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EFFECT OF THE MODIFIED ABLATION CASTING PROCESS ON THE MECHANICAL

PROPERTIES AND MICROSTRUCTURE OF NEAR EUTECTIC AI-Si ALLOY

Ali Kheirabi and Mehdi Divandari and S. M. A. Boutorabi

School of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology, 16846-13114 Narmak,
Tehran, Iran

Mohammad Pourgharibshahi
Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, Sirjan University of Technology, 78137-33385 Sirjan, Iran

Copyright Ó 2021 American Foundry Society

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40962-021-00672-x

Abstract
A novel version of the well-known ablation casting process
named as the direct water spraying (DWS) was introduced
by applying the process on a simple geometry solidifying
casting with a near eutectic A413.0 aluminum alloy. The
new solidification term named total cooling rate was found
more efficient in justification of the improvement in
mechanical properties. A comparison between the DWS
processed casting and the conventionally sand-cast coun-
terpart revealed that the secondary dendrite arm spacing
could decrease from conventional 68 lm to 32 lm in the
DWS specimens. The size of other microstructural features
such as eutectic micro-constituents, iron-bearing phases,
and shrinkage porosities experiences a significant drop
caused by the DWS process. All these were attributed to the
higher cooling rate induced by efficient heat extraction.
The average ultimate tensile strength and elongation
increased from the conventional values of 146 MPa and
2.2% to 160 MPa and 5.2% in DWS, respectively.
Keywords: Ablation casting, Al–Si eutectic alloy,
Water spray, Simulation, Thermal analysis, Tensile
strength

Introduction sufficiently high. It is reported that a slight increase in the

Ablation casting was introduced in 2009, and since then, it
is known as one of the most revolutionary and promising
methods of metal-casting.1 The name was originated from
the Latin word ‘‘abulito’’ which means washing. A casting
practice refers to the water spraying process that washes
out the expendable mold, thereby promoting the heat
extraction rate from a solidifying casting.2 The otherwise
coarse microstructure is thus refined and leads to
improvement in mechanical properties.1,3–5
The heat transfer coefficient (HTC) of the molding material
(SiO2 granules with or without synthetic binder), which is
commonly used for aluminum sand-casting is not
HTC value significantly decreases the solidification time
and refines the as-cast structure.6 Moreover, the polymor-
phic transformation of the SiO2 particles in contact with
hot metal is accompanied by the restricted expansion of the
mold walls thereby expansion defects.7
By casting a given alloy in a multi-step mold convention-
ally and via the Ablation casting, Dudke et al. found that
direct contact between water and a casting surface can
eliminate the air gap, leading to the superior mechanical
properties of the processed specimens. The 4 to 31%
reduction in SDAS value was reported in the ablated
materials. No information is reported; however, regarding
the onset of water application.8

Enhancing mechanical properties, molding facilitation,

lower production cost while conserving the simplicity of
the conventional sand-casting are among several key ben-
efits of the ablation casting process.
Received: 06 May 2021 / Accepted: 03 August 2021

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A more homogenous microstructure containing a lower
level of shrinkage porosity (3.84%) was reported in the
ablated A356 castings compared to the conventionally
produced sand-castings.3 The fatigue life of the ablated
6061 aluminum alloy is comparable to the forged coun-
terpart, after the T6 heat-treatment. It was reported that
while fatigue life of the ablation-processed heat-treated
alloy was significantly longer than that of the convention-
ally produced one, its fatigue life is only marginally lower
than that of the forgings. Moreover, the Ultimate Tensile
Strength (UTS) of the ablated alloy is significantly higher
than that of the forged counterpart.4
Besides the refined SDAS, refinement and modification of
other microstructural features, including the eutectic inter-
lamellar spacing,9 Fe-bearing intermetallic particles,10 and
primary or eutectic silicon phase can be achieved by the
accelerated heat extraction during ablation casting.
Regardless of the section thickness it results in lower
porosity content and makes the microstructure more
homogeneous in the as-cast condition.1,4 The collective
benefit of the process results in the increased strength and
ductility of the ablated castings.10–16 Working on the A356
aluminum alloy, Boutorabi et al.5 showed that the best
mechanical properties could be achieved when the mold
ablated before the eutectic point.
Recently a modified ablation method was used to cast steel
bars in which the water was directly sprayed on the mold-
free (top side) casting without using the water-soluble
binder.17 A low porosity content was reported in radiog-
raphy images.17 Boutorabi et al. employed the original
ablation (with water-soluble binder) to cast steel parts. The
ablation process improved the overall strain to failure by
23% (from approximately 13–16%) and the UTS by 71%
(639–1094 MPa). The improvements were attributed to (1)
the refinement of structure (including reduction of SDAS
and grain size) together with (2) the solid-state phase
transformations.18
The success of the existing ablation process tightly depends
on the chemical composition of the water-soluble binder.
The binder affects the process through its dissolution rate
in water during the process of washing. It should be noticed
that the storage and working with some of the binders,
including the phosphorite base ones, requires a high level
of safety.
Table 1. Chemical composition (wt%) of A413.0 Alloy used in this study along with the standard composition
Elements Si Mg
Actual Composition 11 0.11
Standard Composition 11.0–13.0 0.0–0.1
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Direct water spray (DWS) is a modified version of the
ablation process that aims at providing a situation where
the water is sprayed directly on the casting surface. The
significant advantage of the modified technique is to
overcome the need for a complicated and hazardous water-
soluble binder. Any variation in the binder’s chemical
composition affects the binder dissolution rate and, through
this on the casting mechanical properties. Intense dissolu-
tion advances the hot-casting touching by the water which
may deteriorate the surface finish.
The influence of alloy composition and freezing range has
not yet been studied. The investigation in the field has been
around the relatively long freezing range alloys, including
A356 aluminum alloy.1,3–5,8 and some steels.17,18
The main purpose of the present paper is to evaluate the
efficacy of a modified version of the ablation process,
which relies on the direct spraying of water as the coolant
on the preferred surface of a solidifying casting. The
solidification behavior, microstructural features, porosity
defects, and the as-solidified mechanical properties are to
be discussed.
Experimental Procedure
Materials
For each casting, 8.5 kg of commercial Aluminum A413
ingot were melted in an electrical resistance melting fur-
nace. The alloy standard and actual chemical composition
which were determined by Spark Emission Spectroscopy
(SES) are presented in Table 1.19 The melt heated up to
690 Æ C and degassed with Argon gas for 180 s. No
inoculant agent or protective flux was used. The melt is
poured at 680 °C at a mass rate of 0.8 kg/s, calculated by
measuring the pouring time. A K-type thermometer con-
trolled the pouring temperature. Throughout the paper, the
modified ablation casting (DWS) materials are referred to
as the ‘AC’ while the conventional sand-castings are called
‘SC’.
Pattern, Gating System and Molding
For the pattern (Figure 1), the plate geometry was selected
due to the low geometrical modulus for slow heat transfer
Fe Cu Mn Al
0.6 0.55 0.20 Bal.
0.0–1.3 0.0–1.0 0.0–0.35 Bal.
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Fig. 1. Schematic of the pattern and dimensions (in mm).
to provide minimum heat extraction during solidification.
The pattern contains three steps with different thicknesses
of 20, 30, and 40 mm to track the cooling rate effect.20
The running system was designed considering the critical
gate velocity principles.20,21 The unpressurised bottom
gating system with Sprue: Runner: Ingate ratio of 1:2:4 was
designed to control the surface turbulence and keep the
entrance velocity below the critical value of 0.5 m/s during
mold filling.22–25 The dimensions of the gating system are
presented in Figure 1. After the sprue, a filter was used to
avoid inclusions entering into the casting and decrease the
melt velocity24 (Figure 1).
The molding material was composed of Silica granules
with the Sodium Silicate (Na2SiO3) binder that was cured
by blowing CO2 gas for 2 min. The upper cope was
designed in a particular manner that enable easy removal of
the cap after complete filling of the vacancy and cortex
formation to make possible direct spraying of water on the
exposed casting surface. The EPS (Expanded Poly-Styr-
ene) pattern used to be burned out at the flame-pre-heating
stage. It is important that the caps fill the upper cope
vacancy completely. A minimum draft must be made to
ensure facilitate removal of the cap without damaging the
mold. Aluminum thin foils were used to separate the cap
from the mold with a 10-degree incline from each side to
out. This method helped the cap take the right shape and
also provides good contact with the upper cope walls, while
the cap sited on the mold to avoid molten metal penetra-
tion. Blowing the CO2 gas gives them enough strength,
then the sheets are removed and the cap set on the mold.
Figure 2 shows three positions of the AC mold: (a) the
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molding process finished and the cap located at the upper
cope, (b) the cap withdrawal after cortex layer formation,
(c) the water spraying on the cast surface.
Casting Simulation
The gating system’s efficiency has been validated by Pro-
CastÒ V.2019 commercial simulation software. The gating
system and solidification behavior were investigated by
analyzing the melt flow and solid fraction approach. The
mesh size, quantity of the meshes related to cast and mold,
IHTC and EHTC, pouring temperature, and other simula-
tion parameters have been assumed according to experi-
mental conditions presented in Table 2. The interfacial
heat transfer coefficient (IHTC) at the moldcasting inter-
face as a function of temperature is shown in Figure 3. The
value of IHTC is 300 W/m2K below 556 °C and 508 W/
m2K above 616 °C. Many parameters (such as mold dis-
solving rate) are involved in the Ablation casting process;
therefore, it is hard to determine relevant modules in the
software. Unfortunately, the ablation casting method was
introduced in 2009 and since then limited simulation works
was conducted to model ablation process. A recent simu-
lation activity is reported by Qingyou Han which clearly
shows that the simulation of the process is now develop-
ing.26 As a result, no ablation module is included in the
simulation software to be employed.
The multi-platform software called JMatProÒ has been
used only for the SC process to predict and analyze the
correlation between the cooling rate and the dendrite arm
spacing.
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Fig. 2. DWS process stages: (a) tightly fixed cap during the pouring, (b) air-gap release by the
withdrawal of the cap, (c) water spraying on the exposed surface of the casting, and (d) the location
of thermocouples.

Table 2. Initial and boundary conditions for sand-cast-

ing for the simulation

Process Values

pouring temperature (°C) 680

Filling time (s) 8
External heat transfer coefficient (EHTC) 10
(W/m2K)
Interfacial heat transfer coefficient (IHTC) As shown in
between casting and sand mold (W/m2K) Figure 3
Cast (A413) liquidus temperature (°C) 585
Initial temperature of sand (°C) 45
Environmental temperature (°C) 30
Fig. 3. Relationship between IHTC and temperature used
Cast Total Meshes–Mesh size (mm) 2000000–1 in modeling heat transfer at the metal/mold interface.
Mold (Silica Sand) temperature (°C) 120
Mold (Silica Sand) Total Meshes–Mesh 1000000–2 Cooling Curve Measurement
size (mm)
Cast (A413) Liquidus temperature (°C) 585 The Computer-Aided Thermal Analysis (CATA) method6
was used to track the conventional solidification path of the
alloy. The experimental path and simulation results were
used to identify the proper onset time of spraying. It was
taken into account the alloy’s chemical composition, pat-
tern geometry, and mold material. Four K-type OmegaTM
thermocouples with diameter of 1.5 mm are located in the

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mold. Figure 2 shows the locations of the thermocouples’
tips. Thermal data were acquisitioned at a frequency of
1 data/s. The related temperature–time (T–t) graphs
(cooling curve) and the associated first derivations were
plotted and analyzed.
DWS Ablation Casting
According to the previous research, water jets are neces-
sary to provide high pressure to wash the mold away. In
DWS method, the mold does not dissolve, and water can be
used even at low pressure only as a coolant medium. The
spraying nozzle was fixed at 1 m height above the mold to
cover the whole cast exposed surface during the spraying.
77 L water with 20 °C temperature sprayed continuously
with a flow rate of 0.7 L/s. Figure 4 schematically presents
the DWS process. The molding process is done at stage 1.
The mold cavity is filled with molten metal in stage 2.
While the mold is expanding, the liquid metallostatic
pressure is causing intimate contact to be preserved at the
mold/casting interface.27 Stage 3 shows the air-gap layer,
which develops, leading to a decrease in the heat transfer
coefficient (HTC).26,28 Over stages 1 to 3, the mentioned
process makes no difference with the conventional sand-
casting practice. At stage 4, as an exterior solid layer
(Cortex) covers the casting, the cap is withdrawn and
releases the air-gap. Immediately after that water is sprayed
on the casting bare surface. At stage 5, the solidification
front has reached the bulk of casting and at stage 6 the
Fig. 4. The schematic illustration of the process (1) molding stage, (2) filling stage,
(3) air-gap formation stage, (4) mold withdrawal stage, (5) direct water spraying
stage, and (6) end of solidification.
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solidification is completed. A flow diagram of the research
activities has been shown in the Figure 5.
Tests and Analysis
Microstructural Analysis
Samples were cut from the zone around the tip of the
thermocouples. The specimens were prepared for
microstructural study by grinding followed by polishing
and etching. An optical microscope took microstructural
images and image analysis software was used to analyze
the images.
The secondary dendrite arm spacing (SDAS) is calculated
by the linear intercept method, where the line is chosen to
intersect a series of well-defined secondary dendrite arms29
and measurement for each specimen carried out 50 times to
present an accurate average. Measurement of the dendrite
arm spacing (DAS), especially in the case of SC, is almost
impossible due to the relatively isotropic heat extraction.
Therefore, unlike the SDAS, the accuracy of measuring the
DAS is mainly depended on the probability of a capture in
the metallographically prepared surface.
Radiography Test
The casting soundness was examined using X-ray radiog-
raphy testing. The method resolution is limited and cannot
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Fig. 5. A flow diagram of the experimental plan.
Fig. 6. The location and direction of the tensile test
specimens.
be used for micro-shrinkage but it is a highly beneficial
technique to reveal the macro-shrinkage defects. The
acceptance standard is ASTM E155 (2015) and test method
standard was: ASME section, Article 2 and 22 and ASTM
E94 (2015). Film type was ‘‘kodak MX125’’ and X-ray
focus size was 2.5 9 2.5 mm. expose time was 0.3 s with
source strength of 170 Kv. The source distance to the film
was 80 cm and SWSI technique was used.
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Tensile Testing
A number of nine tensile test specimens were extracted
from each casting. Five of the specimens belongs to 40 mm
step, along the feeding direction shown in Figure 6. The
specimens were prepared according to the ASTM E8/E8M-
16a. Tensile testing was carried out with an Instron
1195-5500r machine at a cross-head speed of 1 mm/min.
SEM and EDS Analysis
The samples were studied by Scanning Electron Micro-
scopy (SEM) equipped with Energy Dispersive Spec-
troscopy (EDS) detector. The EDS point scan was carried
out three times per each point to reveal the intermetallic
phases in the microstructure to explain how the process
affects the mechanical responses through microstructural
changes. The same procedure was carried out on the
fracture surface of the tensile test specimens.
Results and Discussion
Simulation
The snapshots of solid fraction distribution during con-
ventional sand-casting (SC) were presented in Figure 7.
The contours of solid fraction are very narrow which is
reasonable as the alloy is short-freezing. A solid cortex
covers the surface after 70 s of mold filling and forms the
casting external surface. The solidification of the whole
casting is completed after 900 s.
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Fig. 7. Solid fraction distribution snapshots of the
conventional sand-casting. At t = 70 the solid cortex
covers the entire casting surface.
Experimental Thermal Analysis
The cooling and the corresponding first derivative (cooling
rate) curves, related to the SC and AC processes are shown
in Figure 7a and b, respectively. The reactions were iden-
tified by the thermal events which marked by numbers on
the first derivative plot. Considering the chemical compo-
sition of the alloy (11% Si) which is reported in Table 1
and from point 1 on the cooling rate curve, it is clear that
the alloy has a short-freezing range owing to a marginal
shift from the eutectic point i.e., 12.2% Si.
Evident in the graph in Figure 8a, point number 1 is related
to the first thermal arrest at 600 °C where the primary aAl
phase nucleates (L ? aAl). Point number 2 is where the
aAl growth is stopped.6,29. Point number 3 refers to the
onset of eutectic reaction L ? Al ? Si which after a
while, the nucleated eutectic micro-constituents grow and
spread throughout the structure.30 Point 4 refers to a peak
of a reaction responsible for finishing the solidification
process.31 According to Figure 8a and considering the
simulation results, the proper time for cap rise and spraying
the water should be somehow between 40 s (point 1) and
180 s (point 3).5 Point number 5 in Figure 8b shows the
onset of water spraying (70 s).
Figure 8 shows the T–t curves of both castings related to
the four embedded thermocouples. The conventional sand-
casting is solidified completely in approximately t = 900 s.
As the thickness increases, the cooling rate decreases, and
thus, the growth of aAl dendrites occurs at higher tem-
peratures (lower undercooling). According to the curve in
Figure 9a, the onset of L ? aAl reaction for the steps of
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Fig. 8. Central cooling and cooling rate curves for (a) SC
and (b) AC processes. The numbers 1 to 5 refer to the
onset of some reaction or thermal events during solid-
ification and 6 refers to water spray.
thickness 40 mm, 30 mm, 20 mm occurs, respectively, at
580 °C, 575 °C and 573 °C. Cooling rate among steps
which changed because of thickness variation and the liq-
uidus and solidus temperature (freezing range) which
remained constant independently of the casting process.
The only thing which is changed as a result is the solidi-
fication time which is decreased in AC due to geometrical
modulus. This affected the aAl dendrite growth tempera-
ture (corresponding to a local minimum or trough on the
cooling rate curve) more than the eutectic reaction
temperature.
Before proceeding further, it is necessary to define two
different terms used in the present work to interpret the
effect of solidification events on mechanical properties.
The two terms are the standard Cooling Rate (C.R.) which
is given by Eqn. (1).6
Te  Ta
C:R = Eqn: 1
te  ta
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Fig. 9. Cooling curves related to the four different locations within the (a) SC, (b) AC castings
where ‘‘Ta’’ and ‘‘ta’’ are the aAl dendrites growth
temperature and time, ‘‘Te’’ and ‘‘te’’ are the onset time
of eutectic growth.
In SC, the average cooling rate for 40 mm thickness is
0.056 °C/s and average cooling rate for the same step in the
AC is close to 0.2 °C/s. What should be noticed is the
lower cooling rate compared to what Campbell reported in
20091 in conventional ablation casting. The modified pro-
cess (DWS) has common stages with SC at early stages of
the solidification (before than water spray) and water was
sprayed directly on the casting free surface after 70 s which
shifted up the cooling rate up to 0.47 °C/s.
Replacing the water instead of the sand make the C.R
calculation a bit complicated. That needs to separate the
curves into two regains with different C.R:
Region (I) from the point 1 in Figure 8b to point 5
(from aAl growth to water spray points).
Region (II) from the point 5 in Figure 8b to point 3
(from water spraying to eutectic growth points).
Each region fracture calculating by Eqn. (2) and used it in
Eqn. (3) to give the AC’s actual cooling rate:
ts  ta
Xt = Eqn: 2
te  ta
C.RAC ¼ C.Ras þ C.Rð1  Xts Þ Eqn: 3
where ‘‘ts ’’ is stands for spraying time, ‘‘C.RAC ’’ is the
actual cooling rate in the AC, ‘‘C.Ras ’’ is the calculated
cooling rate on AC’s T–t curve from aAl dendrite growth
point to water spraying point and ‘‘C.Rse ’’ is the maximum
cooling rate created by water spray in the time range
between ts and te. Equation (3) explains that the actual
cooling rate in the AC process is a combination of before
and after the water spray situation.
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A new term is defined and used in the present work is the
eutectic-included cooling rate or Total Cooling Rate
(T.C.R.). The T.C.R is calculated by Eqn. (4) where ‘‘Tf’’
and ‘‘tf’’ are, respectively, the non-equilibrium solidus
temperature and time. The new term is schematically
shown in Figure 10a.
T f  Ta
T.C.R ¼ Eqn: 4
tf  ta
Figure 10b seems to reveal a disagreement with Chorinov
equation in AC. According to the Chorinov law (Eqn. 5)
the total solidification time, ‘‘tc’’ is given by:
 m
V
tc ¼ B Eqn: 5
A
where ‘‘B’’ is the mold constant, ‘‘V’’ is the casting volume,
‘‘A’’ is the surface area, and ‘‘m’’ is a constant (has been
taken 2 in Chorinov’s work). The (V/A) ratio is known as
the casting geometrical modulus and is assumed to have a
direct relation with the solidification rate.24
From Figure 10b In SC samples, according to the Chorinov
law, it was expected that by decreasing the thickness, the
cooling rate increases. The experience data proves the
effect of geometrical modules on decreasing of both C.R
and T.C.R in SC which has been proved by previous
researches.32–35 On the other hand, replacing the cap with
coolant (water) in AC changed the ‘‘B’’ constant value
during the solidification process in Eqn. (5). The Chorinov
law should not use in comparison between the AC and SC,
because the high thermal gradient arising from water spray
in AC dominates on solidification process more than geo-
metrical modules. Therefore, using the Chorinov law is
challenging for estimating the solidification time at the AC
process and recommended not to use.
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Fig. 10. (a) The cooling rate and total cooling rate shown on the T–t curve of the solidifying alloy. (b) C.R and T.C.R
values related to different steps in the AC and SC casting sections.

It is essential to note that the T.C.R changes are much more
significant than C.R, which shows the shorter eutectic
arrest in AC. Higher T.C.R proves the eutectic reaction
shortening has participated in improving the mechanical
properties, and SDAS is not the only effective factor.
Radiography
Figure 11 shows the radiographs of the castings. As
revealed, no macro-shrinkage or major discontinuity exists
in the castings. The encircled region is referring to the
location of the tip of the thermocouples.
Microstructural Analysis
The 40 mm-step is the thickest section of the casting, and
as it is anticipated and the simulation results are shown in
Figure 7, it solidifies later during casting. Thus, the AC
effect can be observed best by close examination of this
section. It should be reminded that the AC process merely
affects the remaining liquid that is yet to be solidified.
Hence, the liquid fraction is a key factor for successful
ablation processing.
Primary aAl Dendrite

Figure 12a and b show the typical dendritic structures of

the SC and AC samples exactly below the central

Fig. 11. X-Ray Radiographs of a SC and b AC castings showing no sign of macro-

porosity, inclusion, or other major defects. (color figure online).

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Fig. 12. Orientation of the dendrite in the microstructure of 40mm-step specimens. (a) Image of SC
microstructure and (c) the schematic counterpart. (b) Image of the AC microstructure and (d) the
schematic counterpart.

thermocouple tip, respectively. Figure 12c and d show the

schematic representations of the dendritic structures.

The SC sample shows a random-direction dendritic struc-

ture, while the dendrites in AC counterpart are rather ori-
ented due to the exposition of the higher heat extraction
rate.36 The heat transfer rate controls the DAS and SDAS
size; the higher is the heat extraction rate, the finer is the
SDAS.37,38 The average AC-SDAS is 32 lm, 47% finer
than the SC-SDAS (68 lm). Sebaie et al. reported the same
reduction in the SDAS size from 120 to 40 lm by
increasing the cooling rate.39 The quantitative metallogra-
phy results demonstrated in Figure 13. The differences in
the SDAS, eutectic micro-constituents, iron-bearing inter-
metallic, and micro-porosity size in both casting types.

According to Figure 14, the calculated SC-DAS at cooling

rate of 0.05 °C/s is 150 ± 1 lm compared to
100 ± 1 lm s the AC-DAS value at the cooling rate of
0.2 °C/s. The measured data from the 40 mm-step high-
lights the average SC-DAS is in agreement with
158 ± 1 lm, predicted by JMatProÒ, but the predicted
DAS value at the cooling rate of 0.2 °C/s is around 95 lm
which is significantly larger than 68 ± 1 lm, the measured
average DAS value in the ablation samples. The convective
heat transfer effect may explain the disagreement with the
calculated results. The water spraying exposes a sizeable
thermal gradient to the part that solidifying with a rela-
tively slow cooling during the SC process. The rather steep
thermal gradient can cause intense convection in the
remaining melt. As a result, initially, some of the dendrites
Fig. 13. The quantitative metallography results on the
size of the microstructural elements.
at the solidification front may break or deform due to the
convention-induced shear stresses.40
Eutectic Micro-constituents
Higher cooling rate and functionally the finer SDAS are
responsible for the refinement of subsequent eutectic
microstructure. The finer the SDAS, the smaller the inter-
dendritic volume available for the growth. In an extreme

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Fig. 14. The plot of dendrite arm spacing (DAS) of the AlSi11 alloy against initial
cooling rate, calculated and plotted by JMatProÒ Package.
conditions, i.e., shallow SDAS values, the capillary
undercooling is no longer negligible, and as a result, the
secondary phases can evolve even finer.41 According to the
metallography statics, the distance between eutectic Si
layers decreases from 5 to 1 lm by AC process. Similar
findings reported by the prior arts.1,3,5,7
These separated eutectic layers are entrapped between the
dendrite’s secondary arms and grow more extensive than
the eutectic layers in other zones. The increase in the length
of Si particle from 8 lm in SC to 43 lm in AC counterpart
is reported in Figure 13. These particles are not primary Si
and belong to the eutectic reaction formed from the silicon-
rich liquid segregated to the inter-dendritic areas that
solidify in a divorced manner with the primary aAl phase
as the other phase in the eutectic.42
Comparing the 40 mm-step microstructure SEM images of
AC (Figure 16) and SC (Figure 15) samples reveal that low
growth velocity in the local areas of AC cause to observe
the changes in morphologies. Several additional features
are worthy of note:
1. SDAS size reduced to 32 lm (47% finer). Other
micro-constituents such as silicon particles,
micro-pores, and iron-bearing phases were found
finer in the AC with a more uniform distribution.
2. The p iron-bearing phase changed to b morphol-
ogy in AC samples because of: 1. applying a
higher cooling rate and preventing further Fe
diffusion. 2. Because of Mn concentrations, the
Chinese scripts seem to be primarily precipitated
and embedded within the dendrites.10 The finer
iron-bearing phase could be of lower negative
effect on tensile properties.43
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3. The SEM images of the SC specimen observe
that most of the CuAl2 and Si particles are
aligned along the b-phase platelets, suggesting
that the b-phase platelets can favor the formation
of Si and CuAl2 particles.44
Porosity
The average diameter of the micro-pores was reduced from
50 lm in the SC to 8 lm in the AC samples. Figure 18
shows the polished surface of the SC and AC samples
under optical and SEM microscopes. The micro-shrinkage
average diameter is 50 lm in the SC samples with 0.13 as
the surface fraction in the 2D analysis. It is reduced by the
AC process down to 8 lm with only 0.04 in the surface
fraction 2D analysis. The micro-pores occur at the last
stage of solidification when the feeding channels get
blocked at a high solid fraction.43 It is highly accepted that
the faster the cooling rate, the better the mechanical
properties due to more efficient liquid feeding.45 Porosities
are nucleated on the heterogeneities like inclusions, inter-
metallic, and most importantly double-oxide bifilms and
then grown by either gas diffusion or continual hydrostatic
negative pressure on the liquid due to lack of feeding.36
Processing parameters such as iron content and cooling rate
may control porosity formation by interfering with creating
iron-bearing intermetallic and readily opening of the
crumpled bifilms, respectively.47
In the AC case, the low content of micro-pores proves that
the ablation process reduces the porosity content (which
are of dual gas-shrinkage character) by applying a high
cooling rate which prevents the dissolved gases, like
hydrogen from escaping out from the solution to grow the
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Fig. 15. SEM images related to the SC sample from the 40mm-step near the central thermocouple
tip.

Fig. 16. SEM images related to the AC sample from the 40mm-step near the central thermocouple
tip.

nucleated pores.34 The negative pressure on the remaining
liquid in which the pores nucleate is decreased due to the
refinement of the b-Al5FeSi intermetallic platelets, which
otherwise restrict the liquid metal-feeding and thereby
increase the negative pressure. It is noteworthy that the b-
Al5FeSi is a highly efficient nucleant for gas pore nucle-
ation.44 As a result, when they are refined the nucleate
surface is reduced and therefore, the gas remains dissolved
and only a few pores nucleate.
The micro-pore size is affected by the high cooling rate in
the same way and via refinement of dendritic structure
(dendrite arms spacing).46 According to Campbell, when
the localized liquid pockets at the end of solidification are
smaller (here due to refined dendritic structure due to the

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Fig. 17. Micro-porosities signs on the polished surface of (a) Optic Image of SC Sample. (b) SEM
Image of SC sample. (c) Optic Image of AC sample. (d) SEM Image of AC sample.

Table 3. Average mechanical properties of AC and SC samples tensile test

Process SC AC
step thickness (mm) 20 30 40 20 30 40

Yield strength (Mpa) 106 ? 5 105 ± 8 100 ± 6 108 ± 5 112 ± 6 111 ± 3

Ultimate strength (Mpa) 158 ± 3 150 ± 6 139 ± 10 159 ± 5 160 ± 5 159 ± 5
Elongation (%) 2.6 ± 0.2 2.3 ± 0.2 1.8 ± 0.4 5 ± 0.1 5.3 ± 0.04 5.06 ± 0.05

higher cooling rate), the chance of the liquid pockets being
contained of bifilms is highly reduced, and therefore, no
pore is nucleated in the bifilm-free liquid pockets.48
Figure 17 shows the SEM images of both SC (b) and AC
(d) microstructure associated with the optical images
shown in Figure 17 a and c. The dendrites and the inter-
dendritic micro-pores are visible in the SC samples and are
much bigger than what is visible in the AC sample.
Mechanical Tensile Strength
The mechanical properties of the extracted tensile samples
from different steps and processes are presented in Table 3.
It has found that there is no significant change in yield
stress. Variation of the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is
presented in Figure 18. The UTS of the AC material is
almost thickness-independent and is always higher than
that of the SC material in different sections. Kou suggested
that the tensile strength could be somehow described by
porosity content.46 Considering the solidification history of
the AC samples, the superior UTS point can be related to
the higher imposed cooling rate, which, as discussed in the

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Fig. 18. Ultimate tensile strength of the AC- and SC-
processed alloys.
previous section, significantly affects either porosity con-
tent, size, or morphology.35 A higher cooling rate experi-
enced in the bulk of the thinner sections leads to finer
SDAS, improving the mechanical properties.33,49 During
the ablation, water spraying nullifies the effect of the
geometric modulus, thereby increasing the UTS from an
average of 146 MPa in the SC material to 160 MPa in the
AC counterparts (Table 3).
Among the AC steps, the 20 mm-step had the lowest UTS,
while the same step provides the highest UTS value by the
SC process. This may be related to heat transfer over a
relatively shorter distance (20 mm) from this step. Addi-
tionally, the step has one additional mold/cast interface
compared to the other steps, causing a significantly higher
cooling rate and solidification rates experienced by the step
during the SC process. As such, the effect of the intense
heat extraction by the water spraying during the AC pro-
cess is less significant in this step when compared to
30 mm- and 40 mm-steps.
According to Figure 19, the elongation percentage of the
SC material decreases by increasing the section thickness.
There is a reverse relation between SDAS and elongation
percentage.45,49 In the AC material, the difference in the
elongation of the various steps is not significant, indicating
the homogeneous structure throughout the casting with a
lower porosity content. Kou reported that the better elon-
gation is supported by a lower porosity content.46
Part of the improvement in the UTS and increase in the
elongation of the AC specimens, compared to the SC
counterparts might be due to the presence of hydrogen in
the alloy. When experiencing a higher cooling rate during
the AC process, the dissolved atomic hydrogen would be of
less chance to diffuse out into the nucleated porosities and
therefore, remains dissolved in the solution. As a result, it
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Fig. 19. The elongation percentage during the tensile
test on the AC and SC materials at different sections.
no longer plays a role in the porosity formation but may
embrittle the solidified hydrogen-contained aluminum
through the hydrogen embrittlement mechanism.50–53
Hydrogen usually marginally improves the yield and ten-
sile strength but significantly reduces the aluminum alloys’
ductility.54
The fractography of the SC material revealed a cleavage
fracture mechanism which is observed in Figure 20. When
the concentrated stress reaches a threshold at the tip of a
pre-crack, it propagates it along with the interface of the
aAl primary phase (matrix) and silicon particles, creating a
cleavage fracture surface.
As observed in Fig 20, the fracture is a mixture of brittle
and ductile fracture. Considering the EDS analysis, it can
be deduced that ductile regions on the fracture surface are
related to the fracture of the primary aAl phase, while the
brittle cleavage-like morphologies are formed as a result of
the breakage of the iron-bearing intermetallic. A possible
propagation path is shown in Figure 20a and b shows the
Fe-bearing particles.
The crack initiator can be an inclusion, specially a bifilm or
a porosity.55 While the mentioned initiators are required to
be considered as the main initiators in single-phase alloys,
in the case of multi-phase alloys, such as the A413 alloy,
the role of the interphase interface as another crack initiator
becomes significant. Typically, one of the phases is less
ductile than the other, so the response to an applied stress/
strain will be different. The applied stress causes the
interface to disrupt, and through this, the crack(s) is initi-
ated. Further stress/strain will propagate the crack to cause
the fracture. According to the Figure 20a, the application
of the stress/strain during the tensile test, yields the aAl
phase, causing it to be elongated. The secondary phase in
contact with the aAl phase, i.e., either eutectic Si or Fe-
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Fig. 20. (a) Crack propagation paths on the fracture surface of the SC tensile test specimen; (b) the
EDS analysis of the different microstructural features revealed on the fracture surface.
bearing intermetallic are of lower ductility, and thus they
readily fracture, or in case the interphase interface energy
is not high enough, the disruption at the interface occurs.
Further elongation is concentrated on the aAl bridges and
proceeds the aAl phase to final ductile fracture by devel-
oping the characteristic dimples or cup and cone mor-
phologies. It is evident that the interphase interface is part
of the crack propagation path. Here, it is the aAl phase
which is disrupted at the latest moment before the crack
becomes open and complete fracture takes place.
It should be noted that the primary aAl phase and the aAl
in the eutectic micro-constituents are interconnected.30,56
According to the above discussion, the higher elongation of
the AC material compared to the SC counterpart is partially
because of the higher bridging chance of the aAl den-
drites/grain to the dendrites of the grains in their neigh-
borhood. The higher the bridging events of the ductile
phase, the higher ductility of the material.
Conclusion
A modification of the ablation casting is introduced as the
direct water spray (DWS) process which relies on mold
removal instead of mold washing and different aspects of
its advantages in enhancing the tensile properties of the
near eutectic Al-Si alloy is reported and discussed. The
ablation process is highly effective in nullifying the effect
of geometrical modulus of casting on the tensile properties
and as such a rather uniform microstructure and tensile
properties can be achieved, independently of the thickness
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of the section. This version of ablation casting overcome
the need for water-soluble binders in the known ablation
process.
From the experimental results and the discussions above
the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. The DWS process can be introduced as an
efficient casting practice that enables improve-
ment in the tensile strength and ductility through
either microstructural changes or interference
with defect formation mechanism. It refines the
primary aAl phase and modifies the secondary
phases and reduces the time for diffusion of
atomic hydrogen to form the porosities.
2. The DWS process provides finer structure with
the aluminum alloy A413 through reducing the
SDAS and the b Fe-bearing phase size, respec-
tively, from 68 and 160 lm in the conventional
sand-castings to nearly 32 lm (more than 50%)
and 80 lm.
3. The percentage of micro-pores reduced from 13%
in the conventional sand-casting with 50 lm
down to 4% with 8 lm by applying the modified
ablation casting process.
4. The modified ablation process can enhance
tensile strength of the alloy A413 from
135–155 MPa to 158–170 MPa and elongation
percentage from 1.5–2.5% to 4.8–5.3%.
5. According to Chorinov’s rule, in the case of
conventional casting the tensile strength relies on
the casting section thickness due to the lower
cooling rate experienced in the bulk of the thicker
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sections. By the modified ablation casting pro-
cess, the tensile test from the specimens cut from
sections of different thickness provides the same
results, approximately.
6. The thicker steps cast by the DWS process shows
more significant enhancement in tensile strength.
This can be related to either the larger T.C.R.
(total cooling rate), i.e., by refining the eutectic
morphologies, or the higher liquid fraction at the
time of water spraying in the thicker parts. The
modified ablation casting is designed so as to
solidify the remaining liquid with a higher
cooling rate.
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