Example 5-1 Consider the following system: YQ) ztt U(z) 27 +132 +04 ‘The state-space representations in the controllable canonical form, observable canon- ical form, and diagonal canonical form become as follows: CONTROLLABLE CANONICAL FORM: Tnk+y]_f 0 1 Txt), fo [tk + 2] - [2 -1 23] * [S}.a = alk) vk) = [1 fe] OBSERVABLE CANONICAL FORM: x(k +1] fo -04] xa], [1] [nt + | - [° “1 s[28)] * [ca ye =10 1120] DIAGONAL CANONICAL FORM: ‘The given pulse transfer function ¥(zV/U(z) ean be expanded as follows: Ye) _ 53-23 Ua) 2405 2+08 Hence, (k+H]_[-05 0 Vfxue], fa [tt + a]-[ 0-0 8] * [tee =[i —2] eo neo =[3 [x2] Example 5-2 Obtain the state transition matrix of the following discrete-time system: x(k + 1) = Gx(k) + Hu(k) y(k) = Cx(k) where o-[8 J} aL] eno Then obtain the state x(k) and the output y(k) when the input u(k) = 1 for k = 0,1, 2, Assume that the initial state is given by =) OP) 1 r0- 9)From Equations (5~35) and (5-43) the state trensition matrix (Kk) is Wk) = GE = 2~[(21 - Gz] Therefore, we first obtain (21 ~ G)': aafz ay" (t- [vie a zt 1 _|@ FONG r08) ]FODE TOS) ~0.16 z EFIAE FO CHOHEFOH, 4 4 208 2402 3H 240 ~)_= yH02 2408 240: ‘The state transition matrix ‘W(E) is now obtained as follows: W(k) = G* (zl - G)*z] 4_2_ dig 3z+02 32+08 08 oz Bo 37402 32408 $(-0.2)* - 4(-0.8)* 43(-0.2)' — $(-0 92-02) + BR(-08)" 4-02)" + $(-08)8 Equation (5-45) gives the state transition matrix. Next, compute x(k). The z transform of x(k) is given by Z [x(k)] = X(z) = (21 = G)"'2x(0) + (1 - G) HUG) = (21 - G)"fzx(0) + HU(2)] Since U(z) we obtain zx(0) + HU(2) = [- Hence X(z) = (21 ~ G)'[ex(0) + HU(e)] (+22 ] GF0DE +0 -H (2 + 1.842) @+0NE+0NE-D“Bz Bz _|z+0a*z+08 Mz, =e wz z+02 2+08 Thus, the state vector x(k) is given by = 2-09) + B09 + # HEED = | sao ny ya(-08) + i Finally, the output y(k) is obtained as follows ~B(-0 2) + B(-0.8) + % J(k) = Cx(k) = (1 0] 24(-0.2)* — 38(-0.8)' + 4 = 8b. + B08) + Example 5-3 Determine the inverse of the matrix (21 ~ G), where 01 01 0 =|03 -01 -02 0 0 -03. Also, obtain G* From Equation (5-46), we have adj (zt - G) \aI-G Although the determinant [21 ~ G{ can be expanded easily, here for demonstration purposes let us use Equation (5-50) to compute a, az, and a First, notice that (1-6 o 0 ~03 Then, from Equation (5-49), we obtain oL o1 0 030 0 =G+al=/03 -01 -02/+/0 03 0 01 O1 0 a= -wG=-t/03 -01 -02/=03 0 0 -03} [o o 03 o4 O1 0 =|03 02 -02 a) Hence 4 [fox 01 0 fos 01 0 a, = -{tGH,=-tr}/03 -01 -02/]03 02 -02 [lo 0 -o3f0 0 0 007 003 -O =-ttr]009 001 0 0 o 0By substituting the matrix H, and the value of a; just obtained into Equation (549), we get 003 003 -002 GH, +a:1=|009 -0.03 0.02 0 0-004 and 001220 0 a= ~-}tGH.=—-}tr/0 0012 0 0 0 oi Notice that Hy = GH, ~ 0.0121 = 0 The adjoint of (21 ~ G) can now be given by Equation (5~48), or adj(zI - G) = Iz? + Hyz + Hy 100 04 01 0 003 0.03 -0.02 =]0 1 0f%+/03 02 -02/z+|0.09 -0.03 0.02 oo1 en) 0 0 ~0.04 2+ 0.42 + 0.03 0.12 + 0.03 0.02 = | 0.32 + 0.09 2 +02z-003 —0.22 + 0.02 ° 0 004 Also, fel G]= 274 a2? + az + a = 2 + 0.32" ~ 0.042 - 0.012 = (z+ 0.22 -0.2)(z + 0.3) Hence, ~ gy = adiG@I- 6) (Al 6)" = ay z+01 ot @¥0Iz=02) E002) (+0E-0DE FO 0.3 z-01 =0.2(z ~ 0.1) (2+0.2)(2-02) (2 +0.2)(2-02) (2 022-02) +03) 0 0 1 z+03 This last equation gives the inverse of (21 - G) ‘Next, we shall obtain G* From Equation (5-43), we have Gi = Ze ~ GY"z] 0.252 , 0.752 __0.252 z+02 z+02 =o] 0.752, 0.752 - 2402 2402 0 00.25(—0 2) + 0.75(0 2)" -0.25(-0.2)' + 0.25(0.2)* 0.75(-0.2)' + 0750.2)" — 0.75(-0.2)* + 0.25(0.2)* 0 0 0.5(-0.2)* ~ 0100.2)! - 0.4(-0.3" =1,5(-0.2)* 0.10.2)" + 1 6(-0.3)* (-0.3)* Example 5-4 Consider the continuous-time system given by Yo) od SO) G6) “Sa Obtain the continuous-time state-space representation of the system. Then discretize the state equation and output equation and obtain the discrete-time state-space repre~ sentation of the system. Also, obtain the pulse transfer function for the system by using Equation (5-60). ‘The continuous-time state-space representation of the system is simply tena tu yur Now we discretize the state equation and the output equation. Referring to Equations (5-73) and (5-74), we have Gn =e" H(T) = [lena = Hence, the discretized version of the system equations is 1 x(k +1) ¥(k) = x(k) Referring to Equation (5~60), the pulse transfer function for this system is F(z) = Cl - GH =@ee Gne a aa z=) This result, of course, agrees with the z transform of G(s) where it is preceded by a sampler and zero-order hold [that is, where the signal u(t) is sampled and fed to a zero-order hold before being applied to G(s)]:Example 5-5 Obtain the discrete-time state and output equations and the pulse transfer function (when the sampling period T = 1) of the following continuous-time system: ~%6) 4 CO) = TG) = Gea which may be represented in state space by the equations [Ch The desired discrete-time state equation will have the form x((k + 1)T) = G(T)x(KT) + HT) (AT) where matrices G(T) and H(7) are obtained from Equations (5-73) and (5-74) as follows: ain=er=[} 40 6] e wn (Levan {f]s 22a] - ‘Thus, r fuck + 07)] “yx 1 [aa enn} Lo .(4T)] * |? ‘The ouput equation becomes : (kT) * [1 ost? ‘When the sampling period is 1 sec, or J = 1, the discrete-time state equation and the output equation become, respectively, i(k +1)] [1 0.4323][x¢k)] , [02838 [: k + 3] * [; 0 B28) * [3 zo woo and‘The pulse-transfer-function representation of this system can be obtained from Equa- tion (5-60), as follows: F(z) = C(zl ~ GH + D ott of? 3 0.4323, | [3333] +0 2-0 1353 0.4323 a 043 2-1 @~ HG - C1355} [0 2838 “pg 0 1 0.4323 | 701353 8382 + 0.1485 = Iz = 0.1353) = 0.283827! + 0.14852 = eq = 0135327) Note that the same pulse transfer function can be obtained by taking the z transform of G(s) when it is preceded by a sampler and zero-order hold Assuming T = 1, we obtain c@ | _ 0.283827! + 0.1485: “= 2 )(1 = 0.13:Example 5-6 Consider the system discussed in Example 5-5. Obtain the discrete-time state equation and the output equation at = kT + AT’ Also, obtain the specific expressions for the state equation and output equation when T = 1 sec and AT = 0.5 sec In Example 5-5, the matrices G(T) and H(T) were obtained as follows: To obtain the state equation and the output equation at ¢ = kT + AT, where 0< AP Fe) = 227 coswh +2 Note that the pulse transfer function obiained in this way is the same as that obtained by taking the z transform of the system that is preceded by a zero-order hold. That is, ¥@) fine? ow |g yel} Ue) [ 3 7, (ne nel! = -riita (L= coswT)(1 + 2")2 “Y= 22 cos wT + 2 ‘Thus, we get the same expression for the pulse transfer function. The reason for this is that discretization in the state space yields the zero-order hold equivalent of the continuous-time system Problem A-5-16 Even though the double-integrator system is dynamically simple, it represents an important class of systems. An example of double-integrator systems is a satellite attitude control system, which can be described by Jésurty where J is the moment of inertia, is the attitude angle, u is the control torque, and vis the disturbance torque. Consider the double-integrator system in the absence of disturbance input. Define J@ = y. Then the system equation becomes peu Obtain a continuous-time state-space representation of the system. Then obtain a discrete-time equivalent. Also obtain the pulse transfer function for the discrete-time systemSolution Define uy may Then the continuous-time state equation and output equation become H) 2) 0 Tix 0 [2)-[ ole} - a yet of The discrete-time equivalent of this system can be given by x(k + 1)T) = Gx(kT) + Hu(kT) ¥(KT) = Cx(kT) Matrices G and H are obtained from Equations (5-73) and (5-74). Noting that he “Rd r-(Coabo((C abl Hence, the discrete-time state equation and output sean become ak +00] [1 TI nen 7 [Gt pp =lo iffnan|*|- "4? yQkT) = [1 af | The pulse transfer function of the discrete-time system is obtained from Equation (5-60) as follows: we have and ¥@) _ UG) = F(z) = C@l-G)"H+DProblem A-5-17 Show that the following quadratic form is positive definite: V(x) = 10st + dx} tx} + eres — Deets ~ des Solution The quadratic form V(x) can be written as follows: 101 -2]fx VQ) =x7Px = [xy ot el) Lo 4 -1]lae -2 -10 1x5 Applying Sylvester's criterion, we obtain | wo 1 2 10>0, ” i>o. 1 4 -1)>0 2 1 1 Since all the successive principal minors of the matrix P are positive, V(x) is positive definite. Problem A-S-22 Consider the system defined by the equations alk +1) = Qni(k) + 0.Sxx(k) - 5 alk +1) = 08r(k) +2 Determine the stability of the equilibrium state, Solution Define the equilibrium state as 2K) = they (Kk) = te ‘Then such an equilibrium state can be determined from the following two simultaneous ‘equations: Bie = Dy + O.5tae = 5 Ja = O8ty +2 or The equilibrium state is thus (0, 10) Now let us consider a new coordinate system with the origin at the equilibrium. state Define 4k) = i(k) 24K) = x(k) - 10 ‘Then the system equations become Ak +1) = 28K) + 0 S[EA{k) + 10] - 5 x(k + 1) +10 = 0 8L8(K) + 10] +2 (ees ]-[6 S38] orTo determine the stability of the crigin of the system in the new coordinate system, let us apply the Liapunov stability equation given by Equation (5-90): 2.0 lpu pelf2 05]_[pu pe] __[9 0 0s oslo pal 0 08 Pir Px. 0 0.35 where we choose Q to be a positive definite matrix having elements that simplify the computation involved Solving this last equation for matrix P, we obtain P= [er Pel . [73 5] Px pn} | 5 10] By applying the Sylvester criterion for positive definiteness, we find that matrix Pis not positive definite. Therefore, the origin (equilibrium state) is not stable. The instability of the equilibrium state can, of course, be determined by the z transform approach. Let us first eliminate 22 from the state equation. Then we have i(k + 2) ~ 28E(k + 1) + 16(k) = 0 ‘The characteristic equation for the system in the z plane is F-282+1650 or (2 ~ 2z ~ 0.8) = 0 Hence, 2=08 Since pole z = 2is located outside the unit circle in the z plane, the origin (equilibrium state) is unstable