Module-1: Wave Optics

Interference
Introduction
In the 17th century, the properties of light were explained by Sir Isaac Newton and Christian
Huygens. Sir Isaac Newton was explained the properties of light by introducing Corpuscular
theory in 1675. It explains reflection, refraction, and dispersion properties of light. It fails to
explain interference, diffraction, polarization, photo electric effect, and double refraction.

In 1679, Christian Huygens proposed the wave theory of light. According to Huygens wave
theory, each point on the wave front is to be considered as a source of secondary wavelets. It
explains reflection, refraction, dispersion, double refraction, diffraction, interference, and
polarization properties of light. It fails to explain, photo electric effect, black body radiation
etc,
Interference of light

The best evidence for the wave nature of light is interference phenomenon. This was
experimentally demonstrated by Thomas Young in 1800, through double slit experiment. Due
to interference, we will observe many observations in our day today life, such as multiple
colours on soap bubbles as well as on oil film when viewed under sun light. Interference
concept is explained on the basis of superposition of wave’s concept.

When two light waves superimpose, then the resultant amplitude or intensity in the region of
superposition is different than the amplitude of individual waves.

Definition:-

The modification in the distribution of intensity in the region of superposition is known as

interference.

Principle of Superposition of waves

"When two or more waves travel simultaneously in a medium, the resultant displacement at
any point is due to the algebraic sum of the displacements due to the individual waves. This
is known as Superposition of waves."
Consider two waves travelling simultaneously in the medium superpose at a point. Let
Y1 and Y2 are the individual displacements caused by the two waves respectively. According
to the principle of superposition of waves, the resultant displacement is given by

Y= Y1 Y2 ------(1)
When the two waves reach the point are in phase, then the waves are said to be Constructive
interference. i.e., the crest of the first wave exactly fits over the crest of the second wave and
trough of the first with second as shown in fig. Therefore the resultant displacement becomes
maximum and is given by Y= Y1 + Y2 ------(2)

When the two waves reach the point are in opposite phase (180°), then the waves are said to
be Destructive interference. i.e., the crest of the first wave exactly fall on the trough of the
second wave and viceversa as shown in fig. Thus, the resultant displacement becomes
minimum and is given by Y= Y1 - Y2 ------(3)

Note : 1) The resultant intensity of a wave is proportional to the square of the resultant amplitude
I 1 a12
I α a2 (or) 
I 2 a2 2
2) The ratio of maximum to minimum intensity is
Im ax (a1  a2 )2
 = (√I1/√I2)2.
Im in (a1  a2 )2

Interference of light
The best evidence for the wave nature of light is interference phenomenon. This
was experimentally demonstrated by Thomas Young in 1800, through double slit
experiment. Due to interference, we will observe many observations in our day today life,
such as multiple colors on soap bubbles as well as on oil film when viewed under sun light.
Interference concept is explained on the basis of superposition of wave’s concept.
When two light waves superimpose, then the resultant amplitude or intensity in the
region of superposition is different than the amplitude of individual waves.
Definition:-
The modification in the distribution of intensity in the region of superposition is
known as interference.
In case of interference pattern we observe two cases
 Constructive interference
 Destructive interference
Constructive interference
 The waves are reaching at a point are in phase constructive interference occurs.
 In constructive interference, the resultant amplitude is always equal to the sum of the
amplitudes of two individual waves.

Condition
The path difference between the two waves is equal to the integral multiple of wave
length (𝜆) the constructive interference occurs.
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑛𝜆 Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 …

Destructive interference
 The waves are reaching at a point are in out of phase destructive interference occurs
 In Destructive interference, the resultant amplitude is always equal to the difference of
the amplitudes of two individual waves.
Condition
The path difference between the two waves is equal to the odd integral multiple of
λ/2 destructive interference occurs

𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 =(2𝑛 − 1)𝜆/2 Where n = 1, 2, 3, 4 …

 Conditions for Sustained interference

1) Two light sources of emitting light waves should be coherent.

2) Two sources must emit continuous light waves of same wavelengths or frequency.
3) The separation between the two sources should be small.
4) The distance between the two sources and the screen should be large.
5) To view interference fringes, the background should be dark.
6) The amplitude of light waves should be equal or nearly equal.
7) The sources should be narrow.
8) The sources should be monochromatic.
Types of interference:-
For the formation of interference pattern, two coherent light sources are required.
To get two coherent sources form a single light source, two techniques are used. They are
1. Division of wave front
2. Division of amplitude
Division of wave front
The wave front from a single light source is divided into two parts using the
phenomenon of reflection, refraction, or diffraction, or grating. These two parts of the
same wave front travel unequal distances and reunite at some angles, thus producing
interference.
Eg., Young’s double slit experiment, Fresnel's biprism
Division of amplitude
The amplitude of a single light beam is divided into two parts by parallel reflection or
refraction. These two parts travel unequal distances and reunite to produce interference.
Eg., Newton’s ring experiment, Michelson’s interferometer.
Interference in thin film by reflection:
In thin films interference is due to
superposition of light reflected from the top
and bottom surfaces fo the films.
Let us consider a thin transpiration film of
uniform thickness 't' and refractive index 'μ'.
Let XX' and YY` be the two surfaces of film.
Suppose a ray of light AB incident on the
upper surface XX' at an angle i. This ray is
partly reflected along BC and partly refracted
along BD. Let 'r' be the angle of refraction.
K

At the bottom surface YY`, the refracted ray is partly reflected along DE and partly refracted
(transmitted) along DK. After refraction at E, the ray finally emerges out along EF. The rays
BC and EF constitute reflected system. Obviously EF is parallel to BC.

In order to study the interference pattern, we have to calculate the effective path difference
between BC and EF. For this purpose, a normal EP is drawn on the BC as shown in figure.
The path difference (∆) between BC and EF is given by

∆ = Path(BD+DE) in film - Path (BP) in air = μ(BD+DE) - BP (∵, μ =1 , for air) --------
(1)

In ∆BDQ, Cos r = DQ/BD = t/BD (or) BD = DE = t/Cos r ----(2)

Tan r = BQ/DQ BQ = DQ Tan r = t Tan r (or) BQ = QE = t Tan r -----(3)

In ∆BPE, Sin i = BP/BE BP = BE Sin i (or)

BP =(BQ+QE) Sin i = 2 t Tan r Sin i = 2t Tan r μ Sin r (∵ μ = sin i / sin r)

Sin r Sin 2 r
BP = 2t μ Sin r = 2μt ----- (4)
Cos r Cos r

From eq. (1) can be written as

2t sin 2 r 2 t 2 t
∆=  2t = (1-sin2r) = cos2r
cos r cos r cos r cos r

∵ Path difference ∆=2μtcosr ----------(5)

This is known as cosine law.

It should be remembered that a ray reflected at a surface backed by a denser medium

undergoes a phase change of π which is equivalent to a path difference λ/2. Hence, the
effective path difference is given by ∆effλ= 2t cos r  λ/2 ----------(6)
Condition for bright band:-

The film will appear bright when the effective path difference is equal to the integral multiple
of λ

∆eff= nλ (or) 2t cos r  λ/2 = n (or) 2t cos r  (2n  1) λ/2 , where n=0,1,2----

Condition for dark band:-

The film will appear dark when the effective path difference is equal to the (2n-1)λ/2

2μtcosr-λ/2= (2n-1)λ/2(or) 2μtcosr = nλ, where n=1,2.3----

Note: If the film thickness is extremely small when compared to λ, then 2μtcosr can be
neglected and then the net path difference becomes λ/2. Hence, destructive interference will
occur and film appears dark.

NEWTON'S RINGS

Newton's rings are in accordance with the interference of light waves. To form Newton's, a
plano-convex lens of long focal length is placed on an optically flat glass pate. With this
arrangement, a thin film of air is enclosed between the lower surface of the lens and the upper
surface of the glass plate. The thickness of the film is zero at the point of contact and
gradually increases when moved radially toward the edge of the lens. When the lens is
illuminated normally with a monochromatic light source, a beautiful circular concentrate
rings is observed. These rings are called Newton's rings.

Experimental arrangement:
L is a plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature and is place on an optically plane glass
plate (G). The lens touches the glass plate at 'O'. S is a source of monochromatic light placed
at a focus of the lens L1. A horizontal beam of light falls on the glass plate B held at 45°
inclination. The glass plate B reflects a part of the incident light towards the air film enclosed
by the lens L and the glass plate G. The reflected beam from the air film is viewed with a
micoscope M. Due to the interference between the light reflected from the lower surface of
the lens and the upper surface of the glass plate, bright and dark fringes are produced as
shown in above figure.

Theory: Newton's rings by reflected rays

Let 'R' is the radius of curvature of the

lens 'L' and 't' is the thickness of air film
at a distance of OQ = r, from the point of
contact 'O'. Here, the interference is due
to reflected light. Therefore, the
2μtcosr = nλ,forwhere
condition dark ring is given by
n=1,2.3--------------(1)
But for air μ = 1 and cosθ = 1(θ is very small)
2t=nλ where n=1,2.3---- ----------(2)
From the property of circle, EP x EH=OE x (2R-OE)
From the figure, EP=EH=r and OE=PQ=t
∵ r2=2Rt t= r2/2R (∵ neglecting t2)
Substituting the value of t in eq.(2), we get
r2=nλR (or) r= nR n=1,2.3---- --------(3)
If D is the diameter of the dark ring, then D = 2r = 2 nR ----------(4)

The central rings is not counted while counting the order of the dark rings, because D=0.

For the first dark ring, n=1 and D1 =2 R

For the second dark ring, n=2 and D2 =2 R and

For the nth dark ring, Dn =2 nR --------(5)

Let us take the case of 16th and 9th rings

D16 =2 R  8 R and D9 =2 R  6 R

D16-D9 = 2 R ----(6) Similarly, D4-D1 = 2 R ----(7)

From eqn. (6) and (7), it is clear that, the fringe width decreases with the order of the fringe
and the fringes get closer with increase in their order as shown in figure.
Determination of wavelength of sodium light:

By forming the Newton's rings and measuring the diameter of the rings formed, we can
calculate the wavelength of light used. Let 'R' is the radius of curvature of the lens in contact
with the glass plate and λ is the wavelength of sodium light used. We know that,

The diameter of the nth dark ring, Dn =2 nR (or) Dn2 =4nλR --------(1)

Similarly, the diameter of the (n+m)th dark ring Dn+m =2 (n+m)R (or) D2n+m =4(n+m)λR--
-(2)

D 2( n  m )  Dn 2
Therefore, D2n+m - Dn2 =4mλR (or) λ =
4mR

Hence, by measuring the diameter of the different orders and knowing the radius of curvature
(R) of the lens, we can determine the wavelength of the given monochromatic source of light.

Diffraction
Introduction
The wave nature of light is first confirmed by the phenomenon of interference. Further
it is confirmed by the phenomenon of diffraction. The word ‘diffraction’ is derived from
the Latin word diffractus which means break to piece. When the light waves encounter an
obstacle, they bend round the edges of the obstacle. The bending is predominant when the
size of the obstacle is comparable with the wavelength of light. The bending of light waves
around the edges of an obstacle is diffraction. It was first observed by Gremaldy.

Diffraction
When the light falls on the obstacle whose size is comparable with the
wavelength of light then the light bends around the obstacle and enters in the
geometrical shadow. This bending of light is called diffraction.
When the light is incident on an obstacle AB, their corresponding shadow is
completely dark on the screen. Suppose the width of the slit is comparable to the
wavelength of light, then the shadow consists of bright and dark fringes. These fringes are
formed due to the superposition of bended waves around the corners of an obstacle. The
amount of bending always depends on the size of the obstacle and wavelength of light
used.
Types of diffraction

The diffraction phenomena are classified into two ways

1. Fresnel diffraction
2. Fraunhofer diffraction.

Fresnel diffraction:-
In this diffraction, the source of light and the screen are at finite distance from the
diffracting aperture or obstacle having sharp edge. The wave front incident on the aperture
or obstacle is either spherical or cylindrical. No lens is used to make the rays parallel.

Fraunhofer diffraction:-
In this diffraction, the source of light and the screen are at infinite distance from the
diffracting aperture or obstacle having sharp edge. This can be achieved by placing the light
source at the focal plane of the convex lens and placing the screen at the focal plane of
another convex lens. The wave front incident on the aperture or obstacle is a plane wave
front

Fraunhofer single slit diffraction:-

Consider a slit AB of width e, Let a plane wave front WW’ of monochromatic light of
wavelength λ propagates normally towards the slit is incident on it. The diffracted light is
focused by means of a convex lens L on a screen placed in the plane of the lens. The
diffraction phenomenon can be explained by Huygen's -Fresnel principle. According to this
principle, every point on the wave front acts as a source of secondary wavelets which spread
out to the right in all directions. The secondary waves travelling in the direction parallel to
OPo via AAo and BBo come to focus at Po. Thus, Po is a bright central image.

Now, consider secondary

wavelets travelling in AA1
inclined at an angle θ to the
direction OPo. All the secondary
wavelets travelling in this
direction reach the point P1 on
the screen. Depending on path
difference, the P1 may have
maximum or minimum
intensities. In order to find the
path difference, draw AC
perpendicular to BB1.

The path difference between the wavelets from A & B

in the direction θ is BC
In ΔABC, ; Path difference, BC = e sinθ ---------------(1)
Phase difference corresponding to BC, δ = ---------------------------(2)
Let the width of the slit is divided into 'n' equal parts and the amplitude of the wave from
each part is 'a'. Let 'd' be the phase difference between any two successive waves.
Therefore, d= Total phase difference(δ)/n = ------------------------(3)
Using the method of vector addition of amplitudes, the resultant amplitude.

R= = ; Let α = π/λ e Sinθ ( net phase difference)----- (4)

R= ; Since α/n is very small, sin (α/n) = α/n

R= = na =A -------------- (5)
When n → , a→0, but product na = A remains finite
2 2
Now the resultant intensity is given by , I = R2 = A2 (or) , I = Io ------------
(6)
Where Io = A2
Condition for principal maximum

The resultant amplitude R can be written in ascending power of α as

R= + - + ---]

R=A + - + ---]

We know that, When R is maximum, the intensity I will be maximum. If the negative turns
vanish, R will be maximum, i.e. α = 0.

From equ. (4), we have α = π/λ e Sinθ = 0 (or) Sinθ = 0 (or) θ = 0

The condition θ = 0 means that the maximum intensity is formed at Po and is known as
Principal maximum

Condition for minimum intensity positions:

When the path difference (BC) is equal to integral multiple of λ, then we get minimum
intensity positions
i.e., e Sinθ =mλ, m=1,2,3----

From equ. (4), we have α = π/λ e Sinθ = π/λ mλ = mπ, where m=1,2,3---
α = π, 2π. 3π---- mπ
2
When these values are substituted in eq. (6), we have , I = I o = 0 (or) Sin = 0
Thus, we obtain the points of minimum intensity on either side of the principal maximum.
Condition for secondary maxima:

In addition to principal maximum at α =0, there are weak secondary maxima between the
minimum intensity points. The directions of secondary maxima are given by the equation

eSinθ = (2m+1) λ/2, m=1,2,3---

From equ. (4), we have α = π/λ e Sinθ = π/λ (2m+1) λ/2
(or) α = π/2 (2m+1) , where m=1,2,3--- (or) α = 3π/2, π/2, π/2+--

The position of the secondary maxima can be obtained by differentiating Intensity (I) w.r.t α
and equating zero.

i.e. = A2 2
] = 0 = A2 2sinα/α =0

Here either Sin α =0 or (α cosα - sin α) = 0

We know that sin α =0 refers the positions of minimum intensity points. Hence, the positions
of secondary maxima are given by
(α sin α - sin α) = 0 (or) α = Tan α -------- (7)
The values of α satisfying eq.(7) are obtained graphically by plotting the curves Y = α and
Y= Tan α on the same graph as shown in figure. The points of intersection of the two curves
gives the values of α ( 3π/2, π/2, π/2+-)
 13
UNIT -I- WAVE OPTICS
POLARIZATION

The Phenomena of Interference and Diffraction established the wave nature of light. But they do
not indicate whether light waves are longitudinal or transverse.

Maxwell's electromagnetic theory predicts light waves to be transverse.

According to Maxwell, light is electromagnetic in nature, it consists of
oscillatory electric and magnetic field vectors that are perpendicular to
each other and also perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
wave as shown in figure.

Maxwell prediction was supported by experiments conducted by Young and his contemporaries.
In one of the experiment these scientist allowed a beam of light to be incident on a calcite
crystal. The beam gets splits up into two components. Though these two components are
coherent they could not produce interference. From this observation, Young concluded that light
wave is transverse in nature. Since the planes of vibrations of the two waves are perpendicular to
each other, they called not produce interference. The phenomenon of polarisation shows the
transverse nature of light waves.

POLARISATION: "The process of restricting the vibration of the electric field vector in a
particular plane is called Polarisation. "

REPRESENTATION OF POLARISED AND UNPOLARISED LIGHT:

UNPOLARISED LIGHT:

In electromagnetic waves, the electric vector at any given point is always perpendicular to the
direction of propagation. But there are infinite number of direction which are perpendicular to
the direction of propagation. So, the electric vector changes its direction randomly. As such,
ordinary or unpolarised light can be represented as shown in figure.

In the above figure, arrow represents the electric vectors with vibrations parallel to the plane of
the paper and dots represent the vibrations perpendicular to the plane of the paper.

PLANE POLARISED LIGHT:

If the vibrations are confined to a single plane (either in the direction along the plane of the paper
or in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the paper). then it is called plane polarized light
or linearly polarized light. A plane polarized light is represented as shown in figures.

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UNIT -I- WAVE OPTICS
 PARTIALLY POLARISED LIGHT:

If the plane polarized light contains small additional components of unpolarised light, it becomes
partially plane polarized light. Then it is represented by either more arrows and less dots or vice
versa as shown in figure.

CIRCULARLY POLARISED LIGHT:

In circular polarization, the electric vector of constant amplitude, no longer oscillates but rotates
while propagating in the form of helix. The projection of a wave on a plane intercepting the axis
of propagation gives a circle with the amplitude of the vector remaining constant.

If the vector rotates in the clockwise direction w.r.t the direction of propagation, it results in
Right circularly polarised light, while the rotation in the anticlock wise direction results in Left
circularly polarized light.

ELLIPTICALLY POLARISED LIGHT:

If the amplitude of the electric vector is not a constant but varies periodically then it results in
elliptically polarised light. For example, if the electric vector has minimum amplitude while
oscillating vertically and rotates while propagating to have maximum amplitude when oscillating
horizontally as shown in figure, then it results elliptically polarized light.

PRODUCTION OF PLANE POLARISED LIGHT:

When unpolarised light is passed through a pair of

tourmaline Crystal plate P1 and P2 with airplane of right
angles to the direction of propagation of light(fig.1), the
intensity is maximum in this position. But when the plane
P2 is rotated through 90° i.e., the plane of P2 who is
perpendicular to the plane of P1(fig.2),, the intensity is
minimum in this position. This shows that light is a
transverse wave motion. It is also clear that after passing
through the Crystal P1, the light vibrates only in one
direction i.e., it is said to be polarizer because it has
acquired the property of one sidedness.

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UNIT -I- WAVE OPTICS
 PLANE OF VIBRATION AND PLANE OF POLARIZATION

The plane containing the direction

of vibrations of electric vector as
well as the direction of propagation
is called plane of vibration. The
plane passing through the direction
of propagation and perpendicular to
the the plane of vibration is known
as plane of polarization.

PLANE POLARISED LIGHT BY REFLECTION

In 1808, French scientist Malus found that when a beam of

unpolarised light is reflected from the surface of a transparent
medium like Glass or water, the reflected light is partially or
completely polarized. The degree of polarization change it
with angle of incidence. For a particular angle of incidence
called polarising angle (ip), the reflected beam is completely
plane polarised with plane of vibration perpendicular to the
plane of incidence. The angle of polarisation is also known as
Brewster's angle
In figure an unpolarised light AB is incident on glass surface XY. BC is the reflected ray, it
contains a light wave whose plane of vibration is perpendicular to the plane of incident(with all
dot components).Thus, the reflected light is, although week, is plane polarised. For ordinary
glass the angle of polarisation is 57.5°.

Brewster's Law

The tangent of the angle of polarization (ip) is numerically equal to the refractive index (μ) of the
medium. This is known as Brewster's Law.

μ = Tan (ip)
Applying Snell's law at the surface XY, we get, sin ip /sin r = μ/ μo
From fig (ip + r) = 90° = = r = (90- ip)
μ/ μo = sin ip /sin (90- ip) = sin ip/cos ip = Tan ip
For air μ = 1, μ = Tan ip
We know that μ varies with incident wavelength. Hence, the angle of polarization will be
different for different wavelengths.
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UNIT -I- WAVE OPTICS
PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT BY DOUBLE REFRACTION:

In 1669 , Erasmus Bartholinus discovered that when

a Ray of light is incident on the calcite crystal, the
ray is split into two refracted rays as it enters the
crystal. This phenomenon is known as "double
refraction" or "birefringence".

Consider a calcite crystal place on an ink dot made on a white paper. When viewed
through the top of the crystal two images of the ink dot are seen. If the crystal is rotated, one of
the image of the ink dot remains stationary, while the other rotates about the former in the
direction of rotation. The stationary image is known as ordinary image (O) and the rotated one is
called extraordinary image (e).

Ordinary ray and extra ordinary ray:

The ray which obeys Snell's law is called ordinary ray (o-ray). It travels through the crystal with
the same velocity Vo in all directions. Hence, for the o-ray the secondary wavefront is spherical
and the value of refractive index μo remains constant for all the angles of incidence.

The ray which does not obeys Snell's law is called extraordinary ray (e-ray). It travels
with a velocity Ve which varies with direction. For the e-ray the secondary wavefront is
ellipsoidal and the value of refractive index μe varies with the angles of incidence.

Along the optic axis both o-ray and e-ray travel with the sound velocity and the
difference is maximum along the direction perpendicular to the optkc axis as shown in figure.
In some crystals such as quartz, in a direction
perpendicular to the optic axis. The velocity of
e-ray is less than that of o-ray. The ellipsoidal
wavefront of e-ray lies with in the spherical
wavefront of o-ray(Fig-a). Such crystals are
known as positive uniaxial crystal. In other
crystals, such as calcite, the ellipsoidal
wavefront of e-ray lies outside the spherical
wavefront of o-ray(Fig. b). Such crystals are
NICOL PRISM: known as negative uniaxial crystals.

Nicol Prism is an optical device used to produce and analyse plane polarized light. It was
invented by William Nicol in 1820. It is made from a double refracting calcite crystal. It was
designed in such a way that it can transmit the extra ordinary rays and cut off the ordinary rays.
Thus, the emergent light from a nicol prism is a plane polarised light.

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UNIT -I- WAVE OPTICS
Construction:
Nicol prism was constructed using a calcite crystal
having a length three times that of its breadth.
Consider a calcite crystal in which blunt corners. It
is a rhombohedran shaped. The plane is the principal
section of the crystal with 71° and 109° and it
consists of optic axis. The upper and lower faces are
grounded, so that the angles are reduced from 71° to
68°.
The crystal is cut into two and cut faces are highly polished until they are optically flat and the
cemented together with canadabalsam. The refractive index of candabalsam for sodium light
(λ=5893Å) is 1.550 and is in between the refractive index of ordinary (μ o=1.658) and extra
ordinary (μe=1.486) rays in calcite crystals

Production of Polarised light

Above figure shows the BDFH. Now
consider a ray of light SM and is made
to be incident on the front face DB of
the nicol prism. The incident ray is
splitted into two rays namely ordinary
(o-ray) and extra ordinary (e-ray) rays.
The canadabalsam layer acts as rarer
medium for the o-ray. Thus, the o-ray
travels from a denser medium (calcite)
to rarer medium (canadabalsam).

When the angle of incidence for o-ray at the canadabalsam layer is greater than the critical angle,
it undergoes total internal reflection. The critical angle for the o-ray for calcite crystal to
canadabalsam layer is 69.2° (θc=sin-1(1.550/1.658)).

In order to make the angle of incidence made by the o-ray at the calcite-candabalsam interface
more than the critical angle, the angle between the upper and lower surfaces of the calcite crystal
is reduced from 71° to 68° and the length of the crystal is taken as three times larger as that of its
breadth.

For the e-rays, the canadabalsam layer acts as denser medium. Therefore it travels from a rarer
medium to denser medium and hence it travels in a straight line and emerged out from the nicol
prism. The emergent light is a plane polarized light.

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UNIT -I- WAVE OPTICS
Nicol Prism as analyser:

When a nicol prism, P is place in the path of unpolarised light, it transmits the extraordinary rays.
If another nicol prism, Analyser (A) is placed parallel to the first one the extraordinary ray is
passed through it. If the second nicol prism is rotated through 90° taking the incident beam as an
light axis is extinguished. The emergent beam from the second nicol prism is extinguished two
times and it has minimum intensity two times within one complete rotation. The first nicol prism
is known as analyser. Thus, a nicol prism can be used as polarizer as well as analyser.

QUARTER AND HALF WAVE PLATE:

A Wave plate is an optical device made from a double refracting

crystals like calcite or quartz. Let us consider a calcite crystal
plate cuts with optic axis parallel to the surface. When a plane
polarized light of wavelength λ falls normally on the crystal
surface. The light split up into o-ray and e-ray as shown in figure.
Both ordinary and extra ordinary rays travel along the same path
with different velocities. We know that in the case of a calcite
crystal. the velocity of e-ray is greater than the o-ray. As a result,
a phase difference is introduced between them.

Let μo and μe be the refraction indices of ordinary and extraordinary rays respectively. If t is the
thickness of the plate then

Optical path of O-ray = μot ; Optical path of e-ray = μet

Optical path difference between o-ray and e-ray = (μo- μe )t
If the thickness of the plate is cut in such a way that it can produce a path difference of λ/4 or a
phase difference of π/2 between o-ray and e-ray, then the plate is called Quarter Wave plate.

(μo- μe )t = λ/4 (or) t= λ/4(μo- μe )

If the thickness of the plate is cut in such a way that it can produce a path difference of λ/2 or a
phase difference of π between o-ray and e-ray, then the plate is called Half Wave plate.
(μo- μe )t = λ/2 (or) t= λ/2(μo- μe )

Applications:

1) Wave plates are very useful in production and analysis of polarized light of different kinds.
2) A Quarter wave plate is used to produce circularly polarized light, if the incident light makes
an angle of 45° with the optic axis and elliptically polarized light for other incidence angles.
3) The emergent light from a Half wave plate is a plane polarized light.

19
UNIT -I- WAVE OPTICS
 15-48 Engineering Physics

Solved Problems
1. Two coherent sources of intensity 10 W/m2 and 25 W/m2 interfere to from fringes. Find the ratio of maximum
intensity to minimum intensity.
[May 2004, Set No. 1; May 2003, Set No. 2]
Sol: We know the intensity (I ) = a2 [square of amplitude]
I 1 a12 10
on this bases = =
I 2 a22 25

a1 3.1623
or =
a2 5
 3.1623 
i.e a1 =   a2 = 0.6324 a2
 5 
Ratio of Imax to Imin is
 2
I max (a1 + a2 )
2
0.6324 a2 + a2 
= = 
I min (a − a )2  2
1 2 06324 a2 − a2 
 
2

=
(1.6324 a ) 2
=
2.6647
= 19.724
−0.3675a2  2 0.1351
 

2. In a double slit experiment a light of λ = 5460 Å is exposed to slits which are 0.1 mm a part. The screen is placed
2 m away from the slits. What is the angular position of the 10 th maximum and 1st minimum?
[ June 2005, Set No. 3]
Sol: The given data are

Wave length of light (λ) = 5460 Å = 5460 × 10-10 m

Separation between slits (2d ) = 0.1 mm = 1 × 10-4 m

Distance of screen (D) = 2 m

Angular position of 10th maximum (φmax 10) = ?

Angular position of 1st minimum (φmin 1) = ?

nλD
Condition for maximum intensity is xn =
2d
10 × 5460 × 10−10 × 2
Distance of 10th maximum, X max 10=
1× 10−4
= 0.1092 m
xmax 10
10th maximum angular position, tan φmax 10 =
D

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 Optics 15-49

0.1092
∴ tan θmax 10 = 0.0546 radians
2
= 3°7 ′37 ′′

(2n - 1)λD
Condition for minimum intensity is xn
4d

λD λD 5460 × 10−10 × 2
Distance of 1 minimum, xmin 1 =
st = =
4d 2 × 2d 2 × 10−4

= 5460 × 10−6 m

xmin 1
Angular position of 1st minimum is (tan φ min 1) =
D
−6
5460 × 10
= = 0.00273 radians = 0.156° = 0°9′23′′
2
3. A soap film of refractive index 1.33 and thickness 5000 Å is exposed to white light. What wave lengths in the
visible region are reflected?
Sol: The given date are
Refractive index of soap (µ) = 1.33
Thickness of soap film (t) = 5000 Å = 5000 × 10-10 m
What wave lengths in the visible light are reflected?
The incident light reflected on both surfaces of film combine to produce interference. So, the condition for
constructive interference is used for reflection.
λ
i.e 2µt cos r - = nλ
2
For maximum reflection cos r = 1
λ
then 2µt - = nλ
2
4 µt
or λ =
2(n + 1)
Substituting values,
4 × 1.33 × 5000 × 10−10 26600 × 10−10
λ= = m
2n + 1 2n + 1

For n = 0 λ1 = 26600 × 10-10 m (IR region)

26600 × 10−10
n=1 λ2 = m = 8666.67 × 10-10 m (IR region)
3
26600 × 10−10
n=2 λ3 = m = 5320 × 10-10 m (Visible region)
5

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 15-50 Engineering Physics

26600 × 10−10
n=3 λ4 = m = 3800 × 10-10 m (UV region)
7
From the above wave lengths, 5320 Å lies in the visible region. This wave length of white light is
reflected maximum.
4. In a Newton’s rings experiment the diameter of the 15th ring was found to be 0.59 cm and that of the 5th ring is
0.336 cm. If the radius of curvature of the lens is 100 cm, find the wave length of the light.
[ June 2005, Set No. 2]
Sol: The given data are
Diameter of Newton’s 15th ring (D15) = 0.59 cm = 0.59×10-2 m
Diameter of Newton’s 5th ring (D5) = 0.336 cm = 0.336 × 10-2 m
Radius of curvature of lens (R) = 100 cm = 1 m
Wave length of light (λ) = ?
2 2
D 2 − Dn2 (0.59 × 10 ) − (0.336 × 10 )
−2 −2

λ = n +m =
4mR 4 × 10 × 1
0.3481× 10−4 − 0.112896 × 10−4 0.235204 × 10−4
= =
40 40
= 0.00588 × 10−4 m = 5880 × 10−10 m = 5880 Å

5. Newton’s rings are observed in the reflected light of wave length 5900 Å. The diameter of 10 th dark ring is 0.5 cm.
Find the radius of curvature of the lens used.
[ June 2005, Set No. 4]

Sol: The given data are

Wave length of light (λ) = 5900 Å= 5900 × 10-10 m

Diameter of 10th Newton’s dark ring (D10) = 0.5 cm = 0.5 × 10-2 m

Radius of curvature of lens (R) = ?

Formula is Dn2 = 4nλR

Dn2 ( 0.5 × 10−2 ) 2

or R = =
4nλ 4 × 10 × 5900 × 10−10
0.25× 10−4
= = 1.0059 m
236 × 10−7

6. Light waves of wave length 650 nm and 500 nm produce interference fringes on a screen at a distance of 1 m
from a double slit of separation 0.5 mm. Find the least distance of a point from the central maximum where the
bright fringe due to both sources coincide.
[ June 2004, Set No. 2; May 2003, Set No. 3]

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 Optics 15-51

Sol: Given data are

Wave length of first source (λ1) = 650 nm

Wave length of second source (λ2) = 500 nm
Distance of screen (D) = 1 m
Separation between slits (2d ) = 0.5 mm = 0.5 × 10-3 m

Distance from central maximum where bright fringes due to both sources coincide (x) = ?

Let us consider the nth bright fringe of the first source and the mth bright fringe of the second source coin-
cide at a distance of ‘x’ from central maximum.

Then,
nλ1 D mλ2 D
x= =
2d 2d
or,
nλ1 = mλ2

or,

n λ2 500 10
= = =
m λ1 650 13

∴ 10th bright fringe due to the first source coincides with 13th bright fringe due to second source.

nλ1 D 10 × 650 × 10−9 × 1

Also, x = = = 0.013 m = 13 mm
2d 0.5 × 10−3
∴ The bright fringes of both sources will coincide at a distance of 13 mm from central maximum.

7. Calculate the thickness of air film at the 10 th dark ring in a Newton’s rings system, viewed normally by a reflected
light of wave length 500 nm. The diameter of the 10th dark ring is 2 mm.
[ June 2004, Set No. 4]
Sol: Given data are

Wave length of light (λ) = 500 nm = 500 × 10-9 m

Number of the dark ring viewed (n) = 10

Diameter of 10th dark ring (D10) = 2 mm = 2 × 10-3 m

D10
Radius of 10th dark ring (r10) = = 1× 10−3 m
2
Thickness of air film (t) = ?

Condition for dark ring is

Dn = 4nλR

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 15-52 Engineering Physics

or Dn2 = 4nλR

Dn2 ( 2 × 10−3 ) 2 4 × 10−6

or R = = = = 0.2 m
4nλ 4 × 10 × 500 × 10−9 40 × 500 × 10−9

rn2 (10−3 ) 2
Also t = = = 2.5 × 10−6 m = 2.5 µm
2R 2 × 0.2

8. Two slits separated by a distance of 0.2 mm are illuminated by a monochromatic light of wave length 550 nm.
Calculate the fringe width on a screen at a distance of 1 m from the slits.
[ June 2004, Set No. 3]
Sol: The given data are
Separation between the slits (2d ) = 0.2 mm = 0.2 × 10-3 m
Wave length of light (λ) = 550 nm = 550 × 10-9 m
Distance of the screen (D) = 1 m
Fringe width (β ) = ?

λD 500 × 10−9 × 1 500 × 10−6

β= = = = 2750 × 10−6 m
2d 0.2 × 10−3 0.2
= 2.75 × 10−3 m = 2.75 mm

9. Light of wave length 500 nm forms an interference pattern on a screen at a distance of 2 m from the slit. If 100
fringes are formed within a distance of 5 cm on the screen, find the distance between the slits.
[May 2003, Set No. 4]
Sol: The given data are

Wave length of light (λ) = 500 nm = 500 × 10-9 m

Distance of screen (D) = 2 m

5 50
Fringe width ( β ) = cm = mm = 0.5 mm
100 100
−3
= 0.5 × 10 m

Separation between slits (2d ) = ?

λD
We know β =
2d

λD 500 × 10−9 × 2
or 2d = = = 2 × 10−3 m = 2 mm
β 0.5 × 10−3

10. Two coherent sources whose intensity ratio is 36:1 produce interference fringes. Deduce the ratio of maximum
intensity to minimum intensity.
[May 2008, Set No. 2]

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 Optics 15-53

Sol: Intensities ratio of coherent sources = a12 : a22 = 36 : 1

∴ a1 : a2 = 6 : 1
Minimum intensity of the interference fringe = (a1 - a2)2
= (6 - 1)2 = 25
Maximum intensity of the interference fringe = (a1 + a2)2
= (6 + 1)2 = 49
The ratio of maximum intensity to minimum intensity = 49 : 25 ≈ 2 : 1

11. In a Newton’s ring experiment, the diameter of the 5th ring is 0.30 cm and diameter of the 15th ring is 0.62 cm.
Find the diameter of the 25th ring.
[ June 2009, Set No. 3]

Sol: Diameter of Newton’s 5th ring = 0.30 cm

Diameter of Newton’s 15th ring = 0.62 cm

and Diameter of Newton’s 25th ring = ?

From Newton’s rings experiment we know

Dn2+m − Dn2
λ= _________(14.26)
4mR

or Dn2+m − Dn2 = 4λmR

For 5th and 15th rings

2
D15 − D52 = 4λ × 10 × R _________ (1) (m = 10)

For 15 and 25 rings

th th

2 2
D25 − D15 = 4λ × 10 × R _________ (2) (m = 10)

Equation (2) = Equation (1)

2 2 2
D25 − D15 = D15 − D52
2 2
or D25 = 2 D15 − D52

Substituting the values,

2
D25 = 2 × 0.62 × 0.62 − 0.3 × 0.3 = 0.6788 cm 2

∴ D25 = 0.8239 cm
12. A single slit of width 4 × 10–8 mm is illuminated by a monochromatic light of wavelength 6000A°. Find the
angular separation of the diffracted first-order minimum from the central maximum.
Sol: The expression for minimum intensity due to single slit diffraction is
e sin θm = m λ, where m = 1, 2, 3, ...

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 15-54 Engineering Physics

For first-order diffraction m = 1, it is

e sin θ1 = 1 . λ
width of slit, e = 4 × 10–3 mm = 4 × 10–6 m
wavelength of light, λ = 6000 Å = 6000 × 10–10 m
λ 6000 × 10−10 0.3
sin θ1 = = =
e 4 × 10−6 2
−1  0.3 
θ1 = sin   = 8 37 ′ 37 ′′
°
 2 

13. A monochromatic light of wavelength 6000 × 10–8 cm is diffracted by a single slit kept at a distance of 100 cm
from the screen. The first diffracted minimum appears at a distance of 1 mm from the central maximum. Find the
width of the slit.

Sol: Wavelength of light, λ = 6000 × 10–8 cm = 600 × 10–10 m

The distance to the first minimum, d = 1 mm = 1 × 10–3 m
Distance of separation between slit and screen, D = 100 cm = 1 m
d 10−3 m
Hence, sin θ1 ≈ = = 10−3
D 1m
we know e sin θ1 = 1λ
λ 6000 × 10−10 m
e= = = 6 × 10−4 m
sin θ1 10−3

14. A monochromatic light of wavelength 5500 Å is incident on a single slit of width 0.3 mm and gets diffracted. Find
the diffraction angles for the first minimum and the next maximum.

Sol: Wave length of light, λ = 5500Å = 5500 × 10–10 m

width of the slit, e = 0.3 mm = 0.3 × 10–3 m
The diffraction angle for the first minimum is given using the formula e sin θn = nλ
λ
i.e. sin θ1 =
e
λ   5500 × 10−10  
−1  0.55 × 10
−3 

θ1 = sin−1   = sin−1   = sin 
 
e  0.3 × 10−3  0.3
 0.00055 
θ1 = sin−1   = 0° 6′ 18′′
 0.3 
For the first maximum from the central maximum, the formula is
3λ
e sin θ1′ =
2
3λ  3 × 5500 × 10−10 
θ1′ = sin−1 = sin−1   = sin−1 0.0028
2e  2 × 0.3 × 10−3 
= 0° 9′ 27 ′′

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 Optics 15-55

15. A circular aperture of diameter 0.1 mm is illuminated with sodium monochromatic light of wavelength 5893Å.
The distance between the screen and lens is 1 m. Find the separation between the central disc and the first secondary
minimum.

Sol: The diameter of the circular aperture, d = 0.1 mm = 1 × 10–4 m

Wavelength of sodium light, λ = 5893 Å = 5893 × 10–10m
The distance between screen and lens, f = 1 m
1.22 f λ 1.22 × 1× 5893 × 10−10
The radius of Airy’s disc x = =
d 1× 10−4
= 0.7189 cm
16. Mercury light is normally incident on a grating. The diffraction angle in the first-order spectrum for a green spectral
line of wavelength 5460Å is 20°. Find the number of lines per cm of grating.
Sol: The diffraction angle for green line, θg = 20°
Wavelength of green light, λg = 5460 Å = 5460 × 10-10m
Order of diffraction, m = 1
No. of lines per cm, N = ?
Formula is nNλ = sin θ
sin θ sin 20°
N = = = 6, 26, 373.6 lines / m
nλ 1× 5460 × 10−10
= 6263.7 lines / cm

17. A monochromatic light of wavelength 6560 Å is normally incident on a plane diffraction grating. The first-order
spectral line is obtained at an angle of 18 ° 14 ′. Find the number of lines per cm on the grating.

Sol: Wavelength of monochromatic light, λ = 6560 Å = 6560 × 10–10 m

First order diffraction, n = 1
Angle of diffraction, θ = 18° 14′
Number of lines per cm = ?
Formula is n N λ = sin θ
sin θ sin 18° 14 ′
N = = m = 476981.7 lines / m
nλ 1× 6560 × 10−10
= 4769.817 lin
nes / cm

18. There are 15000 lines per inch in a grating. What is the maximum number of orders obtained by using light of
wavelength 6000 Å?
Sol: Wavelength of light, λ = 6000 Å = 6000 × 10–10 m
15000
Number of lines on grating, N = 15000 lines / inch = lines / cm
2.54
1500000
= lines / m
2.54
Maximum number of orders, nmax = ?

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 15-56 Engineering Physics

Formula is
n N λ = sin θ
nmax N λ = sin θmax = sin 90° = 1
1 2.54
nmax = = = 2.82
N λ 1500000 × 6000 × 100−10
\ We can observe the first and second orders of diffraction only.

19. Find the minimum number of lines required in a grating to resolve two spectral lines of wavelength 5890 Å and
5896 Å in second order diffraction.
 5890 + 5896   
Sol: The average wavelength, λ =   A = 5893 A
 2 
= 5893 × 10−10 m
the difference in wavelengths,
d λ = (5896 – 5890) Å = 6 Å
= 6 × 10-10m
Order of the spectrum, n = 2
Number of lines on the grating, N = ?
λ
= nN
dλ
1 λ 1 5893 × 10−10
N= = × = 491.08 lines
n dλ 2 6 × 10−10

20. Find the resolving power of a grating having 6000 lines/cm in the first order diffraction. The rolled length of the
grating is 15 cm.
Sol: Lines per cm length of grating = 6000 lines/cm
Total number of lines on the grating, N = 15 × 6000 = 90,000 lines
The formula is
λ
= nλ = 1× 90, 000 = 90, 000
dλ

21. Calculate the Brewster angle for (i) ethylalcohol for which µ = 1.361 (ii) carbontetrachloride for which µ = 1.461.

Sol: Brewster’s law is tan θp = µ

For ethylalcohol, µ = 1.361
so θp = tan–1 1.361 = 53° 41′ 36″
For carbon tetrachloride, µ = 1.461
so θp = tan–1 1.461 = 55° 36′ 35″

22. For flint glass material the Brewster angle is (θp) = 62 ° 24 ′. Find the refractive index of the material.

Sol: Brewster angle for flint glass, θp = 62 ° 24′

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 Optics 15-57

Refractive index, µ = ?
Brewster’s law is tan θp = µ
so µ = tan 62° 24′ = 1.9128

23. The refractive index of a polarizer is 1.54. Find the polarization angle and angle of refraction.

Sol: The refractive index of a polarizer, µ = 1.54

Brewster’s law is tan θp = µ
The polarization angle, θp = tan–1 µ = tan–1 1.54 = 57°
we know
θp + θr = 90°
θr = 90° – 57° = 33°

24. The refractive indices of mica for ordinary and extraordinary rays are 1.586 and 1.592 with a wavelength of
5460 Å. Find the thickness of mica sheet to act as a quarter wave plate.

Sol: Wavelength of light, λ = 5460 Å = 5460 × 10–10 m

refractive index of o-ray, µo = 1.586
refractive index of e-ray, µe = 1.592
λ
For quarter wave plate, d =
4 (µe − µo )

5460 × 10−10 0.546 × 10−6

= = m = 22.75 × 10−6 m
4 (1.592 − 1.586) 0.024

25. For calcite crystal µe = 1.486 and µo = 1.658 for a light of wavelength λ = 5893 × 10 –10m. Find the thickness
of the calcite crystal to produce circularly polarized light.
Sol: To produce circularly polarized light, the path difference between the two rays should be λ/4. So quarter
wave plate is to be required. So

λ
d=
4 (µo − µe )
Wavelength of light, λ = 5893 Å = 5893 × 10–10 m
µe = 1.486 and µo = 1.658

5893 × 10−10 m
Hence, d= = 8.5654 × 10−7 m
(
4 1.658 −1.486 )

Multiple-choice Questions
1. The process of waves appearing with different intensity at a point when a number of waves pass through a
point in a medium is known as ___________.
(a) interference (b) diffraction (c) polarization (d) all

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