ability to pay the project developers against the
electricity procured. Sectoral reforms to depoliticise and
professionally corporatize the Discoms with proper disclosure
norms in place have to be done.
yy Large-scale land requirement for RE projects have to be
smoothed out without conflict from the farming communities
and local stakeholders/communities.
yy Enhancing grid integration in RE requires an aggressive
portfolio of power system flexibility options supported by
major regulatory and market reforms.
Environmental and social

impacts in the RE value chain
yy Increased ecological and social vulnerabilities resulting from

land-use changes.
Renewable Energy Transition in India: Opportunities and Challenges 117
yy Labour and human rights issues, particularly in locations where

raw material extraction, production and end-of-life stages of
RETs take place.
yy Impacts on local and regional biodiversity including water
related issues during the construction and operation phases of
the value chain in particular.
yy Energy justice concerns in instances where project affected
communities are not prioritised for improved access to
electricity and other benefits.
Renewable to Responsible Energy
yy Formation of an Integrated Task Force for planning and

monitoring the Implementation of ’Net Zero by 2070’, using all
possible technologies.
yy Recognize the fact that the RE production is sustainable does
not mean the RE value chain is inherently sustainable.
yy setting up Local energy systems/smart ‘energy islands’ in both
urban and rural areas.
yy Provide equal importance and develop enabling policies,
regulatory framework and financing schemes for DRE/DES and
enable RE use for livelihood applications (job potential is 2–3
times greater than utility RE).
yy Build deeper understanding and take collective action on
impacts, risks and opportunities.
yy Enabling RE to create value in an ecologically safe, rights-
respecting, and socially justified.
yy Scaling up DRE/DES and decentralised techno-institutional
models, wherever possible (eg sub-MW power plants, virtual
power plants).
v
Transition to Shivaramakrishnan G
Consultant
Sustainable Energy Green Energy
Kochi, Kerala
in Urban India: gskrishnan@gmail.com
Challenges
The vision of PANCHAMRIT at COP 26 (Figure 1),

includes the reduction of carbon intensity, energy
requirements, net zero emissions, and the financial
requirements to meet them. The main challenges
for sustainable energy are technology, policy and
regulation, business models, and access to finance.
Some of the technological avenues to reduce
emissions by 2050 are raising the energy level,
using hydrogen, and using fossil fuel-based carbon
dioxide storage.
The major policy interventions assist in
promoting renewable purchase obligations,
offshore wind, green energy open access, energy
storage, wind and solar hybrid parks, etc. The need
for distributable renewable energy for livelihood
applications like cold storage, rice milling,
horticulture, irrigation, textiles, and aquaculture
has to be understood and promoted. Along with
smart cities, smart villages are also essential
through the enforcement of clean energy initiatives,
energy efficiency, and energy sustainability.
Electricity Demand Projections

The electricity demand projection is given in Figure 2.
Figure 2 Electricity demand projections and carbon footprint status of

India (Source: Draft NEP 2022, CEA)
Transition to Sustainable Energy in Urban India: Challenges 121
Reducing Carbon emissions

Six technological avenues to reduce emissions by 2050 are:
yy Renewables 25%
yy Energy Efficiency 25%
yy Electrification 20%
yy Hydrogen 10%
yy FF based CO2 capture and Storage (CCS) 6%
yy RE based CO2 removals (BECCS) 14%
(Source: IRENA WEO 2022)
POLICY INTERVENTIONS
The required policy interventions are:
yy Renewable purchase obligation (RPO)

yy Performance linked incentive (PLI)
yy Round-the-clock (RTC) power
yy Green hydrogen mission
yy Off shore wind
yy Wind, solar, wind-solar hybrid parks
yy Repowering of wind turbines
yy Green energy corridor and open access
yy Energy storage
yy Green bonds
v
A New Vision Plan In Narayanan M R
Chairman
Renewable Energy ADTECH System Ltd
Thiruvananthapuram
For Kerala Kerala
narayanan@floatels.net
Wind farms and floating solar panels are potential

energy-generation options. There is a lot of
potential for floating solar power in both India
and abroad. Adtech System Limited’s floating solar
panels have many advantages. Adtech Systems
installed floating panels at the Banasurasagar dam
as a proof-of-concept, producing 10 and 5000 kilo
watts of peak power output in their first and second
projects, respectively. A strong anchoring system
is the key to a floating panel’s ability to endure
powerful landslides and floods. Another distinct
technology, namely HDPE technology is based on
plastic and ferro-cement technology. Even though
floating solar is much more expensive than land-
based solar panels, it has many advantages over
them, including the fact that no land is needed,
that 7 percent more power can be produced, that
water evaporation loss is minimised, that less dust
collects on the panels, and that it requires less
maintenance overall.
v
Concluding Remarks 125
Concluding Remarks
The papers presented in the conference, Powering Cities in the

Global South, discussed challenges and opportunities in green
energy production and smart energy systems on both national and
community levels. Some presentations shed light on where Kerala
stands with respect to renewable energy concept. More than 90 %
of the present electricity supply in the State of Kerala comes from
hydroelectric power, with an increased future supply of electricity
envisaged through development of renewables—solar, wind, green
hydrogen etc. The European Initiative ‘Destination Earth’, a suitable
holistic framework with the goal of creating a very accurate digital
model of the earth called a ‘Digital Twin’ to track and predict
environmental change and human effects in order to promote
sustainable development was discussed. The CIAL highlighted
the initiatives to attain net zero carbon emissions and sustainable
activities that can be adopted for sustainable cities. ‘The New town
Kolkata’ discussed how waste management can be incorporated
with energy production, how green spacing, e-mobility can be
included in sustainable city planning, etc. The importance of star
labelling accounting to the Environmental Performance Index (EPI)
has come out as a possible suggestion that goes hand in hand with
green building concept. Scarcity of space is a major limitation in
large cities worldwide and much more creative solutions like
deployment of solar panels along metro lines or covering water
bodies are needed to cater to the future’s electricity needs. The
introduction of floating solar panels was one of the advances to be
encouraged with improved generation capacity. The use of solar
126 Concluding Remarks
energy on a community basis for commercial purpose also has an

added advantage. Distributable renewable energy for livelihood
applications is a good solution for energy management problems.
The introduction of Solar Renewable Energy Certificates (SRECS)
in power tariffs will attract the general public towards them. There
were suggestions to try a low ESCO model, MARIKAL model, etc;
that can improve efficiency with no extra cost. The main challenges
for sustainable energy are technology, policy and regulation,
business models, and access to finance. Integration of power system
through management of energy storage, system transmissions,
reinforcement, future energy storage etc will provide system
flexibility for renewable energy management. Some strategic
interventions like engagement with NBFCs and HFCs, pipeline
potential for the residential sector, virtual net metering RESCO
model etc were also suggested.
Recommendations for
smart city development
yy An integrated framework and guideline for the adaption of

sustainable energy practises by cities with large population.
yy Mandate clean energy technologies in emerging applications
such as transportation, green hydrogen, cooking, cooling etc.
yy Explore offshore wind power harnessing, along the lengthy
coastline of Kerala.
yy The unexplored biofuel generation from aquatic weeds has
a large potential in the state. Specific studies need to be
undertaken for an assessment of its potential.
yy Distributed renewable energy for livelihood applications needs
to be examined in detail.
yy Financial interventions to accelerate renewable Energy uptake
through cooperative banks and NBFCs.
yy Regulatory framework for Virtual Net Metering for Renewable
Energy.
Annexure 127
Annexure
programme schedule
INAUGURAL SESSION
Powering Cities in the Global South
31 October 2022 | Crowne Plaza, Kochi
PROGRAMME
Welcome Dr. Ajith Joseph K 09:15–09:20

(Executive Director, Nansen
Environmental Research Centre
(India) NERCI)
Introduction to Lasse H. Pettersson 09:20–09:25

Conference (Chairman, NERCI, Research
Coordinator/Senior Researcher,
Nansen Environmental and
Remote Sensing Centre, Norway)
Presidential Prof. K. Riji John 09:25–09:30

Address (VC, Kerala University of Fisheries
and Ocean Studies)
Inaugural Adv. M. Anilkumar 09:30–09:55

Address (Mayor, Kochi Municipal
Corporation)
128 Annexure
Felicitations Dr. Tore Furevik 09:55–10:00

(Director, Nansen Environmental
and Remote Sensing Centre,
Norway)
Shri. Dinesh Kumar 10:00–10:05
(Director, Cochin International
Airport Ltd.)
Dr. B. Manoj Kumar 10:05–10:10
(Registrar, Kerala University of
Fisheries and Ocean Studies)
Vote of Thanks Dr. Bindu G 10:10–10:15
(Principal Scientist, Nansen
Environmental Research Centre
India)
Tea Break 10:15–10:50
Key Note address Dr. Igor Esau 10:50–11:20
(Professor, UiT, The Arctic (Online)
University of Norway)
Day 1 | Session 1 | 31 October 2022 | 11:30 AM | Crowne Plaza, Kochi

Green Energy and Sustainable City Planning
Session Chairs: Dr. Nikhil, Asst. Director, National Institute of
Solar Energy | Dr. Santhosh Kumar R, Asst. Director, National
Academy of Customs, Indirect Taxes and Narcotics
Time Speaker Topic

11:30–11:55 Mr. Rajumon P C, DGM Green initiatives of
(Cochin International Cochin international
Airport Ltd.) airport limited: CIAL
success story in
renewable energy
sector
Annexure 129
Time Speaker Topic

11:55–12:20 Debashish Sen IAS Economic, social
(Online) (Chairman, NKGSCCL, and environmental
MD, West Bengal Housing challenges and
Infrastructure Development opportunities while
Corporation Ltd.) applying sustainability
concepts: Focus New
Town Kolkata
12:20–12:45 Mr. Tomson Sebastian Energy and green
(Energy Technologist, rating of buildings
Energy Management Centre)
12:45–02:00 Lunch Break
02:00–02:25 Prof. Alenka Temeljotov Challenges and
(Online) Salaj (Vice-dean for opportunities for
Innovation, Faculty of applying sustainability
Engineering, Norwegian concept in the social
University of Science and context
Technology)
02:25–02:50 Dr. Jayasree Vaidyanathan Wastes to energy
(Scientist, Centre for Earth as a pathway to
Research and Environmental socio-economic
Management) and environmental
sustainability
02:50–03:15 Mr. Naryanan M R A new vision plan in
(Chairman, ADTECH renewable energy for
Systems Ltd.) Kerala
03:15–03:40 Dr. Rajan Chedambath Challenges and
(Director, Centre for opportunities for
Heritage, Environment and applying sustainability
Development) concept in the social
context
03:40–04:10 Tea Break
04:10–04:35 Mr. Vikrant Yadav (Asst. Decentralized RE
Director (Technical), applications and
National Institute of Solar energy access in
Energy) agriculture sector—
Innovations at NISE
130 Annexure
Time Speaker Topic

04:35–05:00 Mr. Varghese K.P (Masters Photovoltaic systems
Student, College of Climate at Mollenberg: How
Change and Environmental) to increase the
social acceptance of
photovoltaic systems
Day 2 | Session 2 | 01 November 2022 | 09:30 AM | Crowne Plaza, Kochi

Smart Energy Systems for Urban Areas
Session Chairs: Dr. Debajit Palit, Professor, NTPC School of
Business | Mr. Sivaramakrishnan. G, Consultant, Green Energy
Time Speaker Topic

09:30–09:55 Mr. Dhilon Global scenario of cities
Subramanian (Manager,
Energy Program, World
Resources Institute
India)
09:55–10:20 Dr. Atul Kumar 100% renewable energy
(Professor & Director, by 2050: Challenges and
Energy Studies Opportunities for India
Programme, Jawaharlal
Nehru University)
10:20–10:40 Tea Break
10:40–11:05 Mr. C M Varghese Smart electric vehicle
(CEO, Evergreen Energy charging: Integrating
Technologies Pvt Ltd, renewable energy
President, Kerala sources and power
Renewable Energy system flexibility in
Entrepreneurs & India by 2030
Promoters Association)
Annexure 131
Time Speaker Topic

11:05–11:30 Prof. Sobah Abbas Extended reality for
(Online) Petersen (Associate sustainable urban
Professor, Norwegian development and citizen
University of Science engagement
and Technology, Senior
Research Scientist,
SINTEF) & Dr. Bjørn
Rude Jacobsen
(Research Scientist,
SINTEF)
11:30–11:55 Sasi K Kottayil Peak time power supply
Retired Professor & Energy from renewables—An
Consultant ,Palakkad,
investigation on the
Kerala
scope of time-of-day
framework for feed-in-
tariff
Day 2 |Session 3 | 01 November 2022 | 11:55 AM | Crowne Plaza,

Kochi
Challenges for Renewable in India
Session Chairs: Dr. Atul Kumar, Professor & Director, Energy
Studies Programme, Jawaharlal Nehru University |
Mr. Sivaramakrishnan. G, Consultant, Green Energy
11:55–12:20 Dr. Debajit Palit Renewable energy

(Professor, NTPC School transition in India:
of Business) Opportunities and
challenges
12:20–12:45 Mr. Sivaramakrishnan. Transition to sustainable
G (Consultant, Green energy in urban India:
Energy) Challenges
12:45–02:00 Lunch Break
132 Annexure
02:00–02:25 Dr. Subin K Jose (Asst. Role of enforcement

Prof, Christ college) agencies in protecting
green initiatives in India
02:25–02:50 Mr. Aneesh S Prasad Green Energy for the
(Chief Technical marginalised community
Manager, Agency for
Non-conventional
Energy and Rural
Technology)
02:50–03:15 Mr. Nithyanandam Rooftop solar: India’s
Yuvraj Dinesh Babu journey
(Executice Director,
Ernst & Young)
03:15–03:30 Tea Break
VALEDICTORY SESSION
Powering Cities in the Global South
01 November 2022 | 03:30 PM | Crowne Plaza, Kochi
PROGRAMME
Welcome Lasse H. Pettersson (Chairman, 03:30–03:35

Address NERCI, Research Coordinator/
Senior Researcher, Nansen
Environmental and Remote
Sensing Center, Norway)
Presidential Prof. K. Riji John (VC, Kerala 03:35–03:40
Address University of Fisheries and Ocean
Studies)
Special Dr. Tore Furevik (Director, 03:40–03:45
Address Nansen Environmental and
Remote Sensing Center, Norway)
Annexure 133
Welcome Lasse H. Pettersson (Chairman, 03:30–03:35

Address NERCI, Research Coordinator/
Senior Researcher, Nansen
Environmental and Remote
Sensing Center, Norway)
A Brief Dr. Bindu G (Principal Scientist, 03:45–03:55
summary of Nansen Environmental Research
the themes Centre India)
discussed
during two
days
Address by Shri. P Rajeeve (Minister 03:55–04:25
Chief Guest for Industries, Law and Coir,
Government of Kerala)
Vote of Dr. Ajith Joseph K (Exe. Director, 04:25–04:30
Thanks Nansen Environmental Research
Centre India)

Powering Cities in The Global South Proof

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Powering Cities in The Global South Proof

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

POWERING CITIES

IN THE GLOBAL SOUTH

Nansen Environmental Research Centre (India), Kochi, Kerala

My First Book, 16/34, Palace Road, Thuckalay-629175, Tamil Nadu

Chief Minister’s Message

framework of development to meet the needs associated with the

yy An integrated framework and guideline for the adaption

yy The unexplored biofuel generation from aquatic weeds has

Bergen Lasse H. Pettersson

Increased pressure on urban areas requires ‘smart city’ planning,

1. Green Energy and Sustainable City Planning

to explore possibilities for more collaboration in the future from

Electricity Board, World Resources Institute etc. Representatives

these projects. Neither the Nansen Environmental Research Centre

We extend our sincere appreciation to all those who contributed

1. Smart Urban Climate Requires Smart Energy Solutions 1

2. Economic, Social And Environmental Challenges

3. Extended Reality For Sustainable Urban

4. Wastes to Energy as a Pathway to Socio-Economical

5. Photovoltaic Systems at Møllenberg: how to Increase

6. Peak Time Power Supply from Renewables—Scope

7. Rooftop Solar: India’s Journey 69

8. Energy and Green Rating of Buildings 85

9. 100% Renewable Energy by 2050: Challenges and

10. Green Initiatives of Cochin International Airport

11. Decentralized RE Applications and Energy Acess in

12. Global Scenario of Cities 105

13. Smart Electric Vehicle Charging: Integrating Renewable

14. Renewable Energy Transition in India:

15. Transition to Sustainable Energy in Urban India:

16. A New Vision Plan in Renewable Energy for Kerala 123

Concluding Remarks 125

The established connection between human development

Figure 2 The role of weather factors in the UK energy production after

Smart energy production changes the role of consumers.

and city-integrated renewable energy are also suited to satisfy the

Figure 3 The ‘Energy Atlas’ illustrates differences between traditional

A smart urban climate is a

zone conditions (Manoli et al, 2019). The climate anomalies are

Smart urban energy system

generation has set back the solar energy transitions. Photovoltaic

Figure 4 Influence of urbanization factors on surface urban heat island

frequently not validated against rigorous quantitative models.

1. identify the problem or opportunity;

Figure 5 Co-benefits of ecosystem services in smart cities (Raymond et al,

by a smart grid will reduce the energy imports of cities. There is

Singh, R., Banerjee, R., 2015. Estimation of rooftop solar photovoltaic

Concepts: Focus New New Town Kolkata

yy Stable modern energy connection to all.

Sustainability initiatives in New Town

yy The preparation of Green House Gas (GHG) inventory with

Development of solar power plants and solar street lights

Waste to energy project

Zero Shop: upcycling initiative

Plastic-free Community Market

Plantation and greening projects

Promotion of electric vehicles

Promotion of Non-motorized transport

Self-reliant utilities and buildings

yy Lora Wan-based street lighting systems has saved Rs 65 lakh

Air Quality Monitoring Stations

Electric Vehicles and Vanos

Solid Waste Management

Bergen Lasse H. Pettersson