Cone ter inciples in YY em TAU Scanned with CamScannerFirst Published 2017 By Utafiti Foundation rioncer Estate, Of Kapsabet Road, Next to Miri’s & Sons, Pioneer DO. Box 884 ~ 30100, Eldoret, Kenya. — 254-053-206-302-4 Website: www.utafitifoundation.com © 2017 Anne Syomwene, Charles M. Nyandusi & Alice M. Yungungy ISBN: 978-9966-26-098-7 All rights reserved. No patt of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in ap form or by any electronic, mechanical, oF other means, now known or heteafcr inven including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner(s). Utafiti Foundation Editorial Board Prof M.N. Wanyama (Chief Editor): Maina T. Sammy (Senior Editor, Graphics & Ilustrations); Lillian Nabwire (Editor) Cover Illustration and Design ©2017 Evans Wafila / Maina T. Sammy Printed by: : Unafiti Foundation Pioneer Estate, Off Kay ( ate, psabet Road, Next to Miri’s P.O. Box 884 — 30100, El eo Kena Tel: +254-053-206-302-4 Website: WWWw.utafitifoundation.com ‘Scanned with CamScannerCONTENTS DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENT « CONTENTS. CONTRIBUTORS’ BIOGRAPHIES FOREWORD PREFACE SECTION 4 Chapter One: Coneeptualizing Curriculum. Jes : CURRICULUM: CONCEPTS, 1 Chapter Two: Elements of Curriculum... Chapter Three: Curriculum Development Proce: Chapter Four: Foundations of Curriculum. Chapter Five: Curriculum Design: Principles and Types Chapter Six: Curriculum Theories and Theorizing Chapter Sevel : Models of Curriculum Development. Chapter Eight: Change and Management of Change in Curriculum... Chapter Nine: Curriculum Implementation .. Chapter Ten: Curriculum Evaluatiot Chapter Eleven: Curriculum Leadership and Superv Chapter Twelve: Curriculum Development in Keny: SECTION B: THE CURRICULUM IN KENYA: SELECTED CASES Chapter Thirteen: Teacher Education . Chapter Fourteen: Curriculum for Special Needs Education in Kenya ... Chapter Fifteen ... English Language Curriculum For Secondary Schools In Kenya Chapter Sixteen: Literature Curriculum for Secondary School Education in Kenya Chapter Seventeen: Curriculum for Mathematics for Secondary School Education in Kenya 230 Chapter Eighteen: Curriculum for Kiswahili for Secondary Education in Ke Chapter Nineteen; Christian Religious Education Curriculum for Seconds Education in Kenya Chapter Twenty: The Secondary School History & Government Curriculum for Kenya 2o4 INDEX. ‘Scanned with CamScannerEEE EES CHAPTER ONE CONCEPTUALIZING CURRICULUM Charles M. Nyandusi Moi University, Kenya Introduction The logical starting point for any discourse on curriculum is the question: ‘what is curriculum?*, This question seems simple and straightforward, yet it has engaged curriculum scholars and practitioners for close to a century now. The answers to the question have been many and varied, and more are added as days go by. The myriad efforts to advance a definition of curriculum, for that is what the question purportedly seeks, have resulted in complexity rather than simplicity, divergence rather than convergence, and confusion rather than clarity. This is the first chapter of this book and its focus is on definition of curriculum, The Dilemma of Defining Curriculum The consensus amongst curricularists in the curriculum definition debate seems to be etymological. As a term, . The first usage of curriculum in this sense is attributed to The University of Glasgow, Scotland, in 1643 (Toombs & Tierney, 1993). The term curriculum gained popular usage in the United States of America (from where it spread to the rest of the world) with the establishment and growth of the earliest American universities and colleges. Otunga, Odeo & Barasa (2011) have mapped out the chronology of the growth of curriculum as a discipline from 1890. An integral characteristic of this growth has been the dilemma of defining curriculum. As Portelli (1987, p. 346) aptly observes, “the problem of defining curriculum is complex.” Disputation rages on what exactly is curriculum. i ? Is ita ? These and many more questions abound in the literature. To compound this situation, new questions have arisen, not on the definition of curriculum, but on whether it is even necessary to define curriculum. This contention on whether defining curriculum is is even necessary has occasioned a paradigm shift in curriculum thinking. Cheng, 2000; Hewitt, 2006; Marsh, 2009; Miller & Seller, 1990; Otunga, 2015; Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009; Pinar, Reynolds, Slattery & Taubman, 1995; Portelli, 1987; Tanner & Tanner, 1995; Toombs & Tierney, 1993). Commenting on ¢ Hewitt (2006, p. 33) has this to say: “ ‘eknrabon, i it.” One of the escribes as “a process of elaboration using ways to think about something, a Perceiving, imagining, or experiencing it.” in picturing, ‘Scanned with CamScannerConceptualizing Curriculum vith the shift from definition to conceptualization, tae He TT ialists are still conceptions of curriculum. As Otunga (2015, p. 36) observes, “ANE 14 Gver, Consequently, battling with the issue of how best to conceptualize curriculum i im” Even as further the ground fertile for further conceptions of curricul in mind that the whole conceptualization of curriculum is envisaged, it is important t0 BEEP At OO auttiplicin enterprise of finding and/or Tmaking meaning in curriculum is hinged ons SANE Of considerations which include_philosophical orientations, Pee alization, functionality, conceptual descriptions of curriculum, levels of curricul and types of curriculum, Philosophical Orientations in Conceptualizing Curriculum aedonald (1986 All thinking in curriculum proceeds from some philosophical orientatio encaeTnohuding identifies three philosophical orientations that underpin curricul q curriculum conceptualization, These are the epistemological orientation, the axiological orientation, and the ontological orientation. - is concemed with the nature of knowledge, the source of aa alent alone and the dissemination of knowledge. It is from this orientation that questions such as Herbert Spencer’s classical “what knowledge is of most worth?” emanate. It is the epistemological orientation that Ieads some curricularists to co ize curriculum as ‘a body of knowledge to be transmitted’, or as ‘content to be taught’ or as ‘subject matter mastered”. The focus of the epistemological orientation is therefore on what should be taught or what is taught and, as a concomitant, how it should be taught or how it is taught. This orientation does not hold the learner to be central to the curriculum process; rather, the —leamer_is_merely receptacle of knowledge, which is deemed the most important aspect of curriculum The entoleptenl ortenagy is prescriptive and it focuses on the purposes of the curriculum and how to achieve them. Ralph Tyler's four fundamental questions find a natural home in this orientation. These questions, which shall be elaborated in Chapter 6 are (i) What educational purposes should the school seck to attain? (ii) What educational experiences can. provided that_are likely to ? (ili How can these educational Seed ively organized? and (iv) How ean we determine Whether these fw can we determine whether these” purposes are being attained? (Tyler, 1949). The axiological orientation emphasizes aims, goals and objective: lanstt . them, It is from this orientation that conceptions such as ‘curriculum is a plag tor] achiove (Taba, 1962) and ‘curriculum is all the planned learnin, outcomes Tor hic een responsible’ (Popham & Baker, 1970) are derived. a school is emphasizes reality and the nature of reality. It is ¢ the leamer as_an individual_and the existential reality that influences: yyeonS@Med with eadtons F-coniders the toiliy of the leming Gon. From ancosg hes tons and Macdonald (1986) proposed three fundamental curriculum questions: (i) Wpie™*ation, teamed? (as opposed to what should be taught, or even what should be leameqyett-©An_be_ eamed? (aS opposed to what is taught; (ii) why is it learned or not leammee Esse) Whats, ontological cniation, ai Teast in s0 Tar at Teast in so far as conceptualizing curriculum ig ‘sentially. the broader than the other two orientations. To be clear it isnot concerned with xg e%°e™64, ig or expectation; rather. ith the reality within which the how such reality influences and/or is manifested in the actual rat outcomes. Thus Macdonald (1986, p. 207) argues for “a Totalistic view of ro) Core Principles in Curriculum ‘Scanned with CamScannerConceptualizing Curriculum woling” in which, he opines, “the curricul jot the course to be run, but the course t conceptions of curriculum such ‘curriculum is that which 1997). um cannot be known before the fact, That is, itis | orientation informs it is learned” (Macdonald, 1986) and Ices as a result of schooling’ (Oliva, at was tun.” ‘The ontologi ‘the curriculum is wha an individual learner experien Perspectives of Curri Another co perceived) f iculum Bune eration in conceptualizing eurri netion of the curriculum. It every identifiable community, education in and continues to serve a specific purpose Brown, 2006; Doll, 1995, Freire, 1 and Seller (1990) suggest three transaction, and transformation, um is the intended (or sometimes the been argued that throughout human history, in neral and curriculum in particular has served at a specific period (Apple, 2005; Brown, 2006; 972; Otunga, 2010; 2015). In analyzing this trend, Miller Perspectives of curriculum functionality: Transmission, The transmission perspective holds that the function of curriculum is to transmit pre- determined knowledge, skills, and values from knowers (curriculum developers and teachers) to leamers, and as a consequence, to develop in the learners desired attitudes and competencies. The relationship between the knower and the leamer is one of power and control on the part of the knower, and subservience and malleability on the part of the Jeamer. The transmission perspective is rooted in the behaviourist ideas of theorists like Ivan Pavlov, B. F. Skinner, John B. Watson, and Edward L. Thorndike. Its basic assumption, in line with behaviourism, is that if properly sclected content (the stimulus) is transmitted effectively, then desired leaming (the response) will take place. In terms of curriculum organization, the perspective emphasizes subject matter that is broken up into sequential units and topics. Evaluation of transmission focuses on the absorption and mastery of content (Thomas & Footrakoon, 1998). The transaction perspective views curriculum as a vehicle through which both leamers and educators interact with each other, with knowledge, and with the environment. This interaction is transactional in that both the learner and the educator construct and exchange knowledge. The function of curriculum here is to promote leamers” growth and development The transaction perspective echoes the developmental psychology ideas of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygosky, the social learning theory of Albert Bandura, the person-centred theory of Carl Rogers, and the pragmatism of John Dewey. This perspective holds that leaming is an inquiry process in which both leamer and educator co-direct and co-participate, and that the educator’s role is to facilitate learners’ inquiry in directions the learners interests reflect. e this perspective, the curriculum should be organized along thematic areas that are generated during the cducator-learner dialogue. Evaluation is based on the growth and development observed in the learner (Miller & Seller, 1990; Thomas & Footrakoon, 1998). The focus of the transformation perspective is ‘on the role of curriculum ‘is a oo fe personal and social change. Knowledge in this perspective is viewed as dra i static, interconnected and enriched Se aaa eee re proponents of this perspective argue that educators must a aaa alle role of schools in society. They advocate the embedding of po C the curriculum, and argue that schools should cause and dead social Le epee more equal, humane, and just dispensation. The ultimate desirable outcome i the avai of individual’s consciousness about the contradictions that ee roe ie soci consciousness leads the individual to engage in some kind of acti Core Principles in Curriculum ‘Scanned with CamScannering Curriculum For curriculum to achieve 4h, “the learner's lives, and the proces, duality and diversiy i 1 the individua ; of learning (or conscientization as Freire calls it) must re ‘tine direction and nature 3 of the learners. Curriculum is therefore evaluated in ete identify problems and a change learners, au in terms of the learners’ abil ee of Paulo Freire, Ivan hig solutions for them. This perspective is rooted in the a 5 Ot rae atts (Dall, 1958 Michael Apple, James B, Macdonald, and William B. Thomas & Footrakoon, 1998). Conceptualiz . Hed praxi change. This action is what Freire (1972) called prs s relevant i outcome, it should consider contextual factors relevant 11 nsidered less as disparate {2 actual curriculum practice, these three perspectives should De co map delineating variou, views and more as some kind of continuum that acts as a concep tative progression! from ig Presumed functions of curriculum, There is an identifiable ee a ase ctive, transmission perspective to the transformation perspective. The see aah eae at least some of its aspects, is subsumed in the transaction perspective, subsumed in the transformation perspective. lum on curriculum conceptualizat reveals a multiplicity of conceptions. 009; Su, 201: (Hewitt, 2006; Ornstein & Hun Toombs & Tierney, 1993). There is an inevitable conceptions, which is why, i Curriculum as a Concept When conceived as a concept, curriculum is an amorphous idea that is difficult to grasp and Work with, As Hewitt (2006, p. 33) points out, “concepts are complex meanings wrapped into one or several words”. This complexity is apparent in the abstraction that characterizes a concept. Toombs & Tierney (1993, P. 175) observe that “ curriculum as a concept can refer to one or many of the elem Chapter 2 of this book. It could also be describing or explaining conceptions listed in the preceding paragraphs, tculum discussed in any one or all of the 1s probably this absractness that makes it dificult for curriculum de ; exactly what iis that they are developing, and for the consume of curricula: Se exactly they should expect fom the developers. Goodene 2994, pe ny know what complexity in his statement that “curri echoes this ted, ne 7 m , addresses this complexity by suggesting, in his eurtculum develoonons oatttkins (1980) first step in curriculum development should be ‘curriculum co; » that the very legitimization’, This step “demands that participants engage in deliberag zation “and nature of curriculum and also its educational and social-potitieal te ekatding the requires curriculum decision makers, whoever they may be, 19 snga in qu bis first step understanding of curriculum, as well as just creating educational Programme, arch for an Hunkins, 1998, p. 201). In. sum, curriculum as a concept is ae academig. , O™Stein & abstraction which needs o be broken down to comprehensible compos e™® 0 eoretical Curriculum as Content Curriculum may also be conceived as content Inthe context of this conee i synonymous with knowledge and subject matter. Content is the knowledge Gung Content is Stein Core Principles in Curriculum ‘Scanned with CamScannereee ree and Hunkins (2009) refer to as facts, concepts, principles, theories, and peneralizat skills and attitudes that are developed in learners by the school through selected, planned aot structured subject areas and learning activities, Such content is means to an end. the being the intended outcomes, commonly referred to as objectives, In this conception, eon and therefore curriculum, excludes anything that is unplanned and unintended, respective of what educational value it may ad to the learner, There are four common characteristion of curriculum as content; the syllabus, course books, subject teachers, and. subject-based examinations. While the scope of this chapter docs not permit a discussion of these characteristics, it is sufficient t0 point out that in this conception, all school. stratesios processes, and resources revolve around them. It is for this teason that any curriculums approach that conceives curriculum as content is invariably labelled ‘subject-centred”. The conception of curriculum as content is distinctly manifest in many school systems around the world. In Kenya, for instance, the school curriculum is commonly synonymous with the aggregation of subjects listed in the syllabus, that ought to be taught, and which are examined. Such an approach has elicited heated debate among educators. On one hand, there is the view that basing curriculum on the content conception is anachronistic and dysfunctional. Consider this argument by Jamie Field Baker, an educational consultant That we no longer live in a stable, predictable world means that we cannot assume that our future will be as comfortable, familiar or recognizable as our past. Our past successes, as individuals and as institutions, will no longer ensure our futures. In fact, our past successes are toxic in that they create a false sense of security, confidence and complacency about the path forward. Curriculum and programming, that is heavily content focused (rote memorization, skill and drill) is not a winning strategy for the digital age, despite successes we have enjoyed in the past with this approach (Baker, 2011), On the other hand, there is the contention that content is central to education. The following statement, posted by UNESCO on its Education Homepage (www.unesco.org), advances this argument: Curriculum content is another main lever of education. The knowledge, skills and attitudes imparted by learning arcas/subjects, cross-cutting approaches and extra- curricular activities is a main source of systematic and comprehensive leaming. While learners may lear from many other different sources (especially in an informal way from the media and internet), curriculum’s advantages in structuring and sequencing learning represents a major asset for sustainable acquisitions that ought to be well exploited and capitalized on. Either of these arguments has its merits and demerits. What is crucial when conceptualizing curriculum as content is that the content should be a means to an end, rather than the end itself, Content should be a vehicle that leads to the destination called learning. Curriculum as a Plan ; — Curriculum may be conceptualized as a plan for learning or as planned learning experiences. This is one of the most common conceptions of curriculum, especially among modernist scholars of curriculum, The central pillar of curriculum as a plan is the formulation of aims, goals, and objectives. It is the basis of such assertions as: “the curriculum is all of ie learning of students which is planned by and directed by the school to attain its cdussona goals” (Ralph Tyler), “curriculum consists of all the means of instruction used by ie shoe! to provide opportunities for students’ learning experiences leading to desired ourons (Edward Krug), “we define curriculum as a plan for providing sets of learning opportunitics Core Principles in Curriculum ‘Scanned with CamScanneryrviculum for an identi and “curricull for the purpo: ng). ‘Armstrong . eloper to rriculum de i to the ch er should attain is given arner shot curriculum as a plan, authority is g! that the let perience that jectives, fs outcomes’, that is, object! ve learning experict at on and to pl ve learptive curriculum fiable population” (J, m is a master plan for ye of changing and Conceptualizing Ct to achieve broad goals and related specific Gian Galen Saylor, William Alexander, and Arthur J. 1 ve selecting content and organizing learning wed developing learners’ behaviours and insights” (Davi In conceptualizin determine the ‘desirable lea i > most effec seri at the end of the learning duration, and to plan for the a “preset u i ig an : ed to as @“P cording to Ellis Will lead to the desirable outcomes. This is what is referred 10 * ula, acct lead to the desirable outcome: reseriptive curricula, eee ake the ichead & Boschee, 2012). Pi often (Glatthom, Boschee, Wh more (2004, p. 4), “provide us with what ought to happen. and a about what needs to take form ofa plan, an intended program, or some kind of expert PINE TS. shat it ignores the place in the course of study.” One enduring criticism of this can Sree. These unplanned, Unplanned and even undesired experiences and outcomes O° SM nidden curriculum unintended and, at times, undesired experiences are See tor on in this chapter. (Glatthorn et al., 2012). The hidden curriculum will be discussed la Curriculum as Experience . i iculum is This is a broader conception than the preceding one. In this conception, curiewy ns comprised of “the sum total of the experiences a pupil undergoes” (Bishop, ‘te i desired experiences referred to here are planned and unplanned, intended and unintended, ces " and undesired. This conception resonates with the ontological orientation of curriculum that we have discussed earlier on in this chapter. Some of the conceptions of curriculum that espouse this orientation include ‘the curriculum is what is learned’ (Macdonald, 1986), ‘curriculum is that which an individual leamer experiences as a result of schooling’ (Oliva, 1997), The totality of what is experienced is a composite of both the ideal, which is the curriculum as intended, and the real, which is the curriculum as actualized. The ideal or intended curriculum is synonymous with the planned curriculum. The “real” curriculum, however, is not, in almost all instances, necessarily unplanned, Rather, as the planned curriculum ie actualized, several foreseen and unforeseen factors come into play, and the end result i. usually quite different from the inital intentions. The intentions may or may not be realieeat What is crucial for curriculum scholars and practitioners is that conceiving euig lum ag experience denotes the possibilty of leamers experiencing more than was phase ao & to experience. Whether this enrichment is positive or negative depends on renee" them Jeamer and the context. It is with this in mind that Glatthorn et al, (2o1a °° *© the relatively comprehensive conception of curriculum: > P. 4) offer a The curriculum is the plans made for guiding learning in the schools represented in retievable documents of several levels of penerige® Ustally actualization of those plans in the classroom, as experienced by the leamas the recorded by an observer; those experiences take place in a leaming environ 2S ment that also influences what is learned. Curriculum as a Process A more recent, post-modern conception of curriculum is that it is “is i i ions wpe SOcig comprised of the interactions of students, teachers, knowledge, and milieu ial to, P. 5). Implicit in this conception is the acknowledgement that curticulury Comb eth, Tent whose equilibrium can only be achieved (abet temporeriy) through sug OPE Inte, Core Principles in Curriculum Scanned vith CamSeaonerConceptualizing Curriculum of the composite parts. This thinking conce Ptualizes curriculum in terms of a proce inquiry, dialogue and transformation. Accordi proses of ing to Doll (1993, p, 289): This shifts the curriculum from receiving or dev and interacting. These are not word or in modetnist curr ight. They imply (and use) inde self-organization, They are the words of a tr oriented curriculum, one focusing not on the e but as the process of traversing the course, course. loping to dialoguing, negotiating, or concepts found either in the Tyler rationale rminacy, openness, -xtemal attributes of the racecourse, of negotiating with self, others, and the When curriculum scholars and practitioners en, between the components of the curriculum, process. The focus is on the learner, on how age in an inquiry into the relationships they are essentially viewing curriculum as a t! the learner relates to and with the teacher, the content, and the learning environment. Smith (2000) points out three distinctive characteristics of curriculum as a process: (i) the learner is the subject than the object of the curriculum, thus the emphasis is on learning rather than teaching; (ii) aims goals and objectives cease to be the focal point in the curriculum, thus preconceived outcomes are not desirable. On the contrary, the interaction between leamers, teachers, content and milieu generates outcomes which will then be measured; (iii) the curriculum is not a package, as in a syllabus; rather, it is an open interaction process of development, dialogue, inquiry and transformation. This is what Doll (1993, p. 176) refers to as “a rich curriculum which offers those who construct it, namely students and teachers together, the chance to transform and be transformed by it.” Even as the curriculum-as-a-process conception gains prominence, at least among curriculum theorists, questions have emerged on the practical value of the process. What is the worth of the interactions so extolled by advocates of this conception? Are the interactions an end in themselves? These questions have led to the notion that curriculum as a process finds its ultimate value in praxis. Praxis is creative and transformative action that is informed by the realities of the prevalent conditions confronting an individual and a community. The end of praxis is improvement of the individual or the community’s conditions. Levels of Curriculum Conceptualization ; ; Another dimension in conceptualizing curriculum is to ask the question: at which level are we thinking about curriculum? There are at least five levels at which curriculum may be considered: the supra level, the macro level, the meso level, the micro level, and the nano level (Beacco et al., 2010). Thinking about curriculum at the supra level entails placing curriculum in a global or international context, Due to globalization, there is increasing realization that curriculum anywhere is impacted by (and should impact on) cross-border and trans-culual a ia issues. Whether deemed positive or negative, this phenomenon is inevitable, Specific examples of the supra level in Kenya include the country’s aaa flier ioe conventions and agreement like Education for All (EFA) and the sani le Developme Goals (SDGs), Curriculum development in Kenya has to be in line with these conventions. evel is characterized by the social, cultural, constructed and enacted. It is at cifically meant for education, and ‘culum. In centralized curriculum ‘a national syllabus and a national The macro level refers to the national level. This lc Political and economic context in which the curriculum this level that we find legislation and policies that are spec other socio-cultural and economic influences on the curri Iutisdictions like Kenya, it is at this level that we talk about Core Principles in Currictlum ‘Scanned with CamScannerConceptualizing Curricu note that the macro le examination system. It is important to note that the the supra level. — evel comprises all that happens The meso level is the school leve Tis Eat comin eae ie wi with the micro level, has tradition, eee eory than the supra and macro | school. This includes what is aday school level characteristics. This level, : et ind the ived more attention in curriculum Ca ‘which broadly refers to the y at this level that we talk about ‘a school to day processes by which the SOUrCE base = i tire on, and goals ofa given school, and the entire day to dey processes by wale aspires to attain its goals. This level also has to do with the infras of the individual school. ‘ The micro level is the classroom level, This is probably the most commonly ronsidered leva ls i ae > the which instruction takes place. in curriculum thinking. It is essentially the level at SaaenbeeiEa happens at this level is influenced by all the levels we have discussed above but it includes the critical dimension of the learner. The nano level refers to the individual learner. The paradigm shift from subject centeredae: {O keamer centeredness in the curriculum has cast the limelight on the individual learner. The Ieemer is the reason for the curriculum. It is therefore essential that the needs, inter leaming styles, intellectual entry behaviour, culture, socio-economic Profile, and general Personality of the individual leamer is considered in curriculum design, implementation, ar valuation. This is a relatively new way of thinking. For a long time, educators were more Temncmed with the school and the classroom, and only very superficially referred to the leamer. The emerging reality, however, is that the supre. macro, meso, and micro levels curriculum are all ultimately actualized in the nano level, Types of Curriculum Over the years, various curricularists have suggested various received curriculum, and the learned. ‘curriculum, The intended curriculum is that which is planned. This ty , referred to as the recommended euriculum Glatthom et ay sg94 0% by legislation and policy. In our conceptualization, the intenda: dissimilar with John Goodled’s ideotogical curieulum, kone where the school should tke the leamer. In Kenya, the inesy the national goals of education Proposition of is enunciated in The deliberate euriculum can be equated tothe over curculum op tbe eee Glatthorn et al. (2012) refer to it as the writen eurieulue but oe °Plicit curriculum deliberate curculum goes beyond the writen curiculum. iy qt OW estimer se the seen, heard, felt and touched in the school. In this sense thon = CUeulum grat Eanes tl Planned and supported co-curricular activities, and the assesses Procedwy 8S and Practice: Ss. Core Principles in Curriculum 10 & ‘Scanned with CamScannereee eee ee” |All these are deliberate actions and components of the school. ‘The deliberate curriculum is the curriculum in the minds of many. In contradistinction to both the intended and the deliberate curriculum is the hidden ‘curriculum. Also referred to as the covert curriculum, the hidden curriculum is unintended, Yet real and, more often than not, it influences Learning much more than either the intended o jhe deliberate curriculum. Glatthorn et al, (2012, p. 25) view the hidden curriculum as “those aspects of schooling, other than the intentional curriculum, that seem to produce changes in student values, perceptions, and beh: ” The hidden curriculum is implied in virtually all aspects of the school. It may be the physical infrastructure, the organization of school nmes, the interactions between the members of the school community, or the ive structure of the school. The hidden curriculum also encompasses non-school aspects which influence schooling. These include, but are not limited to, the culture(s) within which the school operates, the socio-economic profiles of the school community, and the political environment within and around the school. Eliot Eisner’s ‘null’ curriculum (Eisner, 2002) is often distinguished from the hidden curriculum. We hold the view that the null curriculum, defined as that which is not taught, is actually one of the manifestations of the hidden curriculum, For instance, imagine a deliberate Social Studies curriculum where learners are taught about certain ethnic communities and not others. The learner then unwittingly believes the excluded communities are insignificant and probably treats them with disdain, (Glatthorn et al., 2012). In this conceptualization, the taught curriculum the deliberate curriculum, while the received curriculum is about what the learner gains from the instructional situation, The received curriculum is narrow and dependent heavily on memory, retention, and recall. In almost all instructional situations, the learners gain less content-wise than what is taught. When in Kenya learners are subjected to national examinations, what is being assessed is the deliberate curriculum. When the results of the examinations are released, what emerges almost always is a disparity between the expectations (the intended and deliberate curriculum) and the reality of what the learners got out of the classroom (the received curriculum). . It subsumes both the received and the hidden curricula. It is, as Glatthorn, Carr and ae, 2001) put it, “the bottom-line curriculum” and arguably the most important. This is the actual curriculum. It is the end result of the intended curriculum, yet it is not necessarily or even desirably aligned to it. An evaluation of the received curriculum is an evaluation of the entire experience of schooling, rather than an evaluation of the attainment of the goals of schooling. The learned curriculum is concerned with outcomes: rather than intentions. It is, to repeat James B. Macdonald's assertion, “. . . not the course to be run, but the course that was run” (1986, p. 207). Conclusion To conclude this chapter, we go back to its beginning. In attempting to answer the question ‘what is curriculum?’ this chapter has traversed the uneven landscape of the curriculum field. Afier navigating through philosophical orientations, perspectives of curriculum functionality, conceptual descriptions of curriculum, levels of curriculum conceptualization, Core Principles in Curriculum ‘Scanned with CamScannerElements of Curriculum iv) It considers the interaction amon st learners and/or between team: en learners a teachers as well as the | ind the ‘ning environment. These characteristics disclose the nature of a curriculum or the elements that constitute a curriculum. Elements of curriculum are the constituents, parts or components of curriculum, They portray the nature and function of curriculum. Once a teacher has decided to teach something, several kinds of decisions are necessary in order to succeed, He/she must fet decide upon the goals and objectives intended to be achicyed at the end of the course op program. He/she must then select the content, procedures and methods that are relevant te the objectives. Finally, the teacher must measure or evaluate the student's performance according to the objectives or goals originally selected. This discussion brings to our attention to the elements of curriculum. A curriculum has four elements that are in constant interaction i) Aims, goals and objectives (curriculum purposes) i) Content (subject matter) i) Learning experiences iv) Evaluation Aims, Goals and Objectives The first element of curriculum encompasses aims, goals and objectives. Aims, goals and objectives comprise the intended purposes of curriculum. They give direction to the school curriculum and guide the selection, organization and procedures of the rest of the elements. These three terms (aims, goals and objectives) are used interchangeably by most authors. However, there are slight differences between them. Curriculum Aims These are broad statements that describe expected life outcomes. Aims represent broad targets for the curriculum (Hlebowitsh, 2005). They reflect value judgements and value-laden statements, and they furnish educators with guides for their educational process, Tyler (1949) cited in Omstein & Hunkins (1998) gives some examples of the aims of schooling: (Developing self-realization (ii) Making individuals literate (iii) Encouraging social mobility (iv) Providing the skills and understanding necessary for productive employment. (v) Fumishing tools requisite for making effective choices regarding material and non- material things and services Every country has its aims that are clearly stated to guide the process of education. In Kenya for instance our educational system is currently guided by eight national aims of education which were developed at independence. The educational aims in Kenya have been undergoing reviews since their inception in the Ominde commission (1964) and they include: 1. To foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity. 2. To promote the social, economic, technological and industrial needs for national development . To promote individual development and self-fulfilment. To promote sound moral and religious values To promote social equality and responsibility. To promote respect for and development of Kenya's rich and varied cultures To promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes towards other nations. NO waw Core Principles in Curriculum ‘Scanned with CamScannerElements of Curriculum health and environmental prot, tude towards good (ROK, 2012, pp ‘iy education planners derive the schoolwide you, f education in the country. 8, To promote positive education, From the brad aims of education, « education for various levels and typ Curriculum Goals with some outcome in mind (Omstin Hunk, 199, ese are statements of purpos : amer in as far as particular scl They ane th Intended destination for the Tearer in as ee “fom euriene, me sate fee at subject is concerned. They ectee statements of on 8 They provide teachers and curriculum decision makers with broa atements of what can geome ult of particular subject or educational program (Omnsgin ) h, a ares should accompl Hunkins, 1998). ; Wiles (2005, p. 90) suggest five questions that may serve as criteria for any goal Statements thus: ‘xamples are programme and subject goals. (i) Are the goals realistic? Can they be attained and will teachers relate to them? (ii) Are the goals specific, implying behaviors to be changed? (iii) Are the goals performance related? eae (i) Ate the goals suggestive of involvement, allowing individuals to see themselves Connected to the goal by action? (8) Are the goals observable and measurable? Curriculum Objectives These are statements that describe expected behavioural changes in the learners as a result of re eating in a unit of leaming activities (Shiundu & Omulando, 1992). Objectives are ted to describe what the teacher expects leamers to be able to de (that i Genjamin Bloom classified edveational objectives in Cashman & Gunter, 2002; Gabler, Schroeder & Curtis, 2003; Hewitt, 3 Popularly known as the Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectiy ’ 1) Cognitive domain: This encompasses abject that consti They focus on acquisition and comprehension of ken and various levels and methods of thinking 1) Pochomotor domain: Ths ineudes objectives the consttut deal with the development and maintenance of healthy, strong. ny 4 ii) Affective domain: Ths includes objectives conte on feslngs and ty bodies subsume the emotional and psychological nance individuals" MOORS. These Curriculum objectives are significant in the cucu faucation in genera According t9 Carl (2012) the saree 28 foundation of clear objectives and without them there i direction crys basis or objectives should be SMART: Specific, Measure Attainable/Achievable, weeeuticulum Time bound (Shiundu & Omulando, 1992; NOAA, 2009), According 1g Rtilistic and Omulando (1992) curriculum objectives are important in dhe following ways,” Shiundu and development process and in Core Principles in Curriculum 16 ‘Scanned with CamScannerElements of Curriculum }) They are a justification for the need of providing education or aspects ofthe school curriculum iiy They guide the process of seleetion of content and learning experiences jit) They provide a basis for evaluation, amples of the goals of various levels of education in Kenya, In most © goals are however referred to as objectives. However, the most xased on the distinctions between the two terms discussed in the The following are ¢: syllabi and documents, th preferred word is “goals preceding paragraphs. The Goals of Early Childhood Development Education in Kenya in Kenya, Early Childhood Development Education should: (i) Provide education geared towards development of the child’s mental capabilities and physical grow! (ii) Enable the child enjoy living and learning through play; (iii) Develop the child’s self-esteem and self-confidence; (iv) Enable the child to develop understanding and appreciation of his/her culture and environment; (v)__ Foster the child's exploration skills, creativity, self-expression and discovery; (vi) Identify children with special needs and align them with existing services; (vii) Enable the child to build good habits and acquire acceptable values and behaviours for effective living as an individual and a member of a group; (viii) Foster the spiritual and moral growth of the child (ix) Improve the status of the child's health care and nutritional needs, and link hinVher with services such as immunization, health check-ups, growth and monitoring: (x) Enrich the child’s experiences to enable him/her to cope better with primary school life; (xi) Develop the child’s aesthetic and artistic skills. (KIE, 2004) Goals of Primary School Education in Kenya Primary Education should provide the learner with opportunities to: (i) Acquire literacy, numeracy, creativity and communication skills; (ii) Enjoy learning and develop desire to continue learning; (iii) Develop ability for critical thinking and logical judgement; (iv) Appreciate and respect the dignity of work; (v) Develop desirable social standards, moral and religious values; (vi) Develop into a self-disciplined, physically fit and healthy person; (vii) Develop aesthetic values and appreciate own and other people’s cultures; (viii) Develop awareness and appreciation of the environment; (ix) Develop awareness of and appreciation for other nations and international community; (x) Instil respect and love for own country and the need for harmonious co-existence; (xi) Develop individual talents; (xii) Promote social responsibility and make proper use of leisure time; (xiii) Develop awareness and appreciation of the role of technology in national development. (RoK, 2006) Core Principles in Curriculum 7 ‘Scanned with CamScannerElements of Curriculum functional curriculum, content consists of the subjects, and topies to be covered. It is the subject matter of the curriculum, Learning Experiences The thind element of curriculum comprises learning experiences. According to Tyler (1949), the term learning experience refers to the interaction between the learner and ihe external conditions in the environment. It is the interaction between the teacher and the student in ways that are designed to achieve the goals of the school Experiences are the key factors that shape the learners’ orientations to the content and, ultimately, their understanding of it, In this book, the term le: is : : the Teamers get engaged in during instruct ‘amples of are inquiry “Strategies” c.g. experimentation, lecture, discussion and mples of learning activities are viewing films and videos, conducting cxperiments, interacting with computer programmes, taking field trips, and listening to speakers and teachers (Ornstein & Hunl is, 1998), Content and learning experiences do not exist in part but in unity. In the actual delivery of caucational programmes both co-exist. An example is children listening to and telling simple Stories. Taba (1962) noted that one can speak of effective learning only if both content ad process are fruitful and significant, Evaluation The fourth element of curriculum is evaluation. According to Tyler (1949), evaluation is the Process through which the teacher matches the initial expectation to the outcome. It is the Process of finding out if the intended objectives arc being or have been realized. Evaluation can be executed in a number of ways. One way is by continuing monitoring and assessing the work done by learners week by week and month by month (Okech & Asiachi, 1992), This i referred to as formative evaluation. Another way is through end of term, end of year and end of course examinations what is referred to as summative evaluation. The process of curriculum evaluation is discussed in detail in Chapter 10 Criteria for Selecting Content and Learning Experiences One of the questions that immediately comes to the mind ofa curriculum planner is: On what grounds should content and leaming experiences be selected? There are various influences that govern decisions about what content or learning experiences should be offered to a Particular group of learners. A criterion is a standard on which a decision or a judgment ean be based (Parkay & Hass, 2000), Curriculum criteria are thus guidelines or standards according to which curricular or instructional decisions can be based. The following criteria can be utilized in the selection of content and. learning experiences, These criteria are borrowed from the works of various curriculum authors (Shiundu & Omulando, 1992 Omstein & Hunkins, 1998; Carl, 2007) and include: () Significance - The content and learning experiences should contribute to the basic ideas, concepts, principles and generalizations of the nationally set curriculum aims (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). Tyler (1949) opined that experiences should result in opportunities to practice the behaviour implied in the objectives. In addition, significance constitutes the ability of the content and leaning experiences to facilitate holistic development in the learners through the key Core Principles in Curriculum 19 ‘Scanned with CamScannerElements of Curriculum i al, social and affective slopment: Cognitive, physical, child development: domains of development. Validity ~ This is the auth it and learning experic and Icarning experiences selected, rrect, authentic or true and also ticity of the content @ ¢ should be co! The cont curate. gntent and learning experiences selected should contribute to the Ci) terest ee Fr that the unique nature of the student must be svelfare of the learner. This imp! cot miven privilege. Students loam best if the subject matter is recognized and £ cd a iN ones meaningful if they are interested in it, Based on nc hn cs nl red hal ce the lamers It shouldbe stimulating and motivating (Cart 2012), Uy = Ths i the usefulness of the eontent. The content should empower the learner in becoming a more productive member of the society. The concern over the usefulness of content can also be interpreted in terms of learner’ 's accurate povception of hisher self identify; the attainment of meaning of his/her life; and Teamer’s application ofthe content and learning experiences to real life situations, Tyler (1949) asserts that the needs of the leamers and the society determine the learning experiences to be offered in the curriculum, (\) Learnability ~ The content and learning experiences should favour the age and abilities of the targeted learners (Shiundu & Omulando, 1992; Carl, 2012). They should not be too difficult or simple for them, Carl (2012) mentions that in the choice of objectives, outcomes, and particular teaching content, learners’ development needs must be considered, as well as the manner in which children fear, i) Selfsuffciency ~ The content and learning experiences selected should be ey ee leamers to deweop their full potential (Carl, 2012). ‘vith eamers gaining m te he bey teaching effort and educational resources, but sn sme ed et cot cnn of he tn sd Further, feasibility means that there should be expentec ae ns a Fesourees. handle the selected content and leaming experiences" OF teachers 10 (ix) Relevance - The content and le 7 : needs and the development ‘of the individual Tenney THe eased on = social expected to be on moral values, i nae ‘em in selection is (2000) opine tar re as es, and socal challenges. Parkay and Hass i < revevant, its planning should reflect riculum bases: social forces, (iv) (%) Satisfaction - Tyler (1949) advices that explosion, reliance on text books and personal Core Principles in Curriculum on ‘Scanned with CamScannerments of Curriculum Organization of Content and Learning Curriculum selected content and leaming, experiences so that the (2012) observes. Ment is a contributory curriculum develoy Carl (2012) continues and highlights various aspects that should be considered during, the organization of content such as the intended aims and goals, learners’ needs and level of development, nature and extent of content, time constraints, available resoure 8, familiarity and relevance, and the degree of difficulty ofthe content, among. thers, Shiundu and Omulando (1992 periences s have to take into account the organization and systematization of the desired learning ean take place, Ax Carl ment action, P. 173) point out three main levels in the organization of content and leaming experiences: the lesson, the topic and the unit. Inthe lesson structure. 4 single day is treated as a diserete unit and the lesson separate from other lessons planned for other da derived and may last for several days or weeks. In the unit structure, experiences covering several topics related to a single theme or related themes are put together, The curriculum ae vhole can be organized either according to subjects or disciplines (as in subject centred designs) or by taking into account learners’ needs and interests (as is the case in learner ied in detail in Chapter 5, 6 for that day are more oF less In the topic structure, several lessons are centred designs). Subject and leamer centred designs are discus Various classification principles can be applied in the are shared by Shiundu & Omulando (1992); Ornstei (1982) cited in Carl, (2000) and they include: (i) Logical classification (from simple to complex) (ii) Psychological classification (from known to unknown; concrete to abstract) (ii) Punetual classification (from centre to periphery) (iv) Spiral classification (the same theme is repeated with increasing depth/extent) (¥) Analytical synthetical principle (part to whole and vice versa) (vi) Symbiotic principle (relationships and mutual benefits) (vii) Horizontal classification (Linear/chronological) Conclusion The discussion advanced in this Chapter reveals four constant interaction with one another: experiences; and evaluation. Of imp the first. organization of content. These ideas in & Hunkins (1998); Cawood et 3 major elements of curriculum that are in aims, goals and objectives; content; learning ortance is the fact that the latter three are dete rmined by Reflective Questions @) Discuss the relationship between forms of education and elements of curriculum. (i) Discuss the elements of curriculum with reference to a specific program or subject in your country. (iii) How do the elements of curriculum relate to the teaching/learning process? (iv) Evaluate the criteria used in content selection in your subject arca, References Carl, A. B, (2012). Teacher Empowerment through Curriculum Developme) Ed). Cape Town: Juta & Company Ltd, Theory into Practice (4 Gabler, I. C., Schroeder, M., & Curtis, D. H. (2003). Constructivist Methods for the Secondary Classroom: Engaged Minds. Boston: Pearson Education, Ine. Henson, K.P, (2001). Curriculum Planning (2 Ed). Wi is: Waveland Press, Inc. Core Principles in Curriculum ‘Scanned with CamScannerCurriculum Development Process CHAPTER THREE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS Anne Syomwene, Alice M. Yungungu & Charles M. Nyandusi Moi University, Kenya troduction This Chapter is on curticulum development process: Definition, steps, parti the factors that influence curriculum development, The discuss examples from the curriculum for Kenya. pants as well as Chapter draws on in thi Curriculum Planning and Curriculum Development Differentiated Various scholars have delved in the definition of curriculum planning and curriculum development, Some curriculum authors treat the two terms synonymously but in this section we wish to point out some slight distinctions between them, Curriculum Planning Defined According to Urevbu (1990) curriculum planning deals with a number of reality-oriented iatements concerned with questions such as: (i) What should be taught?; (ii) How should it be taught? (ii) To what segment of the population?; and (iv) What should be the relationship between the various components of the curriculum? Shiundu and Omulando (1992) opine that curriculum planning is the process that outlines Policies, objectives and programmes for instruction. The two authors assert that eurrieulo Planning is one aspect of educational planning that involves two main processes! Setting the objectives to be achieved and establishing an efficient procedure for attaining the objectives (Urevbu, 1990; Shiundu & Omulando, 1992), Glattho, Boschee and Whitehead (2006, p. 129) define curriculum planning as “the specification and sequencing of major decisions to be made in the future with revard to the curriculum” Marsh (2004) define curriculum planning as a decision making process about the content and the organization of learning for which the school is responsible. According to Hewitt (2006), curriculum planning is a process informed by policy. Policy says, here is what is to be done, and planning takes policy from idea ot statement aad shapes aie ion '© guide later development actions. Consequently, Hewitt (2006) defines Planning as the process of identifying the elements and forms that will be necessary, and assembling of ways to think about and working through the elements to be used in creating the curriculum, In this book, we define curriculum planning as a policy driven proces targets and activities with regard to curriculum, that generates visions, Curriculum Development Defined Urevbu (1990) defines curriculum development as a process that involves devising curricular materials and trying them out, deploying man power, resources and time, Curriculum development is the process of planning learning opportunities intended to bring Pout certain desired changes in pupils and the assessment of the extent to which these Changes have taken place (Shiundu & Omulando, 1992; Print, 1993), Core Principles in Curriculum 23 ‘Scanned with CamScannerCurriculum Development Process Hewitt (2006) defines curriculum development as those activities that ereate curriculum and its representative materials for use in some school or comparable setting. According to Oliva (2009), curriculum development is a decision making proce Curriculum planners must make choices on what objectives, content, methods to be followed; and subjects to be offered in a school. He defines curriculum development as the process for making programmatic decisions and for revising the products of those decisions on the ba of continuous and subsequent evaluation (Oliva, 2009). In this book, we define curriculum sa_decision making process involving planning, providing and utilizing learning opportunities as well ax refining them on the basis arcontinious evaluation. Curriculum development is spe urriculum planning. Steps in Curriculum Development Process The complexity of the curriculum development process demands a systematic procedure (Oliva, 1988; Shiundu & Omulando, 1992; Carl, 2012). Mosters (1986) cited in Carl (2012) identifies 6 steps of curriculum development: Initiation, planning, development, testing, implementation and summative evaluation. Shiundu & Omulando (1992, p. 160) identify nine steps in curriculum development process: Situational analysis, formulation of objectives, setting up curriculum project, program building, piloting, improvement of the new program, implementation, evaluation and maintenance. Call (2012) identifies 4_main steps in curriculum development process: Design, dissemination, implementation and evaluation. In Kenya, the Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development follows 10 steps in curriculum development process: Policy decision /needs assessment, policy formulation, curriculum design, development of syllabus, development of materials, ‘teacher preparation, piloting, curriculum implementation, monitoring and evaluation (KIE, 2008). All aforementioned scholars outline the steps that should be followed in the curriculum development process. We concur with all these suggestions as they are both informative and practical. However, in the pursuit of enhancing the understanding of the reader on the curriculum development process we wish to recommend a more elaborate Twelve-Steps Currfevluny Development Process Model. The twelve steps do not completely differ from che suggestions from other scholars but they point out some distinct issues in curriculum development that are either not given adequate mention by other scholars or appear rather s lent. The Twelve-Steps Curriculum Development Process Model In the Twelve-Steps Curriculum Development Process Model suggested in this book, we outline and discuss twelve steps of curriculum development process thus: Step 1: Context analysis Step 2: Strategic planning Step 3: Stating the objectives Step 4: Selection and organization of content Step 5: Selection and organization of learning experiences Step 6: Acquisition of resources and facilities Step 7: Preparation of implementers and other stakeholders Step 8: Piloting of the programme Step 9: Refining of the programme Core Principles in Curriculum 24 ‘Scanned with CamScannerCurriculum Development Process Step 10: Implementation of the programme Step 1: Institutionalization of the programme Step 12: Programme Monitoring Step One: Coni This is Ticulum planners assess the : an be accomplished through research to assess the societal and learners needs that the new Programme should address, Context in this case covers the social, cultural, economic, polit logical milieu as well as the institutional dynamics influencing the curriculum, Curieane development process must be situated within a Particular context, Some curriculum authors (Shiundu & Omulando, 1992; Carl, 2012) cal this step situational analysis, According to Carl (2012) situational analysis is an evalu: interpretation ofall the information that m may serve both as starting point j : that situational analysis im development process is to take place. content, physical environment, teacher and community (Shiundu & Omulando, 1992; Carl, 2012). Taba (1962) uses the terms ‘diagnosis of learners’ needs’ to refer to this Step in the curriculum development Process, Context analysis can be undertaken by considering both school and societal factors. On the one hand, school factors can include (i the leamers (thet nocd and interests); (ii) teachers (their attitudes, knowledge and skills); (i) edueational goals; (iv) availability of the required Wreakes and facilities in the schools; (v) the existing curriculum (its strengths and weaknesses); (vi) the curriculum leaders (their attitudes, knowledge and skills) and (vii) dynamism in knowledge. On the other hand are societal factors which include (i) the Society's norms; (ii) values; (ii) philosophies of life; (iv) aspirations; (v) societal challenges and emerging issues (vi) political and economic milieu. Context analysis also includes needs assessment. Needs assessment isa form of gap analysis, reap tematic exploration of the divergence or discrepancy between the eument situation or {cvel of services (what is) and the desired situation or level of services (what should be) (National Oceanic and Atmospheric administration [NOAA], 2009). Needs as + curriculum planners collect and analyze data on the prevailing conten pees and needs in order to make decisions on the new programme's abject content, learning experiences and methods of evaluation, ‘Step Two: Strategie Planning ; ; ; que, seeond step in curriculum development process is strategic planning, In curriculum development, strategic planning involves a set of decisions and actions that result in the planning and development of school programmes to achieve the desired results. The focus of this step is decision making on the viability and feasibility of the program; programme timing, budget and costs, Core Principles in Curriculum 25 ‘Scanned with CamScannerPr SS ulum Development Proce: ies call for budgeting i leveloping countries cal 1 Poe, inflationary trends in mot tea statement of expected results expe i apie fture (Saleem, 2006). Budgeting st " s for a definite of expected activi ves in umercal terms fora definite of ti an on the capocted activites ng yt Sri coed afeach, also involves the time plan for each activity. Estimating cea a oximating the time and cost of completing projec delivers ting or approximating direction and purpose in the activitos in ble goals for a specified period of y.° Currie The prevai evelopment process in the curriculum development process. At rocess of foree (Gray & Larson, 2003). Budgets provide clarity, : sural organization by laying down verifiable and meas (Saleemi, 2006), st, time and budget ¢s According to Gray & Larson (2003) cost, time an 1 control; they serve as the standard for comparison of actual and plan throughout the life gp the project. In curriculum development process the Programmes’ Rania = consultancy, communication costs, training costs, resources, Ss, a S Pls cots, and monitoring and evahution costs. The sources of the funds should established as well. The funding can be the government only; or government, parents anj communities; or parents and communities only; Donors and others. Jn an educational environment, strategic planning is an invaluable activity in curriculum development. The estimation of projects costs and times can avoid many challenges related ‘0 funding and timely accomplishment of expected outcomes. In fact, programmes developed and implemented without clear estimations of times and costs risk partial or inadequate implementation (Gray & Larson, 2003). Through budgeting, the finite resources can be Gllocated to the prioritized needs of the programme [National Centre for Educational Statistics (NCES), 2003] and time frames for various activities established. imates are the lifeline fy Step Three: Stating the Objectives sais itd step involves stating the expected programme objectives, In any educational activity, it's important to specify the expected outcomes because education fo goal oriented Frocess (Tyler, 1949; Taba, 1962; Shiondu & ‘Omulando, 1992, Coat 2012). The determination of goals isan important and necessary step in order to mike mee Geter insirctonal time. The programme objectives provide direction on the chews. of expected fntent, earning experinees and methods of evaluation. They should Gene from the leamers’ and societal needs identified during content analysis tad okey borrow from the national aims of eduation inthe county. In ation, the theories of ne should inf the statement of objectives. In tis book, theories of leaming as digs in Chapter Tyler (1949) in his model of curriculum development provides systematic pres ae sMating curriculum objectives a discussed in Chapter 7. Currculien obicctives ae in details in Chapter 2 of this book. es are discussed Step Four: Selection and Organisation of Content , ‘The forth step in curriculum development process is the selection an izati In her 7 ie aol of curriculum development, Taba (1962) idence amzation of content and organisation of content as two distinct steps inthe eur 2” Of coment However, in tis model we collapse these activites into one: Seacroe ment process. content as they are closely related. The main questions in this seg ae synzation of, taught?” and “How should it be classified, amanged or” seauenty aut is to be understanding?” Carl (2012) supports the selection and Classification of gg Ber curriculum development process and says it’s one of the most cardinal curriculum fTuncnn in ions. Core Principles in Curriculum 26 ‘Scanned with CamScannerCurriculum Development Process He postulates that the curriculum developed must take into account the classification and systematization of the already selected content np (1983, pp. 91-95) observes that in curriculum development process one of the Mm questions is: “that of what shall be taught in school and how shall what has 1 chosen 10 be taught in the school be organized so as to best facilitate the subsequent ching. and learning be decisions about t ‘The criteria that gow 2 of this book 1 the process of 0 ontent are discussed in details in Chapter Step F ‘lection and organization of learning experiences The fifth Step of curriculum development process is the selection and organization of earning experiences. The main question after the selection and organization of content should be “How should we teach what is to be taught?” Tyler (1949) supports the selection and organization of learning experiences in the second and third steps of his curriculum development model, Similarly, Taba (1962) views selection of learning experiences; and organization of learning experiences as distinct steps in curriculum development process. In this model, these two activities are discussed in one step as they arc closely related. Learning experiences encompass both the teaching methods and learning activities. They are the strategies used in content delivery. The criteria that govern the process of organizing learning experiences are discussed in details in Chapter 2 of this book. It is advisable that the prevailing context and desired outcomes should guide the teacher in modifying, revising and innovating the content and learning experiences provided in a pre- planned curriculum. Step Six: Acquisition of Resources and Facilities The sixth step in the curriculum development process is the acquisition of resources and facilities. Effective resources and facilities are those specific to the content and learning experiences selected. Gray and Larson (2003) define resources as people, equipment and materials that can be drawn on to accomplish something, Facilities on the other hand are the infrastructure required in the accomplishment of projects and in the daily running of institutions. The curriculum development and implementation process cannot succeed without the required resources and facilities. Furthermore, the quality and appropriateness of instructional materials is critical in curriculum implementation process (NOAA, 2009). Deficiencies in resources and can sink even the best instructional design delivered by the best planner. Bishop (1985) calls these the tools for the job. Gray and Larson (2003) warn that material availability and shortages have been blamed over time for the delay of many projects. The resources and facilities should be acquired in advance before the onset of the implementation process in order to avoid cases of delays and lack. Relevant resources and facilities should be provided in sufficient quantities and there should be clear plans on their maintenance. Both human and physical resources are paramount. The human resources include the teachers and curriculum leaders. Physical resources and facilitics include books, tcacher guides, class rooms, desks, chairs laboratories, workshops, libraries among others. Step Seven: Preparation of Implementers and Other Stakeholders ; ‘The preparation of curriculum implementers and other stakeholders constitute the seventh step in the curriculum development process. Curriculum implementers are the personnel charged with the task of putting the curriculum into practice in the schools. They include Core Principles in Curriculum 27 ‘Scanned with CamScannerCurriculum Development Fores with teachers as the main cup. teachers, curriculum leaders and Sane 1s, pareats, communities and ng > eae int So cities process ‘Adequate preparation of all stakebs, rt schools in the implementa 0 Sr ecrcte for success in the implementation process. - canta « The preparation involves communication set ie ore ouea ti implementers and sensitization efforts for attitude cl ange ecomnias This prep serves to reduce resistance from the implementers and other s —— ulm resistance is discussed in Chapter 8 of this textbook. The imp! arn Te Oriente: and retraining so that they have the necessary knowledge an sls an base po attitudes to the new curriculum which they are expected to use and adopt in schools (R 1983; Shiundu & Omulando, 1992; Otunga et al, 2011; Fullan, 2007). This can be through in-service workshops, conferences and seminars. Step Eight: Piloting of the Programme Co The eighth step in curriculum development process is piloting. Piloting involves trying o the new programme in a few schools, It involves assessing and evaluating a new pro; With (a sample of) the target population that will use the curriculum (Hewitt, 2006). The is to identify any weaknesses before implementation. According to Shiundu and Omula: (1992), through piloting the curriculum validity is established. Piloting is a kind of formative evaluation to determine the extent to which the programme will or will not achieve the intended objectives. For effectiveness, the schools used in piloting should comprehensivel y represent all types of schools and educational contexts, In Kenya we should eater for national, county and sv county schools; private and public schools; single sex and mixed schools: urban and rurl Schools; day and boarding schools; schools in various geographical contexts; special scho. and mainstream schools; and schools with various religious afillations. Step Nine: Refining of the Programme After piloting the programme, the next step is refining it. Refini feedback obtained from piloting is used to refine the pry be used to make decisions as to whether to adopt th 7 . c fe dec e this = revision or to reject it altogether. In most cavee however ee eae Adopt afer 8 ually refined an Step Ten: Implementation of the Programme After the programme has been piloted and refined, implemen involves the process of putting the new programme into use in al prowess whose suzeess depends on atitudes of implementers 2 fecilties, competence of implementers, compatibility of the mex eutY Of resources and ups and administrative suppor. Some key activities usa ee he exis implementation include: (i) Presenting the new programme inqeke® during curriculum utilizing the resources and fecilities (i) actual progiemn delves to's (i) availing and monitoring and evaluation, “TY; (iv) supervision; (v) ion follows. Implementation il the schools. I's a complex Implementation i a eitical aspect in curriculum process and moss : um pr st gel lane a this tp. The proes of euriulm inptemeniang gel tangs eos s discussed in dera Chapter 9. ussed in detail in Core Principles in Curriculum 28 ‘Scanned with CamScannerCurriculum Development Process Step Eleven: Institutionalication of the Programme After the programme has been implemented i Institutionalization is the process through which owned by the users, Glatthorn, Boschce programmes are a stable part of the d involves maintenance of the as to support and sus n the schools institutionalization follows, the programme becomes fully adopted and nd Whitehead (2006) opine that institutionalized strict's educational programmes. Institutionalization curriculum to determine the operational impact over time as well n the curriculum in use, Step Twelve: Programme monitoring and evaluation The twelve and final step in curriculum development proc evaluation, Monitoring is the systematic and routine collectio programme for improvement. It involves intended plan. The dat Programme monitoring and n of information about the checking the progress of the programme against the fa acquired through monitoring is used for evaluation, Otunga et al. (2011) opine that the imy closely to ensure it is being used i Through monitoring, curriculum wo! reference to itself or students and if it plementation of the curriculum needs to be monitored n the schools faithfully by the teachers as planned. rkers get to know how a curriculum is working with 's meeting goals or stated outcomes (Hewitt, 2006). Evaluation is the process of determining the extent to which the programmes? intended objectives have been achieved. It is a significant step in curriculum development in that it Provides data on the program merits. In the curriculum development process we ean identify {wo types of evaluation: Formative or summative evaluation. Formative evaluation is carried cut in every step of the curriculum development process to determine the success ofthe steps While summative evaluation is carried out after the programme has been implemented and institutionalized in schools to determine the success of the entire programme. According to Oliva (1988), curriculum development is a never-ending process because planners must always aspire for continuous improvement. On-going evaluation is necessary to identify strong and weak points and to develop or remediate them on an on-going basis, The process of curriculum evaluation is discussed in detail in Chapter 10 of this book. Figure 3.1 presents the Tivelve-Steps Curriculum Development Process Model proposed in this book. The twelve steps discussed in this section provide a comprehensive and systematic procedure for curriculum development. In addition, the figure shows that the whole process is characterized by continuous feedback for cuticulum improvement. However, the process of curriculum development may not be strictly linear as described. Although each step is described, the steps are not discrete. The steps interact and inform each other through the interaction of the elements of curriculum. Core Principles in Curriculum 20 ‘Scanned with CamScannerrriculum Development Process Cu Step | Step 2 Strategic Plannin }+—_—_—___| step3_ | Stating the objectives step4 | Selection and organization of content t steps [Selection and organization of learning experiences }¢—————_| J step 6 | Acquisition of resources and facilities l¢—_—__| FEEDBACK Step 7 | Preparation of implementers and other stakeholders a Step 8 | Piloting of the programme c—— Step 9} Refining of the programme |}¢<—___| J Step 10. | Implementation of the programme j<———__ Institutionalization of the programme Step 11 Step 12 | Programme monitoring and Evaluation }____,] oo Figure 3.1: The Twelve- Steps Currie ‘ulum Deve The Interaction amongst the Elements of Curri “es ses Mo lem Core Principles in Curriculum ‘Scanned with CamScannerCurriculum Development Process by others. The elements interact in both the macro and micro context both dynamic. The macro context is the wider environment that surrounds and ioflucver are school such 28 the socal, economic, political, cultural and technologies! milieu ie he society. The micro context isthe school environment that includes the prevail ae dynamics. The interaction amongst the elements of curieulum has been prese 32. institutional din Figure Objectives * ¥ x Context Context y Learning Experiences a Context Context ¥. v v Evaluation Interaction amongst the Elements of Curriculum Figure Participants in Curriculum Development Process The curriculum development process is accomplished through the participation of various the stakeholders. Stakeholders are persons, institutions and .d in the school curriculum. The interests vary in degree and complexity. They get involved in many ways in the planning, development, implementation and evaluation activities because the curriculum affects them either directly or indirectly. The agencies that take part in the curriculum development process in Kenya include the Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD), Education Standards Quality and Assurance Council (ESQSC), Kenya National Examinations Councils (KNEC), The Kenya Institute of Special Education (KISE), Kenya National Union of Teachers (KNUT), Teachers Service Commission (TSC), Religious Organizations, Teacher centres, and Public and Private universities among others. The specific roles of these agencies are discussed in Chapter 11 of this textbook. persons and agencies organizations that are intereste Core Principles in Curriculum 31 ‘Scanned with CamScannerselopment Proc Curriculum Development s, iss the roles played by various persons in that follows, we discuss y lows, 7 In the section that development process. ead Teachers a poeta cba am Loree a and head teachers supervise the ey etS, 7 iculy, teria c ny As curriculum ma They also procure resources and materials fae for tfeetyg ati cess. They als 1 im sites ey eee il oversee their maintenance. They are in cl Ee Of the Over teaching and learn S ‘hols, They take part in the programmes’ context analysis as Well. In is hools, ake pa auiakey a assisted by their deputies, Heads of Departments and Heads of Subjects luties they are assisted by Testers are the key curriculum implementers. As curriculum me oF wor Tet {eschers write curriculum daily through lesson plans and schemes 0 ate mano welts the pre-planned curriculum to. suit learners’ needs an intro seach participate in curriculum Planning by providing insight into the types of ma ss Is, activites and specific skills that need to be included in the curriculum. In addition, teachers take part n Curriculum evaluation process by setting and marking exams, Learners Leamers are the consumers or clients of the curriculum. TI hey participate in the curriculum development process in two ways. First, directl Py giving ideas that may lead to curriculun s ‘riculum and secondly, indirectly in that Curriculum developers learning activities and evaluation Procedures. Parents and Guardians Parents and guardians Support and influence cursicutum implementations through financial resources. They also help in monitoring curriculum implementation by Keeping a close check of the work covered in school and snonitoring their own children's assignments. Parents can Suggest the kind of content and leaming experiences that children ; being involved in the programmes” Context analysis. Some p, Community Members The community provides resources whi members of the community take part in'e ich facilitate curriculum j Tunning of the schools, imple choo! management boards and overeat aos Factors that Influence Curriculum Development The process of curriculum development is this section, we discuss various factors that j discussed are knowledge factors, political, eo i emerging issues, 3) Of Various forces, In " development, The factors 4 Social factors ae well as Knowledge Factors Knowledge isthe prime source of curticulum content (Shiundy et al, 2011). Knowledge is dynamic ant therefore, the Curriculum 40, 1992, Otunga reviewed to accommodate the ever changing. knowledge (Syomweng tld PoRstantly be Knowledge from research and theory ae, cutticulum decisiong 2012). enges in objectives, content selection, teaching sPProaches and methods ue evaluene’ Surriculum development must be based on sound [eeuntable curticuium theo, (Cart tion. Urriculum Teaming theories that influence cuticulum decisions include Behaviouria theory, Some key FS, Connitiye Core Principles in Curriculum ‘Scanned with CamScannerOE ON EE EME SS development theories and Humanistic theories. These theories are discussed in Chapter 4 of this textbook. Currently, the emerging trends in education have put emphasis on child centred education, early childhood education, inclusive education, special needs education, free basic education, gender issues, environmental education, life skills education and Computer Assisted Instruction. Political Factors Education is regarded as a political activity, The government, ministries of education, politicians and political groups influence curriculum in many ways, According to Shiundu and Omulando (1992), so long as governments continue to control and finance education, politics will remain a major factor in curriculum development. The political will to provide funds 10 the education sector determines the efficiency and effectiveness with which curriculum issues are dealt with. Ornstein and Hunkins (1998) opine that education is a normative enterprise and a political drama in that there’s much talk among curriculum theorists and practitioners about the curriculum being used as an instrument for advancing particular political ideologies and agendas. Syomwene (2012) outlines various ways through which the government and national philosophies can influence curriculum thus: (i) The government defines the national aims of education through educational policy making; (ii) Curricula materials are usually heavily influenced by political considerations; (iii) The government funds curriculum development, implementation and evaluation processes. Sometimes, political ideologies change and thereby influencing the curriculum especially when there’s a change in the government structure, political parties and leadership in the Ministry of Education. For instance, in Kenya, when the National Alliance Rainbow Coalition (NARC) came to power in 2003, one of its objectives in its manifesto was to review the education system and introduce Free Primary Education (FPE). Economic Factors The success of any curriculum depends on the economic stability of a country. The state of the national economy has a direct effect on the curriculum (Otunga ct al., 2011). This is because curriculum development, implementation and evaluation are financed by the government. Adequate and proper allocation of funds will considerably contribute to the success of curriculum development (Shiundu & Omulando, 1992). A country’s economy depends on a rich and relevant curriculum. The skills, knowledge bases and attitudes required by the industries or the employing institutions should be developed in the curriculum (Syomwene, 2012). The market forces indicate what should be included in the school curriculum. This therefore means that the school curriculum must equip leamers with knowledge and skills that will contribute to the economic stability of the country. Historical Factors ; : , History informs the present and the future practice. Hewitt (2006) argues that history allows for a timely comparison of new ideas and practices with the past or the retrieval of past ideas and practices as relevant for use in current contexts. Some of the historical events that have influenced curriculum in Kenya include; the scrapping of Section 2 A of the Kenyan Constitution in 1992 which transformed Kenya from being a onc party state to a multiparty iolence of 2008 led to the introduction of Life Skills Education The Kenya Constitution (2010) has resulted to devolution in fhe education sector and curriculum in general. state. The post-election vi Subject in the school curriculum. governance that has had influences in t Core Principles in Curriculum 33 ‘Scanned with CamScannerCurriculum Development Process the school curriculum in Keny e search for relevant and skilled ional commis rarks that have influenced ndence, thi mendations in educati re discussed in det Other historical land: 1 western education, struggle for indepe' missionary work in Kenya, and recom al influences to curriculum a papers. Hist Social Factors . il social grou; Social factors mainly refer to culture, religion, family arin 1998) Hen ‘within, not apart from, eocial contexts (Ornstein & PIMLEY that the school is @ rocosm of the Jocal community an¢ 4 a Ee ‘ra school or society. Education is v social glue that binds the many elements of : activity engaging individuals in experiencing an (Omstein & Hunkins, 1998). d accepting what is valued a source of educational objectives. Schools prepare leamers for life in the society through the functions of education. prope ed by (1962) thus: (i) cultural preservation and transmission; (ii) cultural transformati individual development, Therefore, the school should address the concerns religion, family and social groupings as well as the challenges prevalent in the society. as observed by Carl (2012), norm orientation is a basic principle in curriculum develoy The curriculum should be aligned to the norms, values and beliefs in the soci changes; religious expectations and expectations by pressure groups in the society aspects of various cultures should be incorporated in the curriculum as it curriculum relevance in the face of cultural diversity (Otunga ct al., 2011). Social inf in the school curriculum have been covered in Chapter 4 of this text. Tyler (1949) included the society as Technological Factors The power of technology to change the curriculum is almost beyond comprek and thus put tremendous pressure on the curriculum. Technology influences in c can be manifested in a mumber of ways. First, it can through the introduction of techs based courses and subjects in the school curriculum, Secondly, it can through tech: integration in the instructional process. Shelly, Cashman and Gunter (2001) observe technology supports many types of instruction and learning. The changing natu « technology means that technology will continue to be a major influence t curricula Chapter 4 ofthis textbook covers technological foundations of curriculum, Emerging Issues The world and the society in general i s are dynamic, Emerging i i s eneral ar . Emerging issues e new trends challenges that emanate from time to time both nationally and internationally. The soe i issues date curl changss for relevance. There ae various emerging issues s enya such as HIV/AIDS, drug and y terrorism etheicity, politic society in Kenya sucl ; Substance abuse, terrorism, ethnicity. polite! instability, children rights, sex education, integrity, ah sinong obese ete oes , g others, These issue normally incorporated in th i normally e curri s i ae culum as separate subjects or topics and three! Conclusion This Chapter has delved on the involving. The curriculum develo specific but related steps. In addi influenced by curric evel rietum development process, which is comple ian th can effectively be executed through § » He process is a cooperative effort of many and * Core Pri re Principles in Curriculum 34 ‘Scanned with CamScannerFoundations of Curriculum CHAPTER FOUR FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM Anne Syomwene Moi University, Keny@ ion y influence the Fae iai cane of curriculum are the determinants of the school Ee eatin eee content and learning experiences provided in St oo Hey ch, how to teach influence curriculum planners and developers when deciding o” Wh te) Historical find how to structure it, The major foundations of curriculum ; er foundations; (ii) Psychological foundations; (iii) Sociologica’ a een aed Philosophical foundations. Another emerging foundation curriculum. which has nos featured independently in most books but which is equally pertinent is technological foundations. This chapter is a discussion of foundations of curriculum. Historical Foundations of Curriculum . History is a study of the past. Historical foundations are concerned with the influences of the school curriculum that emanate from developments in the past. History informs the present and the future practice. Hewitt (2006) argues that history allows for @ timely comparison of new ideas and practices with the past or the retrieval of past ideas and practices as relevant for use in current contexts. Historical Landmarks that have had Influences on C1 urriculum There are various past events that have had influences on the school curriculum. These include: the Early Christian education, the Renaissance movement, the Reformation movement, the Scientific movement in education and the Progressive movement in education. These movements are discussed in the section that follows. Early Christian Education ‘This is the education that was offered to believers in the i on i eed ck Greet Rian Gel Se NTE ee ess srdiseipline, church doctrine, moral standards, Christian theology, seienee, mathemaies and astronomy (Shiundu & Omulando, 1992). In the school curriculum today, 1 i en still being offered. Mathematics is a compulsory subject in both pritrary en Se soit in Kenya. Religious Edveation, which is effered ie nn ne secon Kenya, entails the teachings of moral standards, levels of education in The Renaissance Movement This movement took place in the 14" century in Italy. Renai 2907), Renaissance was a period of rebirth or renewal of educating wi context of new economic, social and political developments im init oceurred in the haraeterized by increased quest for knowledge and many schoqe oa", Ht, Was. & Petiod established during the period. The curriculum was merely centred smn enyersities ere morals, games. and composition writing. During this ean fees oual eur ston, courses in theology, law, medicine and arts. Today the quest for knoveqn es offered and many schools and universities have been established. The ne caSe 8 Still on-going question are still prominent in schools and institutions for subjects and disciplines in Renaissance contributed to the philosophy of humanism oy Tigte®, learning as well Renaissance advocates recognized that children develop at: ‘iter sation _(Tehie, 2007). erent rates. They advocated sance means rebirth (Tehie. ‘Scanned with CamScannerFoundations of Curriculum for physical education and vocational education whi of the key advocates of renaissance was Petra ‘h are also offered in schools today. One +h (Tehie, 2007), The Reformation Movement This movement took place in Europe in the 16" € led a reform of the Roman Catholic Church mtury. During this period, Martin Luther and it resulted in the establishment of protestant churches. These churches have had influences in our educational systems today on the emphasis of Christian ideals in the school curriculum, In Africa, Kenya in particular, the missionaries pioneered the provision of education and many schools in Kenya are sponsored by religious bodies. Advocates of the reformation movement emphasized on professionalism (Tehie, 2007). This involved proper training of teachers, teacher conduct, teacher payments nd school stating, These issues still shape the provision of education in our schools. Other advocates of reformation include Philipp Melanchthon and John Amos Comenius, The Scientific Movement in Education This movement took place in the 16" Century in Europe. ‘The scientific movement in education led to the philosophy of realism which advocated for classical literature, preparation of the learner for the society and provision of appropriate environmental stimuli This movement bore the factory approach to schooling which points out that if all conditions are right, then you get the expected products. In addition, the scientific movement in education led to the application of the principles of scientific management to education, An important aspect is the importance of motivating students and teachers. Effective teachers strive to motivate and encourage the learners through rewards and reinforcements; pleasant learning atmosphere; use of a variety of materials; active leaning experiences; consideration of leamers’ needs and interests. Teachers as well need encouragement and incentives. In Kenya, teachers have currently been distressed by large classes and limited incentives and these affect job performance. The Progressive Movement in Education The Progressive Movement in Education was led by John Dewey in the carly twentieth century. Dewey's book: ‘The school and the society’ (1900) is credited with starting the Progressive movement in education (Omstein & Hunkins, 1998; Marsh & Willis, 2007). The advocates of the progressive movement were reacting against the shortcomings of the traditional school system. It resulted to leamner-centred education which is very effective in quality teaching and leaming. Dewey maintains that leamers leam best through active leaming experiences. This has influenced education in Kenya and other parts of the world where emphasis is on learner centred education. Progressivists also advocate for a flexible curriculum and individualized instruction (Orntein & Hunkins, 1998), In the Kenyan perspective, under the historical foundations, is an important event: The Post- Election Violence of the years 2007-2008. During this event, there was inter-ethnic violence after the 2007 general elections. This event resulted in curriculum changes in the school curriculum in that themes, subjects, courses, programmes and learning experiences on peace, national cohesion, love and appreciation of others have been included in the school curriculum. Life Skills Education has also been introduced as a subject in schools in Kenya to equip learners with the skills and attitudes that they require in a changing and multiethnic community. A notable aspect of historical foundations in the Kenyan perspective is that the education in Kenya has been controlled and governed by the development plans, educational Commissions, reports, government policies and sessional papers since independence Core Principles in Curriculum ‘Scanned with CamScannerPC lum sof Currie re sducation Commission (Ong, s and Policies (The Gachayy, ond University rorking Party on Education ay, Working Party « 2 report) of 1988. Others Te the e Kamunge (Kocch Commission) of 1995, 3007: The Kenya Education §; ctoy 2 Constitution of Kenya (2010) and include: 992), These ado, 1992). These includes (Stan EN nal Committee oo eit hit Tenor Fyre: Pesta Working Pan ea he Mackay €0 maf rr ning for the Next De “ade and ation S Commission of Inquiry into the Edueatl™ “T Sessional Paper No 1 of 200: apport Programme (KESSP) ‘The Basic Education Act (2013). jdential he New eveloped in 1963 in the Omindg et ere ancien there were 7 Report (1924), Beecher jon of education, A study such as jon were jence in 1964. B : 909), Phelps-stok d the pro t Pe the curriculum of subject our national goals of educati Commission immediately after independ development plans such as the Fraser Repent ee Report (1980s) andthe Binn’s Report (1952) that Shap of Kenya before and after independence has shap' History and Government, and Social Studies. i i ith reference to Kenya is the Another important area under historical oe ete Esrig nibties Ot canes Indigenous African education. Indigenous African eae eae aimet Selah that helped man control his environment and master the RIE RUSTILaT mane Omulando, 1992), It was a process of inculcating survival skills int See preparation for certain responsibilities. This informal education shares aims. wit y i education offered in Kenya and some parts of Africa that prepares the learners to be productive members of the society. Educationists who have Contributed in the Field of Curriculum Under Historical Foundations of curriculum, we hereby discuss various education who have made significant contributions inthe field of curriculum. These educationists feature in SOO Seagulum works (Shiundu & Omulando, 1992; Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998: Henson, 2001; Glatthom, Boschee & Whitchead (2006); Carl : . , 2012) and include: Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956) Franklin Bobbit is popularly referred to as the curriculum in 1918 entitled: The Curriculum, to Make a Curriculum. He presented curricula focused on activities approach. He advocated Werrett Charters (1875-1952) Werrett Charters also considere: advocated forthe need to bridge theory with practice Charters se "stu of objectives that students must attain by war ies of Levee curr es Hunkins, 1998). He wrote a book entitled! Cureton 8 kami ‘experiences ae re William Kilpatrick (1871-1965) Metion in 1993, sein He viewed euriculum as purposeful activites wih a gliculum be organized around classroom and seh ty pus Kilpatrick wrote text entitled Foundations of Method in tay’ tivities ay de TPOSed that child centred method especially in elementary schooled 1926 Where he aqe'UP Projects. Harold Ruge (1886-1960) Yocated for the He advocated for child centred education that focus, ‘he teaching of Social Studies in the curriculum ang thar a father of curriculum, He wrote the first boo! . i bi fe the fi yk ee another book entitled How a pane that emphasized students? needs ‘0 prepare Students for adult life. ‘d curriculum as a Science bh, dents’ needs, He “© child centred Core Principles in Curricuy, ‘Scanned with CamScanner