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BIO2 Reviewer
BIO2 Reviewer
BIO2 Reviewer
2. Fred Griffith – transferred hereditary material from dead cells to live cells; he used two strains of
Streptococcus pneumoniae in his experiment
Mice A – injected with live R cells, lived
Mice B – injected with live S cells, died
Mice C – injected with killed S cells, died
Mice D – injected with killed S cells and live R cells died, live S cells are found in the blood, harmless
bacteria can become transformed into disease-causing bacteria by a bacteria transformation factor
3. Oswald Avery and Maclyn McCarty – concluded that DNA is the transforming principle
4. Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase – radioactive phosphorus (32P) and radioactive sulfur (35S)
were used; bacteriophages transfer their DNA, not their coat proteins, into their hosts; concluded that
DNA, not protein, is the material that stores hereditary information
5. Rosalind Franklin – used x-ray crystallography to determine many aspects of DNA’s structure
6. James Watson and Francis Crick – constructed the DNA double helix model
DNA Structure
DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid; consist of 5-C sugar (deoxyribose), 3 phosphate groups, 1 of 4 nitrogen-
containing bases (purines: adenine, guanine; pyrimidines: thymine, cytosine)
Chargaff”s Rule
1st Rule: A=T, G=C
The hydrogen bonding of cytosine to guanine is an example of complementary base pairing.
2nd Rule: the proportion of adenine and guanine differs among species
Okazaki fragments – are short sections of DNA formed at the time of discontinuous synthesis of the
lagging strand during replication of DNA
Leading strand – synthesized by adding nucleotides to the 3’ end of the growing strand, replicated
continuously
Lagging strand – synthesized by adding nucleotides to the 5’ end, discontinuous replication
Semi-conservative DNA replication – consist of one old strand and one new strand
Mutations
Can occur as DNA replication errors, can be passed on to the next generation, can’t be repaired after
replication, it is not always dangerous
Agents of DNA Damage
1. Electromagnetic agents – ionizing radiation, UV light
2. Chemical agents – carcinogenic chemicals, environmental pollutants
2. Annealing – temperature is lowered to enable the DNA primers to attach to the template DNA
When two DNA pieces cut with the same restriction enzyme are combined, the sticky ends will
associate by complementary base pairing and hydrogen bonds
Genetic engineering
DNA is manipulated and moved from one source to another
Examples of GMOs
a. Bt Corn – have bacterial insecticide gene that acts as its protection from pests
b. Flavr Savr Tomatoes – meant to be harvested ripe for increased flavor for long-distance shipping
c. Golden Rice – a new type of rice that contains beta carotene
d. Aqua Advantage Salmon – to reach a growth marker important to the aquaculture industry more
rapidly than its non-GE farm-raised Atlantic salmon counterpart
e. Insulin Production - using recombinant DNA to produce human hormones from bacteria
f. GM Mosquitoes - mosquito bites will spread fewer cases of serious diseases including Malaria and
Zika
Time Span
1. Age: millions of years
2. Epoch: tens of millions of years
3. Period: one hundred million years
4. Era: seven hundred million years
5. Eon: half billion years or more
Fossil – preserved remains of organisms such as bones or shells of animals and leaves, seeds, or
woody parts of plants
6 Types of Fossils
1.Molds
● An impression made in a substrate
● It is the negative image of an organism
2.Casts
● When a mold such as tooth or bone is filled in
3.Petrified
● Organic material is converted into stone
● Form when minerals replace all or part of an organism
4.Original remains
● Preserved wholly (frozen in ice, trapped in tar pits, dried/ desiccated inside caves in arid regions or
encased in amber/ fossilized resin)
5.Carbon Film
● Carbon impression in sedimentary rocks
6. Ichnofossil (Trace Fossil)
● Geological record of the biological activities and behaviors of an organism
Evolution – the gradual process that occurs when genetic composition of a population changes over
successive generations; the genetic change in a population through multiple generations; it (at the
population level) refers to changes in the frequencies of genes in the population over time.
● If all organisms were the same, the entire population would be vulnerable to particular pathogens,
like viruses.
● All evolutionary adaptations (e.g. the origin of forelimbs) are the result of the gradual build-up of
genetic differences between organisms over geologic time
● In the evolutionary process, humans are unique, a totally new type of organism
Hardy-Weinberg Principle
● The original proportions of the genotypes in a population would remain constant from generation to
generation if certain assumptions are met.
Evidences of Evolution
1. Paleontology – the study of fossils
● Radioactive isotopes are being used in absolute dating: potassium-argon dating, carbon dating
● Distinguishing the ancestral state of a particular species by locating a specimen of a more distantly
related species to see if it has the same characteristic
Early Hominids
1. Australopithecus afarensis – Southern ape from afar region
2. Homo habilis – Handy man
3. Homo erectus – Upright man
4. Homo neanderthalensis – Wise person from the Neander Valley
5. Homo sapiens – Modern human
2. Geographical location – closely related animals and plants were separated when the continents
slowly drifted apart millions of years ago
Examples:
a. Llamas in South America and camels in North Africa and Asia
b. Tigers and rhinos in Sumatra came from Asia
c. Cockatoos and tree kangaroos in Sulawesi came from Australia
Biochemistry and DNA homology provide the most striking evidences for evolutionary relatedness
between 2 species
The 5 Kingdoms:
1. Animals (all multicellular animals)
2. Plants (all green plants)
3. Fungi (molds, mushrooms, yeast)
4. Prokaryotes (bacteria, blue-green algae)
5. Protista (single-cell eukaryotes, e.g. Amoeba)
2. Binomial nomenclature – naming of organisms using genus and species in Latin words
Examples:
a. Homo sapiens
b. Papio annubis and Papio cynocephalus which means that they belong in the same genus
● The first letter of the genus name should be capitalized while the species name should be in
lowercase
2. Natural classification system – based on natural affinities among the organisms and reflects the
evolutionary relationships of organisms
a. Phenetic – based on overall similarities, usually in morphology and other observable traits
b. Phylogenetic – based on evolutionary relationships between organisms
Dichotomous Key
● It is for the classification of organism using contrasting characteristics to divide the organisms in
the key into smaller and smaller groups
Cladogram
● A branching tree-like diagram used to illustrate evolutionary (phylogenetic) relationships among
organisms.
● The basis in constructing cladogram is the shared characteristics
● Each line represents a lineage
● Each node or point of divergence branching into 2 lineages/descendance called sister groups,
indicating evolutionary divergence from a common ancestor
● The organisms which have a more recent common ancestor in a cladogram are more related to
each other.
Phylogeny
● The evolutionary history of a species or group of species
● Character - a quantifiable, heritable trait
Examples: number of segments in a backbone, the presence of wings
Clade
● Group sharing one or more derived traits
● Each species is a clade
● A hypothesis based on the available information