Price Effect and Demand Curve

The price effect refers to the impact of price changes on the demand for goods and services. It
plays a crucial role in understanding consumer behavior and market dynamics.
Price effect usually happens due to the fluctuation or change caused by monetary or fiscal
policies. As a result, it causes a direct impact on the prices of goods and services. Later on, this
effect is seen in the demand for these products. However, the theory assumes the principle of
“Ceteris Paribus,” which means all other factors remain constant.

Hence, it is necessary to consider the nature of goods to understand this effect. It includes
regular, Giffen (non-luxury goods), and neutral goods. Therefore, in the case of common
goods, the impact of price on demand is positive. So, if the cost of these goods falls, the
consumer’s income increases, and the product’s demand increases. In contrast, if the price
increases, its demand will fall. As a result, it causes an indirect relationship between price and
quantity purchased.

Likewise, for Giffen or inferior goods, this effect is negative. So, if the price of these goods
falls, their demand reduces. These goods include wheat, rice, potatoes, and other essentials.
Thus, it leads to a direct relationship between them. However, for neutral goods, there is a zero-
price effect. As a result, the quantity demanded remains the same. In zero price effect, the
demand remains fixed, even if the prices rise or fall. However, for some related goods, there is
a cross-price effect that means a change in the price of one commodity causes a shift in demand
for another. For example, petrol and cars are related goods with a cross-price effect.

In the above picture, all three graphs depict the price effect on normal, Giffen, and neutral
goods. Simultaneously, PCC is the price consumption curve due to the changing prices. In
addition, A1, A2, and A3 refer to the budget line, which states how consumers’ real
income shifts.

1. Figure 1.0

The first graph shows how consumer demand for products X & Y reacts to the changing prices.
It is to be noted that these goods are standard. At initial budget A1, a person demands OQ and
OC units of X & Y. However, as the prices increase, the person’s budget falls short. As a result,
the demand decreases for OR and OB. Likewise, they get a chance to spend more when the
price drops. Thus, they demand more goods (OD and OP). Therefore, the PCC in the common
goods is upward-sloping, leading to a positive price effect.

2. Figure 2.0

In the second graph of Giffen or inferior goods, A1 is the initial budget line, whereas A2 and
A3 are budget lines after the price change. In contrast, Product X is a defective product, while
Product Y is a substitute for it. At the initial budget line (A1), a consumer demands OC1 and
OQ1 products. If the price falls, the person will have extra income, shifting the budget line to
A3. At this point, instead of buying more Giffen goods, they will choose a little costly product.
Therefore, the demand falls to OB1 and OR1.

Similarly, when the price rises, the budget line gets rigid (A2). As a result, consumers find
inferior goods more affordable than costly goods. Therefore, the demand for the product rises
from OC1 to OD1. Thus, the price effect for these goods is negative, resulting in downward
sloping bending left towards X-Axis. However, this slope can also turn towards the Y-axis.

3. Figure 3.0

The last graph depicts the price effect in the case of neutral goods, where any change in price
causes no impact on demand. Since the demand for these goods is inelastic, it stays constant
throughout. As a result, the PCC curve is either horizontal or vertical slope parallel to the X
and Y-axis.

Breaking up Price Effect into Income and Substitution Effect

As price of a good X falls, other things remaining the same, consumer would move to a
new equilibrium position at a higher indifference curve and would buy more of good X at
the lower price unless it is a Giffen good.

Thus, in the Fig. 8.43 the consumer who is initially in equilibrium at Q on indifference
curve IC1 moves to the point R on indifference curve IC 2 when the price of good X falls
and the budget line twists from PL 1 to PL2.

The movement from Q to R represents the price effect. It is now highly important to
understand that this price effect is the net result of two distinct forces, namely substitution
effect and income effect. In other words, price effect can be split up into two different
parts, one being the substitution effect and the other income effect.

There are two approaches for decomposing price effect into its two parts, substitution
effect and income effect. They are the Hicksian approach and Slutsky approach.
Further, Hicksian approach uses two methods of splitting the price effect, namely:

(i) Compensating variation in income

(ii) Equivalent variation in income.

Slutsky uses cost-difference method to decompose price effect into its two component
parts. How the price effect can be decomposed into income effect and substitution effect
by the Hicksian methods is explained below.

1. Breaking up Price Effect: Compensating Variation in Income:

In the method of breaking up price effect by compensating variation we adjust the income
of the consumer so as to offset the change in satisfaction resulting from the change in price
o a good and bring the consumer back to his original indifference curve, that is, his initial
level of satisfaction which he was obtaining before the change in price occurred. For
instance, when the price of a commodity falls and consumer moves to a new equilibrium
position at a higher indifference curve his satisfaction increases.

To offset this gain in satisfaction resulting from a fall in price of the good we must take
away from the consumer enough income to force him to come back to his original
indifference curve. This required reduction in income (say, through levying a lump sum
tax) to cancel out the gain in satisfaction or welfare occurred by reduction in price of a
good is called compensating variation in income.

This is so called because It compensates (in a negative way) for the gain in satisfaction
resulting from a price reduction of the commodity. How the price effect is broken up into
substitution effect and income effect through the method of compensating variation in
income is illustrated in Fig 8.43.
When price of good X falls and as a result budget line shifts to PL 2 , the real income of the
consumer rises, i.e., he can buy more of both the goods with his given money income. That
is, price reduction enlarges consumer’s opportunity set of the two goods. With the new
budget line PL2 he is in equilibrium at point R on a higher indifference curve IC 2 and thus
gains in satisfaction as a result of fall in price of good X.

Now, if his money income is reduced by the compensating variation in income so that he
is forced to come back to the original indifference curve IC 1 he would buy more of X since
X has now become relatively cheaper than before. In Fig. 8.43 as result of the fall in price
of X, price line switches to PL 2. Now, with the reduction in income by compensating
variation, budget line shifts to AB which has been drawn parallel to PL 2 so that it just
touches the indifference curve IC 1 where he was before the fall in price of X.

Since the price line AB has got the same slope as Pig, it represents the changed relative
prices with X being relatively cheaper than before. Now, X being relatively cheaper than
before, the consumer in order to maximise his satisfaction in the new price income
situation substitutes X for Y.

Thus, when the consumer’s money income is reduced by the compensating variation in
income (which is equal to PA in terms of Y or L 2 B in terms of X), the consumer moves
along the same indifference curve IC1 and substitutes X for Y. With price line AB, he is
in equilibrium at S on indifference curve IC 1 and is buying MK more of X in place of Y.
This movement from Q to S on the same indifference curve IC 1 represents the substitution
effect since it occurs due to the change in relative prices alone, real income remaining
constant.
If the amount of money income which was taken away from him is now given back to him,
he would move from S on indifference curve IC 1 to R on a higher indifference curve IC 2 .
The movement from Son a lower in difference curve to R on a higher in difference curve
is the result of income effect. Thus the movement from Q to R due to price effect can be
regarded as having been taken place into two steps first from Q to S as a result of
substitution effect and second from S to R as a result of income effect. In is thus manifest
that price effect is the combined result of a substitution effect and an income effect.

In Fig. 8.43 the various effects on the purchases of good X are:

Price effect = MN

Substitution effect = MK

Income effect = K/V

MN = MK+KN or

Price effect = Substitution effect + Income effect

From the above analysis, it is thus clear that price effect is the sum of income and
substitution effects.

2. Breaking up Price Effect: Equivalent Variation in Income:

As mentioned above, price effect can be split up into substitution and income effects”
through an alternative method of equivalent variation in income. The reduction in price of
a commodity increases consumer’s satisfaction as it enables him to reach a higher
indifference curve. Now, the same increase in satisfaction can be achieved through
bringing about an increase in his income, prices remaining constant.

The increase in income of the consumer prices of goods remaining the same, so as to
enable him to move to a higher subsequent indifference curve at which he in fact reaches
with reduction in price of a good is called equivalent variation in income because it
represents the variation in income that is equivalent in terms of gain in satisfaction to a
reduction in price of the good.

Thus, in this equivalent income-variation method substitution effect is shown along the
subsequent indifference curve rather than the original one. How this price effect is
decomposed into income and substitution effects through equivalent variation in income
is shown in Fig. 8.44.

When price of good X falls, the consumer can purchase more of both the goods, that is,
the purchasing power of his given money income rises. It means that after the fall in price
of X if the consumer buys the same quantities of goods as before, then some amount of
money will be left over. In other words, the fall in price of good X will release some
amount of money. Money thus released can be spent on purchasing more of both the goods.
It therefore follows that a change in price of the good produces an income effect. When
the power to purchase goods rises due to the income effect of the price change, the
consumer has to decide how this increase in his purchasing power is to be spread over the
two goods he is buying. How he will spread the released purchasing power over the two
goods depends upon the nature of his income consumption curve which in turn is
determined by his preferences about the two goods.

From above it follows, that, as a result of the increase in his purchasing power (or real
income) due to the fall in price, the consumer will move to a higher indifference curve and
will become better off than before. It is as if price had remained the same but his money
income was increased. In other words, a fall in price of good X does to the consumer what
an equivalent rise in money income would have done to him.

As a result of fall in price of X, the consumer can therefore be imagined as moving up to

a higher indifference curve along the income consumption curve as if his money income
had been increased, prices of X and Y remaining unchanged. Thus, a given change in price
can be thought of as an equivalent to an appropriate change in income.

It will be seen from Fig. 8.44 that with price line PL 1 , the consumer is in equilibrium at Q
on indifference curve IC 1. Suppose price of good X falls, price of Y and his money income
remaining unaltered, so that budget line is now PL 2 . With budget line PL2 , he is in
equilibrium at R on indifference curve IC 2 . Now, a line AB is drawn parallel to PL 1 so that
it touches the indifference curve IC 2 at S.

It means that the increase in real income or purchasing power of the consumer as a result
of the fall in price of X is equal to PA in terms of Y or L1 B in terms of X Movement of
the consumer from Q on indifference curve IC 1 to S on the higher indifference curve
IC2 along the income consumption curve is the result of income effect of the price change.
But the consumer will not be finally in equilibrium at S.

This is because now that X is relatively cheaper than Y, he will substitute X, which has
become relatively cheaper, for good Y, which has become relatively dearer. It will be
gainful for the consumer to do so. Thus the consumer will move along the indifference
curve IC2 from S to R. This movement from S to R has taken place because of the change
in relative prices alone and therefore represents substitution effect. Thus the price effect
can be broken up into income and substitution effects, showing in this case substitution
along the subsequent indifference curve.

In Fig 8.44 the magnitudes of the various effects are:

Price effect = MN

Income effect = MH

Substitution effect = HN

In Fig. 8.44 effect = MMH + HN

Price effect = Income Effect + Substitution Effect

Criticisms of Ordinal Utility Approach

Prof. D.H. Robertson was of the view indifference curve approach is like an old wine in a
new bottle and tells nothing new. He further advocates that indifference curve approach is
same as utility theory. The only change which Hick has made is in use of words, MRS
instead of marginal utility.

The indifference curve approach is criticized on the following grounds:

a. Assumes that there are only two goods in indifference curve approach. This is not true
in the real world as a consumer consumes variety of goods.

b. Fails to provide a clear explanation of consumer behavior

c. Provides combinations that are not based on the principles of economics

d. Ignores risk and uncertainty while analyzing the consumer behavior

Revealed Preference Theorem

Revealed preference theory, introduced by economist Paul Anthony Samuelson in 1938,

provides a method for analyzing choices made by individuals, particularly when comparing the
influence of policies on consumer behavior.

 Revealed preference theory assumes that consumers’ preferences can be inferred from
their purchasing habits. Instead of directly measuring preferences or utility, this
theory reconciles demand theory by defining utility functions based on observed
behavior.
 The Weak Axiom of Revealed Preference (WARP) states that if bundle a is chosen
over bundle b in a budget set, then b cannot be revealed preferred over a in any other
budget set. In other words, if a consumer consistently chooses a over b, it reveals a
preference for a1.
 For example, if a consumer selects bundle a (goods combination) over bundle b, it
implies that a is directly revealed preferred to b.
 Revealed preference theory helps us understand consumer behavior and compare policy
effects. By observing actual choices, we can infer underlying preferences without
directly measuring utility functions.
 It contrasts with methods like stated preferences, where consumers explicitly state
their preferences.
 Choice reveals preference: When a consumer buys a combination of goods, it’s either
because they like that combination relative to others or because it’s more affordable.

In summary, Samuelson’s revealed preference theory allows us to uncover preferences

indirectly by examining real-world choices.

Derivation of Demand Curve

In Panel (A) of the diagram given below, money is taken on the vertical axis and good X
on the horizontal axis. LM is the original price-income line on which the consumer reveals
his preference at point R and buys OA of good X.

Suppose that the price of X falls. As a result, his new price- income line is LS. On this
line, the consumer reveals his preference at point T where he buys a larger quantity OB of
X than before.
The movement from R to T is the price effect of the fall in the price of X which has resulted
in its increased demand from OA to ОB. Now take away the increase in the real income
of the consumer as a result of the fall in the price of X equal to LP. Thus PQ is the new
price-income line which is drawn parallel to LS and passes through point R. The new
triangle OPQ becomes his area of choice.

Since the consumer was revealing his preference at point R on the original price-income
line LM, therefore, all points above R on the RP segment of the line PQ are inconsistent
with his choice. This is because he cannot have less quantity of good X when its price has
fallen. He will, therefore, reject all combinations above R and either choose combination
R or any other combination in the shaded triangle MRQ.

If the PL amount of money taken from the consumer is returned to him, he will again be
at point T on the price-income line IS where he buys larger quantity OB of X than before.
The movement from R to T traces out the demand curve in Panel (B) of the figure.

As we have taken money on the vertical axis in Panel (A), the price of good X can be
calculated by dividing the total money income by the number of units of X bought. When
the price of X is OL/OM (= OP), the quantity demanded is OA. When the price of X falls
to OL/OS (=OP 1 ), the quantity demanded increases to OB.

In Panel (B) of the figure, we measure price on the vertical axis and units of good X on
the horizontal axis and draw E and E 1 price-quantity combinations. By joining these points
with a smooth line, we get the demand curve DD 1 .This curve shows that as price falls
from OP to OP 1 the consumer buys more quantity AB of X.
Distinction between Weak and Strong Ordering

Hick’s Logical Theory of Demand

In this context Hicks draws out difference between strong ordering and weak ordering. He
then proceeds to base his demand theory on weak-ordering form of preference hypothesis.

A set of items is strongly ordered, if each item has a place of its own in the order and each
item could then be given a number and to each number there would be one item and only
one item which would correspond. A set of items is weakly ordered if the items are
clustered into groups but none of the items within a group can be put ahead of the others.
“A weak ordering consists of a division into groups, in which sequence of groups is
strongly ordered, but in which there is no ordering within the groups.”

It should be noted that indifference curves imply weak ordering in as much as all the points
on a given indifference curve are equally desirable and hence occupy same place in the
order. On the other hand, revealed preference approach implies strong ordering since it
assumes that the choice of a combination reveals consumer’s preference for it over all
other alternative combinations open to him. Choice can reveal preference for a
combination only if all the alternative combinations are strongly ordered.

Weak ordering implies that the consumer chooses a position and rejects others open to
him, then the rejected positions need not be inferior to the position actually chosen but
may have been indifferent to it. Hence, under weak ordering, actual choice fails to reveal
definite preference. The strong ordering and weak-ordering as applied to the theory of
demand are illustrated in Fig. 13.1.

If the consumer is confronted with the price-income situation aa, then he can choose any
combination that lies in or on triangle aOa. Suppose that our consumer chooses the
combination A. Let us assume that our consumer is an ideal consumer who is acting
according to his scale of preferences. Now, the question is how his act of choice of A from
among the available alternatives within and on the triangle aOa is to be interpreted.

If the available alternatives are strongly ordered, then the choice of A by the consumer
will show that he prefers A over all other available alternatives. In Samuelson’s language
he ‘reveals his preference’ for A over all other possible alternatives which are rejected.
Since, under strong ordering, the consumer shows definite preference for the selected
alternative, there is no question of any indifferent positions to the selected one.

Pragmatic Approach to Consumer Theory

The pragmatic approach to consumer theory is a philosophy that is not adhering to utility
functions, but expresses the demand function in such a way as to incorporate the assumption
of ‘no money illusion’ postulated by the traditional theory of the consumer 1. Pragmatism is a
viable middle ground philosophy for consumer research, and it has several advantages,
including potential for improving connections between methodological camps.

The pragmatic approach to consumer theory is a philosophy that departs from traditional
utility-based models. Instead of relying solely on utility functions, this approach directly
formulates demand functions based on market data without strict adherence to individual
consumer behavior theories. Here are the key points about the pragmatic approach:
1. Questioning Traditional Theories:
o Many economists have questioned the practical usefulness of various consumer
behavior theories.
o Theoretical approaches to utility are impressive but often fail to explain the
complexities of the real world.
2. Pragmatic Formulation of Demand Functions:
o In the pragmatic approach, economists accept the fundamental “law of
demand” without delving into utility theory.
o Demand functions are directly derived from market data, focusing on aggregate
consumer behavior rather than individual preferences.
o These demand functions often cover groups of commodities (e.g., food, consumer
durables) and refer to the behavior of all consumers as a whole.
3. Challenges in Estimating Demand Functions:
o Estimating demand functions involves aggregating data across individuals and
commodities.
o Index numbers are used due to the simultaneous change of multiple determinants.
o Despite challenges, econometric techniques have improved, making statistical
estimation of demand functions feasible.

The pragmatic approach incorporates the assumption of “no money illusion” from traditional
consumer theory.
In summary, the pragmatic approach bridges theory and real-world market behavior,
emphasizing practical applications over theoretical elegance.

Linear Expenditure System to Consumer Theory

The Linear Expenditure System (LES) is an intriguing concept in consumer demand theory.
The LES describes how consumers allocate their income across different goods and services.
It assumes that consumers spend a linear proportion of their total income on each good. In
other words, the expenditure on a particular good is directly proportional to the consumer’s
income.
 1. Mathematical Form:
o The LES can be expressed as:

Ei=αiY+βiPi

where:

 Ei represents the expenditure on good (i).

 (Y) denotes the consumer’s income.
 Pi is the price of good (i).
 αi and βi are parameters specific to each good.
2. Estimation Challenges:
o Despite its attractive linearity, estimating the LES parameters can be complex.
o Dealing with non-linearity in parameter estimation remains a challenge.
o Researchers have explored various techniques, including maximum likelihood
estimation and ordinary least squares.
o Stone’s pioneering work in 1954 laid the foundation for parameter estimation
in the LES.
o Recent advancements continue to enhance estimation efficiency.
3. Practical Applications:
o The LES finds applications in various fields, including computable general
equilibrium (CGE) models.
o Its parsimonious parameterization makes it useful when data availability is
limited.

In summary, the LES provides valuable insights into consumer behavior, even though its
“linear” label can be ironically misleading when tackling estimation challenges