Coins as Historical Sources:

Policy, Crisis and Reform in the Coinage of the Roman Empire

Title of the course

HIST7116: Coins as Historical Sources: Policy, Crisis and Reform in the Coinage of the
Roman Empire

Type of course: undergraduate half unit (for second- and final-year students)

Name of main teacher: Dr. Dario Calomino

Course description: This course presents multiple ways of using coins as a historical source;
adopting a thematic and comparative approach, it offers the possibility of exploring the
potentialities of numismatic evidence to investigate and comprehend various features of
economic, political and social history of the Roman Empire. It has been conceived as a
combination of theoretical and practical sessions; in each of the three principal sections of the
course a classroom-based seminar (or seminars) is followed up by a meeting at the Study
Room of the British Museum Department of Coins and Medals, where students have the
opportunity to experience the practical application of the theoretical concepts by handling
ancient coins from the Museum Collection.

The course comprises three parts.

A. Weeks 1-2: A preliminary basic introduction to classical numismatics focuses on use,
function, value, fabric and design of coins (4 hrs).
B. Weeks 3-5: The second part of the course examines essential concepts of monetary
economy, such as intrinsic value of currency in different metals, prices and cost of living,
inflation, devaluation, crisis and reform, within the historical framework of the Roman
Empire but with a comparative view to similar aspects and problems in modern society (6
hrs). Adopting a chronological approach, these sessions span from the Augustan Age to the
4th century AD, marking crucial stages in the evolution of the Roman monetary system.
C. Weeks 6-10: The third part of the course hinges on showing how coin issues reflect
multiple aspects of social, political and cultural life in ancient Rome and in the provinces (10
hrs). These sessions especially aim to explore the unlimited potential of coins to convey
messages of public relevance with incomparable forcefulness, helping to enhance our
comprehension of the mechanisms of power and of mass communication in the Roman
world. Among major themes to be discussed, special interest focuses on the use of coin
 images and legends as a formidable tool of political propaganda by the emperors and, on the
other hand, as a privileged resource for cities and peoples of the Empire to express their
cultural identity.

Aims and Objectives: The aim of the course is to introduce students to the use of coins as a
historical source in association with other materials, such as epigraphic and literary sources.

Learning Outcomes: The students will learn the fundamental skills for the handling and
interpretation of numismatic material to inform multiple aspects of economic, social and
political history.

Class/Seminar Topics:
Part A:
1. Introduction to Ancient Numismatics (week 1)
Coinage in the Greco-Roman World (2 hrs)
2. Approaching Ancient Coins (week 2)
Practical Session at the Study Room of the British Museum - Department of Coins and
Medals (2 hrs)
Part B:
3. Economy, Crisis and Reforms in the Coinage of the Roman Empire (weeks 3-4)
a) Gold, Silver and Bronze: the "Augustan Revolution" (2 hrs)
b) Prices and Inflation: Caracalla, Diocletian and the Crisis of the Empire (2 hrs)
4. Imperial Currency and Mints (week 5)
Practical Session at the Study Room of the British Museum - Department of Coins and
Medals (2 hrs)
Part C:
5. Policy and Ideology on Roman Coinage (weeks 6-9)
a) Coinage and Authority: Emperors and Usurpers (2 hrs)
b) The Administration of Power (2 hrs)
c) Coinage in the Provinces: the Empire and the Cities (2 hrs)
d) From Triumph to Disgrace: Imperial Cult, Deification and Damnatio Memoriae
(2 hrs)
6. “More than money”. Use and re-use of coins (Week 10)
Practical Session at the Study Room of the British Museum - Department of Coins and
Medals (2 hrs)

Select General Bibliography:

A. Burnett, Coinage in the Roman World, London 1987
J. Callu, La Politique Monétaire des Empereurs Romains de 238 à 311, Paris 1969
J. Casey, Understanding Ancient Coins. An Introduction for Archaeologists and Historians,
London 1986
M.H. Crawford, ‘Money and Exchange in the Roman World’, in Journal of Roman Studies
60, 1970, pp. 40-48
M.H. Crawford, Coinage and Money under the Roman Empire: Italy and the Mediterranean
Economy, London 1985
R. Duncan-Jones, Money and Government in the Roman Empire, Cambridge 1994
P. Grierson, Numismatics, Oxford 1975.
K.W. Harl, Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, Baltimore 1996
W.V. Harris (ed.), The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans, Oxford 2008
K. Hopkins, ‘Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire: 200 B.C.-A.D. 400’, in Journal of
Roman Studies 70, 1980, pp. 101-125
C. Howgego, ‘Why did Ancient states strike coins?’, in Numismatic Chronicle 150, 1990, pp.
1-25
C. Howgego, ‘The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300’, in
Journal of Roman Studies 82, 1992, pp. 1-31
C. Howgego, ‘Coin Circulation and the Integration of the Roman Economy’, in Journal of
Roman Archaeology 7, 1994, pp. 5-21.
C. Howgego, Ancient history from coins, London 1995
C. Howgego, V. Heuchert, A. Burnett (eds.), Coinage and Identity in the Roman Provinces,
Oxford 2005
A. Lintott, Imperium Romanum: Politics and Administration, London-New York 1993
E. Lo Cascio, ‘State and Coinage in the Late Republic and Early Empire’, in Journal of
Roman Studies 71, 1981, pp. 76-86
W.E. Metcalf (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage, Oxford-New York
2012
M. Paul, M. Ierardi, Roman Coins and Public Life under the Empire. E. Togo Salmon Papers
II, Ann Arbor 1999
M.J. Price, B.L. Trell, Coins and their Cities. Architecture on the Ancient Coins of Greece,
Rome and Palestine, London 1977
R. Reece, Roman Coins, London 1970
R. Reece, Coinage in Roman Britain, London 1987
R. Reece, Roman Coins and Archaeology. Collected Papers, Wetteren 2003
W. Scheidel, I. Morris, R. Saller, The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman
World, Cambridge 2007
S. Von Reden, Money in Classical Antiquity, Cambridge 2010.

Collections from which primary sources will be drawn:

LRBC = R. A. G. Carson, P. V. Hill, J. P. C. Kent, Late Roman Bronze Coinage, 324-498 A.
D., London 1965
RIC = The Roman Imperial Coinage, voll. I-X, London 1923-1994
RPC I = A. Burnett, M. Amandry, P.P. Ripollès, Roman Provincial Coinage I. From the
Death of Caesar to the Death of Vitellius (44 BC – AD 69), Voll. I-II, London-Paris 1992
RPC II = A. Burnett, M. Amandry, I. Carradice, Roman Provincial Coinage II. From
Vespasian to Domitian (AD 69 –96), Voll. I-II, London-Paris 1999
RPC IV = C.J. Howgego, V. Heuchert, Roman Provincial Coinage IV. The Antonines,
http://rpc.ashmus.ox.ac.uk.
RPC VII = M. Spoerri Butcher, Roman Provincial Coinage VII: de Gordien Ier à Gordien III
(238-244 après J.-C.), 1. Province d'Asie, Paris-London 2006
RRC = M. Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage, Cambridge 1974

Week 1. Coinage in the Greco-Roman World

This is an introductory session to explain the multiple functions and uses of coinage in the
ancient world, from the economic, political and socio-cultural point of view. It introduces
basic elements of theoretical numismatics, such as the definition of ‘coin’ and ‘money’, the
concept of legal tender and the difference between intrinsic and face value, with a
comparative view to modern economy. The lesson also provides an outline of the economic
history of the Greco-Roman world, discussing the circumstances in which coinage was
invented and considering various hypotheses to explain the reason why it was adopted in
Greece and in Roman Italy.
Required Reading/Primary Sources:
Coins and Money
- A. Burnett, Interpreting the Past. Coins, London 1991, Chapters 1, 2, 3
- W. Metcalf, Introduction, in W.E. Metcalf (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Greek and
Roman Coinage, Oxford-New York 2012, pp. 601-632
- P. Grierson, Numismatics, Oxford 1975, Chapter of Introduction
- S. Von Reden, Money in Classical Antiquity, Cambridge 2010, Chapter of Introduction.
From Pre-money to Coinage
- C. Howgego, Ancient history from coins, London 1995, Chapters 1 ‘Money’ and 2
‘Minting’
- J. Williams et al. (eds.), Money: A History, London 1997, Chapters 1 and 2
The Adoption of Coinage in Rome
- A. Burnett, Coinage in the Roman World, London 1987, Chapter 1 ‘The Adoption of
Coinage’

Further Bibliography:
- A. Burnett, Interpreting the Past. Coins, London 1991
- C. Howgego, ‘Why did Ancient states strike coins?’, in Numismatic Chronicle 150, 1990,
pp. 1-25
- C. Howgego, ‘The Monetization of Temperate Europe’, in Journal of Roman Studies 103,
2013, pp. 1-30
- P. Grierson, Numismatics, Oxford 1975, Chapter ‘Coinage: The Western Tradition’

Week 2. Approaching ancient coins: practical session

This session introduces to several technical aspects of classical numismatics. Offering the
opportunity to handle ancient coins of the museum collection, it describes the process of coin
making (casting and striking) in various metals and explains the differences between the
categories of coins on the basis of empirical criteria such as shape, fabric, and style. It also
considers specific classes of material in their historical context to provide a wide range of
technical expertise (for instance, counterfeits, countermarked and double-struck pieces) and
explains the importance of studying coin finds in their archaeological context as a vital source
of information for understanding the mechanism of coin use and circulation. The lesson
includes a practical session of coin identification on a sample of specimens of the Museum
collection, teaching how to use measuring instruments and bibliographical references.

Required Reading/Primary Sources:

The Making of Coins in the Ancient World
- C. Howgego, Ancient history from coins, London 1995, Chapter 2 ‘Minting’
- W. Metcalf, Introduction, in W.E. Metcalf (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Greek and
Roman Coinage, Oxford-New York 2012, pp. 601-632
Coins in their context
- A. Burnett, Interpreting the Past. Coins, London 1991, Chapters 4, 5
- W. Metcalf, Introduction, in W.E. Metcalf (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Greek and
Roman Coinage, Oxford-New York 2012, pp. 601-632
- P. Grierson, Numismatics, Oxford 1975, Chapter ‘Coin Finds and Hoards’
- R. Reece, Roman Coins, London 1970, Chapter 3 ‘Practical Identification’

Further Bibliography:
- A. Burnett, The Invisibility of Roman Imperial Mints, in I luoghi della moneta. Le sedi delle
zecche dall’antichità all’età moderna, Milano 2001 pp. 41-8
- J. Casey, Understanding Ancient Coins. An Introduction for Archaeologists and Historians,
London 1986, Chapters ‘Hoards’, ‘Coins and the Archaeologist I’, ‘Coins and the
Archaeologist II’
- P. Grierson, Numismatics, Oxford 1975, Chapter ‘Coinage: The Making of Coin’
- D. Wigg-Wolf, Sites as context, in Coin in Context. New Perspectives for the interpretation
of coin finds, eds. H. Von Kaenel, F. Kemmers, Mainz am Rhein 2009, pp. 109-25.

Week 3. Gold, Silver and Bronze: the Augustan Revolution

This session outlines the monetary history of Rome from the end of the Republic to the Julio-
Claudian Age, focusing on the crucial phase of the Augustan reform of the Roman State and
on how it involved the management of coinage and mints after the foundation of the
Principate. It explains why the establishment of a new monetary system based on multiple
denominations and coined metals marked a turning point in the economic history of Rome
and lasted for centuries.

Required Reading/Primary Sources:

The Augustan Reform of Coinage
- A. Burnett, Coinage in the Roman World (London 1987), Chapter 3 ‘Monetary History’
- T.V. Buttrey, ‘Halved coins, the Augustan reform, and Horace, Odes I. 3’, in American
Journal of Archaeology 35, 1972, pp. 31-48.
- M.H. Crawford, ‘Money and Exchange in the Roman World’, in Journal of Roman Studies
60, 1970, pp. 40-8
- A. Wallace-Hadrill, ‘Image and Authority in the Coinage of Augustus’, in Journal of
Roman Studies 76, 1986, pp. 66-87
The Julio-Claudians
- C. Rodewald, Money in the Age of Tiberius, Manchester 1976, Chapter 1 ‘The Financial
Crisis of A.D. 33’
- R. Wolters, The Julio-Claudians, in W.E. Metcalf (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Greek
and Roman Coinage, Oxford-New York 2012, pp. 335-355

Further Bibliography:
- D. Rathbone, The Imperial Finances, in The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-
Roman World, X (sec. ed.), pp. 309-323
- C.V. Sutherland, ‘Claudius and the Senatorial Mint’, in Journal of Roman Studies 31, 1941,
pp. 70-72
- R. Wolters, The Emperor and the Financial Deficits of the Aerarium in the Early Roman
Empire, in Credito e moneta nel mondo romano, ed. E. Lo Cascio, Bari 2003, pp. 147-60

Week 4. Prices and Inflation: Caracalla, Diocletian and the Crisis of the Empire
This session discusses the complexities of the relationship between the debasement in the
fineness of coinage, devaluation, and inflation in prices for commodities. Examining causes
and consequences of the 3rd century crisis, it focuses on the monetary reforms promoted by
Caracalla and his successors to try to steam the progressive collapse of the Imperial system.

Required Reading/Primary Sources:

The 3rd Century Crisis
- R. Abdy, Tetrarchy and the House of Constantine, in W.E. Metcalf (ed.), The Oxford
Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage, Oxford-New York 2012, pp. 584-600
- A. Burnett, Coinage in the Roman World, London 1987, Chapters 6 ‘Inflation’ and 7
‘Monetary History’
- K.W. Harl, Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, Baltimore 1996,
Chapters 6 ‘The Great Debasement and Reform’ and 11 ‘Coins, Prices and Wages’
- C. Howgego, Ancient history from coins, London 1995, Chapter 6 ‘Crisis’
Inflation and the Price Edict
- R. Duncan-Jones, Money and Government in the Roman Empire, Cambridge 1994, Chapter
2 ‘Money, Prices and Inflation’
- A. Johnston, Greek Imperial Denominations, ca 200-275: a Study of the Roman Provincial
Bronze Coinages of Asia Minor, London 2007, Chapter of Introduction, pp. 7-16
- D. Rathbone, ‘Monetisation, not price-inflation, in third-century A.D. Egypt?’, in Coin
Finds and Coin Use in the Roman World, eds. C.E. King, D.G. Wigg, Berlin 1996, pp. 321-
39.
- R. Reece, Coinage in Roman Britain, London 1987, Chapter 3 ‘The Production of Roman
Coinage’
- A. Wassink, ‘Inflation and financial policy under the Roman Empire to the Price Edict of
301 A. D.’, in Historia 40, 1991, pp. 465-493.

Further Bibliography:
- A. Burnett, Coinage in the Roman World, London 1987, Chapter 9 ‘From Rome to the
Medieval World’
- J. Callu, Approches numismatiques de l’histoire du IIIe siècle (238 à 311), in ANRW, II/2
(1975), pp. 594-613
- M.H. Crawford, Finance, Coinage and Money from the Severans to Constantine, in ANRW,
II/2 (1975), pp. 560-593
- M.H. Crawford, Ancient Devaluations: a General Theory, in Les “dévaluations” à Rome:
époque Républicaine et Impériale (Gdansk, 19-21 octobre 1978), 2, Paris-Rome 1980, pp.
147-158
- S. Moorhead, The Coinage of the Later Roman Empire, 364-498, in W.E. Metcalf (ed.), The
Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage, Oxford-New York 2012, pp. 601-632
- D. Rathbone, Earnings and Costs: Living Standards and the Roman Economy (First to
Third Centuries AD), in Quantifying the Roman Economy. Methods and Problems, eds. A.
Bowman, A. Wilson, Oxford 2009, pp. 299-326.
- R. Reece, The Later Roman Empire. An Archaeology AD 150-600, London 1999, Chapter 7
‘Coins and the Economy’

Week 5. Imperial Currency and Mints (practical session)

This class provides further insights into the process of identification of roman coins, focusing
on the study of metals and value denominations. It is intended to help understanding how the
imperial reforms of the coinage affected the evolution of denominations from Augustus to
Constantine and how during this time-span the process of coin production developed from a
centralized system hinging on the sole mint of Rome to a network of imperial mints scattered
across the provinces.

Required Reading/Primary Sources:

Metals and Denominations
- T.V. Buttrey, ‘Dio, Zonaras and the value of the Roman aureus’, in Journal of Roman
Studies 51, 1961, pp. 40-45
R. Reece, Roman Coins, London 1970, Chapter 2 ‘Metals, Denominations and Weights: an
Outline’
- C.V. Sutherland, ‘Denarius and Sestertius in Diocletian’s Coinage Reform’, in Journal of
Roman Studies 51, 1961, pp. 94-97
Coinage and Mints after the Severan Age
- R. Bland, From Gordian III to the Gallic Empire, in W.E. Metcalf (ed.), The Oxford
Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage, Oxford-New York 2012, pp. 514-537
- S. Estiot, The Late Third Century, in W.E. Metcalf (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Greek
and Roman Coinage, Oxford-New York 2012, pp. 538-560
- J. van Heesch, Mints and the Roman Army from Augustus to Diocletian, in Proceedings of
the VIIIth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies held in Amman, Jordan
(September 2000), eds. P. Freeman, J. Bennett, Z.T. Fiema, B. Hoffmann, Oxford 2002, pp.
35-42
- J. van Heesch, ‘Transport of Coins in the Later Roman Empire’, in Revue Belge de
Numismatique et de Sigillographie 152, 2006, pp. 51-61

Further Bibliography:
- M.H. Crawford, Finance, Coinage and Money from the Severans to Constantine, in ANRW,
II/2 (1975), pp. 560-593
- S. Moorhead, The Coinage of the Later Roman Empire, 364-498, in W.E. Metcalf (ed.), The
Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage, Oxford-New York 2012, pp. 601-632
- R. Reece, The Third Century; Crisis or Change?, in R. Reece, Roman Coins and
Archaeology. Collected papers, Wetteren 2003, Chapter 36
- B. Woytek, ‘System and product in Roman mints from the Late Republic to the High
Principate: some current problems’, in Revue Belge de Numismatique et de Sigillographie
158, 2012, pp. 85-122
- J. van Heesch, ‘Control Marks and Mint administration in the Fourth century AD’, in Revue
Belge de Numismatique et de Sigillographie 158, 2012, pp. 161-78

Week 6. Coinage and Authority: Emperors and Usurpers

This is the first of a series of three sessions that consider the use of coin designs and legends
as a privileged mean for conveying political and Ideological messages. It discusses how
differently the authority to mint was managed from the Republican to the Imperial Age and
how this influenced the typological and thematic choices of the mint of Rome. The lesson
also shows how the messages conveyed through coins were intended to justify and legitimate
the imperial power, chiefly during the military conflicts for the conquest of power in Rome,
such as the civil wars between usurpers and legitimate rulers.

Required Reading/Primary Sources:

Autority and Legitimation
- C. Ando, Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire, Berkeley-Los
Angeles 2000, Chapter 7 ‘Images of Emperor and Empire’, only pp. 206-28
- C. Howgego, Ancient history from coins, London 1995, Chapter 4 ‘Politics’
- J. Williams, The Republican Identity of Roman Imperial Coinage. 1st to mid-3rd centuries
AD, in R. Cunz (ed.), Money and Identity. Lectures about History, Design and Museology of
Money (Proceedings of the 11th Meeting of the ICOMON, Seul 2004), Hannover 2007, pp.
57-72
- A. Wallace-Hadrill, ‘Image and Authority in the Coinage of Augustus’, in Journal of
Roman Studies 76, 1986, pp. 66-87
- P. Zanker, The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus, (eng. ed.) Ann Arbor 1988, Chapter
2 ‘Rival Images: Octavian, Antony and the Struggle for sole Power’
Solider Emperors and Usurpers
- R. Abdy, ‘The Domitian II coin from Chalgrove: a Gallic emperor returns to history’, in
Antiquity 83/321, 2009, pp. 751-7
- P.J. Casey, Carausius and Allectus: The British Usurpers, London 1994, Chapter 5 ‘The
Ideology of Carausian and Allectan Coin Types’
- G. de la Bedoyère, ‘Carausius and the marks RSR and I.N.P.C.D.A.’, in Numismatic
Chronicle 158, 1998, pp. 79-88.
- S. Estiot, The Late Third Century, in W.E. Metcalf (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Greek
and Roman Coinage, Oxford-New York 2012, pp. 538-560

Further Bibliography:
- R. Bland, ‘The Coinage of Vabalathus and Zenobia from Antioch and Alexandria’, in
Numismatic Chronicle 171, 2011, pp. 133-86
- A.M. Burnett, ‘The authority to coin in the late Republic and Early Empire’, in Numismatic
Chronicle 17, 1977, 37
- J.F. Drinkwater, ‘The revolt and ethnic origin of the usurper Magnentius (350–53), and the
rebellion of Vetranio (350)’, in Chiron 30, 2000, pp. 131-59
J.P.C. Kent, ‘The Revolt of Trier Against Magnentius’, in Numismatic Chronicle 19, 1959,
pp. 105-8

Week 7. The Administration of Power

This session covers fundamental aspects of the Roman ideology which were intended to
emphasize the qualities of the Emperor as peacemaker, guardian of the State and capable
administrator: piety, generosity and building activity. Coins became privileged vehicles to
express all these concepts; the session provides various examples and explains how
numismatic evidence can be analysed, compared to other classes of sources and interpreted
(sometimes also antithetically) for a proper understanding of the subject. The main focus is
on the analysis of monuments as coin types, which represents an ideal case study to test the
reliability of coinage as an historical source

Required Reading/Primary Sources:

Images of Power
- O. Hekster, Coins and Messages. Audience targeting on coins of different denominations?,
in L. de Blois et al. (eds.), Representation and Perception of Roman Imperial Power,
Amsterdam 2003, pp. 20-35
- C. Howgego, Ancient history from coins, London 1995, Chapter 4 ‘Politics’
- C.E. King, Roman portraiture: images of power?, in M. Paul, M. Ierardi, Roman Coins and
Public Life under the Empire. E. Togo Salmon Papers II, Ann Arbor 1999
The Emperor’s Virtues
W.E. Metcalf, ‘Whose Liberalitas? Propaganda and audience in the early Roman Empire’,
Rivista Italiana di Numismatica e Scienze Affini 95, 1993, pp. 337-46.
- C.F. Noreña, ‘The Communication of the Emperor's Virtues’, in Journal of Roman Studies
91, 2001, pp. 146-68
- R.D. Weigel, ‘Gallienus Animal Series coins and Roman religion’, in Numismatic
Chronicle 150, 1990, 135
Building on Coins
- A. Burnett, Buildings and monuments on Roman coins, in M. Paul, M. Ierardi, Roman Coins
and Public Life under the Empire. E. Togo Salmon Papers II, Ann Arbor 1999
- N. Elkins, ‘The Flavian Colosseum Sestertii: Currency or Largess?’, Numismatic Chronicle
166, 2006, pp. 211-221
P. Hill, The Monuments of Ancient Rome as Coin Types, London 1989, Introduction and
Chapters 1 ‘Temples and Shrines’ and 2 ‘Public Buildings’

Further Bibliography:
- P. Bruun, ‘The Victorious Signs of Constantine: A Reappraisal’, in Numismatic Chronicle
157, 1997, pp. 42-59
- M.H. Crawford, Roman Imperial Coin Types and the Formation of Public Opinion, in
Studies in Numismatic Method presented to P. Grierson (eds. C.N.L. Brooke, B.H.I.H.
Stewart, J.G. Pollard, T.R. Volk, Cambridge 1983, pp. 47-64
- D. Fishwick, Coinage and cult: the provincial monuments at Lugdunum, Tarraco, and
Emerita, in M. Paul, M. Ierardi, Roman Coins and Public Life under the Empire. E. Togo
Salmon Papers II, Ann Arbor 1999
- B. Levick, ‘Propaganda and the Imperial Coinage’, in Antichthon, 16, 1981, pp. 104–16
- M.J. Price, B.L. Trell, Coins and their Cities. Architecture on the Ancient Coins of Greece,
Rome and Palestine, London 1977
- C. Rowan, Under Divine Auspices. Divine Ideology and the Visualisation of Imperial Power
in the Severan Period, AD 193-235, Cambridge 2012, Chapters 5 ‘Elagabalus, summus
sacerdos Elagabali’ and 6 ‘Severus Alexander and the re-founding of Rome’

Week 8: Coinage in the Provinces: the Empire and the Cities

This session covers the question of the functional relationship between the mainstream
imperial coinage and provincial coinages in both Latin west and Greek east, and explores the
various hypotheses put forward by modern scholars to define the role of local mints and
authorities and their relationship with the central power, and to explain the function of civic
coinages and its cessation, earlier in the west than in the east.

Required Reading/Primary Sources:

Introducing Roman Provincial Coinage
- A. Burnett, Coinage in the Roman World, London 1987, Chapter 3 ‘Monetary History’
- K. Butcher, Roman Provincial Coins. An Introduction to the Greek Imperials, London 1988,
Chapters 2 ‘The Development of Provincial Coins’ and 3 ‘Coin Use’
- K.W. Harl, Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, Baltimore 1996, Chapter
5 ‘Currencies of the Roman East, 30 B.C.-A.D. 200
Coinage and Identity in the Provinces
- A. Burnett, The Roman West and the Roman East, in Coinage and Identity in the Roman
Provinces, pp. 171-180
- A. Burnett, ‘The Augustan Revolution seen from the Mints of the Provinces’, in Journal of
Roman Studies 101, 2011, pp. 1-30
- C. Howgego, Coinage and Identity in the Roman Provinces, in Coinage and Identity in the
Roman Provinces, pp. 1-17
P. Weiss, The Cities and their Money, in Coinage and Identity in the Roman Provinces, pp.
57-68

Further Bibliography:
- A. Burnett, M. Amandry, P.P. Ripollès, Roman Provincial Coinage I. From the Death of
Caesar to the Death of Vitellius (44 BC – AD 69), Voll. I-II, London-Paris 1992, Chapters of
‘General Introduction’
- B. Burrell, Neokoroi. Greek Cities and Roman Emperors, Leiden-Boston 2004
- K. Butcher, Coinage in Roman Syria. Northern Syria, 64 BC - AD 253, London 2004
- A. Johnston, ‘The So-called “Pseudo-autonomous” Greek Imperials’, in American
Numismatic Society Museum Notes 30, 1985, pp. 89-112
- A. Johnston, Greek Imperial Denominations, ca 200-275: a Study of the Roman Provincial
Bronze Coinages of Asia Minor, London 2007
- K.W. Harl, Civic Coins and Civic Politics in the Roman East, A.D. 180-275, Berkeley 1987
- C. Howgego, Greek Imperial Countermarks: Studies in the Provincial Coinages of the
Roman Empire, London 1985.
- C. Howgego, V. Heuchert, A. Burnett (eds.), Coinage and Identity in the Roman Provinces,
Oxford 2005

Week 9. From Triumph to Disgrace: Imperial Cult, Deification and Damnatio Memoriae
This session discusses two antithetical aspects of the use of coins for Imperial propaganda:
the assimilation to divinity of admirable living emperors and their apotheosis after death, on
one hand, and the condemnation and cancellation of the memory of deplorable emperors who
had been deposed and assassinated, on the other. A comparative study of literary,
archaeological, epigraphic, and numismatic sources allows us to speculate on the debated
nature of these phenomena from the political and cultural point of view, showing how the
coin evidence of imperial portraits being erased or mutilated can greatly enhance our
understanding of the question.

Required Reading/Primary Sources:

General Introduction
- C. Howgego, Ancient history from coins, London 1995, Chapter 4 ‘Politics’
Deification and Damnatio Memoriae
- C. Ando, Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire, Bekeley-Los
Angeles 2000, Chapter 7 ‘Images of Emperor and Empire’, only pp. 206-28
- A.A. Barrett, The invalidation of currency in the Roman Empire: the Claudian
demonetization of Caligula's aes, in M. Paul, M. Ierardi, Roman Coins and Public Life under
the Empire. E. Togo Salmon Papers II, Ann Arbor 1999
- M. Beckmann, Diva Faustina. Coinage and Cult in Rome and the Provinces, New York
2012, Chapter 2 ‘Consecratio - The Deification of Faustina’.
- L.J. Kreitzer, Striking New Images: Roman Imperial Coinage and the New Testament
World, Sheffield 1996, Chapter 8 ‘The Apotheosis of the Roman Emperor’,
- E. Manders, Coining Images of Power. Patterns in the Representation of roman Emperors
on Imperial Coinage, A.D. 193-284, Leiden-Boston 2012, Chapter 3 ‘Divine Propaganda’
- R. Varner, Mutilation and Transformation: Damnatio Memoriae and Roman Imperial
Portraiture, Leiden 2004, Chapter 1 ‘Developments, Implications and Precedents’, only pp.
1-9

Further Bibliography:
- M. Beckmann, The Coinage of Diva Faustina I, in Proceeding of the XIV INC Conference
(Glasgow 2009), Glasgow 2011, pp.
- P. Bruun, ‘The Victorious Signs of Constantine: A Reappraisal’, in Numismatic Chronicle
157, 1997, pp. 42-59
- J.-P. Duchemin, ‘Numismatique et Archéologie du rituel. Réflexion sur le rite de l’”obole à
Charon” à partir de l’exemple de la nécropole tardo-antique de Nempont-Saint-Firmin (Pas-
de-Calais, France)’, Journal of Archaeological Numismatics 2, 2012, pp. 127-98, especially
pp. 127-135, 160-73
- A. Hostein, Monnaie et Damnatio Memoriae: problèmes méthodologiques (Ier-IVe Siècle
après J.-C.), Cahiers du Centre Gustave Goltz 14, 2004, pp. 219-36 (pdf available on
Persee.fr)
- C. Rowan, Under Divine Auspices. Divine Ideology and the Visualisation of Imperial Power
in the Severan Period, AD 193-235, Cambridge 2012, Chapters 5 ‘Elagabalus, summus
sacerdos Elagabali’ and 6 ‘Severus Alexander and the re-founding of Rome’
- R. Varner, Mutilation and Transformation: Damnatio Memoriae and Roman Imperial
Portraiture, Leiden 2004, Chapter 8 ‘The Severans’, especially pp. 168-84

Week 10. “More than money”: use and re-use of coins (practical session)
This final session aims to summarize the topic of the political and cultural use of coin images
and legends, examining a sample of coins of the Museum collection as a source for analysis
of select case studies. Still drawing upon the discussion on the power of images on coinage, it
focuses on the symbolic values of the coins themselves, especially in relation to their nature
of “special” objects, and on the multiple forms of use (in ritual contexts) and of re-use of
ancient coins, as offers, pendants, jewels, amulets and talismans.

Required Reading/Primary Sources:

Coins and Rituality
- J.-M. Doyen, ‘The “Charon’s obol”: some methodological reflections’, in Journal of
Archaeological Numismatics 2, 2012, pp. I-XVIII
- B. Kaczynski, M. Nüsse, Reverse Type selection in Sanctuaries? A study of antoniniani
found in various contexts, in Coin in Context. New Perspectives for the interpretation of coin
finds, eds. H. Von Kaenel, F. Kemmers, Mainz am Rhein 2009, pp. 93-107.
- P. Kiernan, ‘The Ritual Mutilation of Coins on Romano-British Sites’, in British Journal of
Numismatics 71, 2001, pp. 18-33
Re-use of ancient Coins
- C. Rowan, ‘Slipping out of Circulation: the after-life of coins in the Roman world’, in
Journal of the Numismatic Australian Association 20, 2009 (2010), pp. 3-14
- J. van Heesch, On the edge of the market economy: Coins used in social transactions, as
ornaments and as bullion in the Roman Empire, in Roman Coins outside the Empire. Ways
and Phases, Contexts and Functions, in Proceedings of the ESF/SCH Exploratory Workshop
(Nieborów, Poland - September 2005), eds. A. Bursche, R. Ciolek, R. Wolters, Wetteren
2008, pp. 49-57

Further Bibliography:
- J.-A. Bruhn, Coins and Costume in Late Antiquity, Washington 1993
- T.V. Buttrey, ‘The spintriae as a historical source’, in Numismatic Chronicle 13, 1973, pp.
52-63
- J.-P. Duchemin, ‘Numismatique et Archéologie du rituel. Réflexion sur le rite de l’”obole à
Charon” à partir de l’exemple de la nécropole tardo-antique de Nempont-Saint-Firmin (Pas-
de-Calais, France)’, Journal of Archaeological Numismatics 2, 2012, pp. 127-98, especially
pp. 127-135, 160-73
P.S.W. Guest, Summary of the Coins, in The Hoxne Late Roman Treasure, London 2010, pp.
195-200
J. Johns, The Gold Jewellery, in The Hoxne Late Roman Treasure, London 2010, pp. 23-61,
only pp. 23-9
- B. Levick, Messages on the Roman Coinage in M. Paul, M. Ierardi, Roman Coins and
Public Life under the Empire. E. Togo Salmon Papers II, Ann Arbor 1999, pp. 41-60