CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Hand-out No. 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Hand-out No. 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS Time Frame: 4 hours

Learning Objectives
 Discuss the laws of mass conservation, definite composition, and multiple proportions
 Demonstrate the use of mass ratio of element to compound to find the mass of an element in a compound

Content Outline
1. The Atomic Theory
2. The Structure of the Atom
3. Atomic Number, Mass Number, Isotopes
4. The Periodic Table
5. Molecules and Ions

THE ATOMIC THEORY

There are observations during the 18th century that led to the Atomic Theory today namely the law of mass
conservation, the law of definite (or constant) composition and the law of multiple proportions.
 The Law of Mass Conservation states that the total mass of substances does not change during a
chemical reaction. The number of substances may change but the total amount of matter remains
constant. Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794), the great French chemist and statesman, had first stated this
law on the basis of experiments in which he reacted mercury with oxygen. He found the mass of oxygen
plus the mass of mercury always equalled the mass of mercuric oxide that formed. Mass conservation
means that matter cannot be created or destroyed.
 The Law of Definite (or Constant) Composition states that no matter what its source, a particular
compound (pure sample) is composed of the same elements in the same parts by mass. The fraction by
mass (mass fraction) is that part of the compound's mass contributed by the element. It is obtained by
dividing the mass of each element by the total mass of compound. The percent by mass (mass percent,
mass %) is the fraction by mass expressed as a percentage.
Consider 20 g of water which is composed of hydrogen and oxygen and each is present in a fixed
fraction (or percent) by mass. The following results on mass fraction and percent by mass are obtained
and are presented in Table 2A.1.

Table 2.1 Mass Analysis of Water

Analysis by Mass Mass Fraction Percent by Mass
(grams/20.0 g) (parts/1.0 part) (parts/100 parts)
2.2 g hydrogen 0.11 hydrogen 11% hydrogen
17.8 g oxygen 0.89 oxygen 89% oxygen
20.0 g 1.0 part by mass 100% by mass

Because a given element always constitutes the same mass fraction of a given compound, we can use
that mass fraction to find the actual mass of the element in any sample of the compound:

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CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Hand-out No. 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

EXAMPLE 2.1
Pitchblende is the most commercially important compound of uranium. Analysis shows that 84.2 g of pitchblende
contains 71.4 g of uranium, with oxygen as the only other element. How many grams of uranium can be obtained from
102 kg of pitchblende?

SOLUTION

h
h
h

000 h h
0 k h
k h 8 h

𝟖𝟔, 𝟒𝟗𝟒 𝟎𝟔 𝐠 𝐮𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐢𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐜𝐡𝐛𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐞

 The Law of Multiple Proportions states that if elements A and B react to form two compounds, the
different masses of B that combine with a fixed mass of A can be expressed as a ratio of small whole
numbers.
Consider two compounds that form from carbon and oxygen; for now, let's call them carbon oxides I and
II. Analysis shows that their compositions by mass are

Carbon oxide 1: 57.1 mass % oxygen and 42.9 mass % carbon

Carbon oxide II: 72.7 mass % oxygen and 27.3 mass % carbon

To see the phenomenon of multiple proportions, we use the mass percents of oxygen and of carbon in
each compound to find the masses of these elements in a given mass, for example, 100 g, of each
compound. Then we divide the mass of oxygen by the mass of carbon in each compound to obtain the
mass of oxygen that combines with a fixed mass of carbon as shown in Table 2A.2.

Table 2.2 Mass Analysis of Carbon Oxide I and II

Carbon Oxide I Carbon Oxide II
g oxygen/100 g compound 57.1 72.7
g carbon100 g compound 42.9 27.3
g oxygen/g carbon

If we then divide the grams of oxygen per gram of carbon in II by that in I, we obtain a ratio of small
whole numbers:

⁄
⁄

The law of multiple proportions tells us that in two compounds of the same elements, the mass fraction
of one element relative to the other element changes in increments based on ratios of small whole
numbers. Sometimes, the ratio does not appear to be integral at first, but it can be converted to an
integral ratio while keeping the value the same by multiplying both numerator and denominator by the
same small integer.

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CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Hand-out No. 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

EXAMPLE 2.2
The percent compositions of nitrogen dioxide and dinitrogen trioxide are as follows:
Nitrogen dioxide Dinitrogen trioxide
30.45% nitrogen 36.85% nitrogen
69.55% oxygen 63.15% oxygen
Show that these data follow the law of multiple proportions.

SOLUTION
Per gram of nitrogen, the following mass of oxygen is present in each of the two compounds:
In nitrogen dioxide In dinitrogen trioxide
O 8 O O O
0 8
The ratio of grams of oxygen in nitrogen dioxide (per gram of nitrogen) to grams of oxygen in dinitrogen trioxide (per
gram of nitrogen is
8 O 𝟒
O 0 0 𝟑

Structure of the Atom

An atom is an electrically neutral, spherical entity composed of a positively charged central nucleus
surrounded by one or more negatively charged electrons.
An atomic nucleus consists of protons and neutrons (the only exception is the simplest hydrogen
nucleus, which is a single proton). An atom is neutral because the number of protons in the nucleus equals the
number of electrons surrounding the nucleus.

The protons, neutrons, and electrons have the properties listed in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3 Properties of Subatomic Particles

Particle Charge Mass (amu) Location in the Atom
Proton 1+ 1.0073 In the nucleus
Neutron 0 1.0087 In the nucleus
Electron 1- 0.000549 Outside the nucleus

Atomic Number
The atomic number of an element equals the number of protons in the nucleus of each of its atoms. All
atoms of a particular element have the same atomic number, and each element has a different atomic number
from that of any other element.

Mass Number
The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is its mass number. Each proton
and each neutron contributes one unit to the mass number. The mass number is the sum of protons and
neutrons, so the number of neutrons equals the mass number minus the atomic number:

Atomic Symbol
The nuclear mass number and charge are often written with the atomic symbol (or element symbol).
Every element has a symbol based on its English, Latin, or Greek name, such as C for carbon, O for oxygen, S
for sulfur, and Na for sodium (Latin natrium).

Isotopes and Atomic Masses of the Elements

All atoms of an element are identical in atomic number but not in mass number. Isotopes of an element
are atoms that have different numbers of neutrons and therefore different mass numbers. For example, carbon
has many isotopes and is usually written as 13C with the superscript as its mass number.

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CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Hand-out No. 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

The Periodic Table

The periodic table, also known as the periodic table of elements, is a tabular display of the chemical
elements, which are arranged by atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical properties.
All the elements in any horizontal row of the periodic table are said to be in the same period. There are
seven periods. The periods are conventionally numbered with the Arabic numerals 1 through 7 as shown in
Figure 2.1.
The elements in any vertical column in the periodic table are in the same group, or family. They have
similar chemical properties, which change gradually from each one to the one below it. The groups have been
given two sets of group numbers as shown in Figure 2.1.The classical group numbers are Roman numerals
followed by a letter A or B. Five groups have family names. The alkali metals include all the elements of group
IA (1) except hydrogen. The alkaline earth metals are the elements of periodic group IIA (2), and the coinage
metals are those of group IB (11). The halogens form group VIIA (17), and the noble gases constitute group 0
(18).

Figure 2.1 Groups and Periods (Goldberg, 2007, p. 13)

Another major classification of the elements in terms of the periodic table is shown in Figure 2.2. Three
areas are defined and named the main group elements, the transition elements, and the inner transition
elements. The transition elements are often divided into four rows of elements, called the first, second, third, and
fourth transition series. The two inner transition series fit into the periodic table in periods 6 and 7, right after
lanthanum (La) and actinium (Ac), respectively. The first series of inner transition elements is called the
lanthanide series; the second series is called the actinide series. These elements are conventionally placed
below the others so as not to make the periodic table too wide. All of the elements in the actinide series are
radioactive.

Figure 2.2 Main Group Elements, Transition Elements, and Inner Transition Elements (Goldberg, 2007, p. 15)

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CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Hand-out No. 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

We can also divide the elements into metals and nonmetals because each of these classes has some
distinctive properties common to all their members. In the periodic table, the metals are to the left of a stepped
line starting to the left of boron (B) and continuing downward and to the right, ending to the left of astatine (At)
(Figure 2.3). Except for hydrogen, all the nonmetals are to the right of this line. As we can see, the metallic
elements greatly outnumber the nonmetallic elements. The properties of the elements vary gradually across the
periodic table. Several of the elements near the stepped line have some properties of metals and some
properties of nonmetals; they are sometimes called metalloids.

Figure 2.3 Metals and Nonmetals (Goldberg, 2007, p. 25)

Hydrogen is unique in its properties. It is placed on the side of the stepped line with the metals because
it has many chemical properties similar to those of metals.

EXERCISES:

1. A compound of copper and sulfur contains 88.39 g of metal and 44.61 g of nonmetal. How many grams
of copper are in 5264 kg of compound? How many grams of sulfur?

2. Fluorite, a mineral of calcium, is a compound of the metal with fluorine. Analysis shows that a 2.76-g
sample of fluorite contains 1.42 g of calcium. Calculate the (a) mass of fluorine in the sample; (b) mass
fractions of calcium and fluorine in fluorite; (c) mass percents of calcium and fluorine in fluorite.

3. Show, with calculations, how the following data illustrate the law of multiple proportions:
Compound 1: 47.5 mass % sulfur and 52.5 mass % chlorine
Compound 2: 3l.1 mass % sulfur and 68.9 mass % chlorine

4. Argon has three naturally occurring isotopes, 36Ar, 38Ar, and 40Ar. What is the mass number of each?
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are present in each?

5. Which element has atoms with average mass about 10 times those of the fluorine atom?

NOTE: All Examples and Exercise Problems used in this module is taken from
the textbook Fundamentals of Chemistry by David E. Goldberg.

References:

Silberberg, Martin S. (2007). Principles of General Chemistry. 1st Edition

Goldberg, David E. (2007). Fundamentals of Chemistry. 5th Edition

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CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Hand-out No. 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Rubric No. 1 Assessing and Grading of Ability to Perform Mathematical Computations

Level 100% 70% 40% 0%
Criteria* Does not meet
Exceeds expectations Meets expectations Needs improvement
expectations
The task is worked out The task is worked out The task is worked An insignificant
to completion, the steps to completion and out partially and the amount of the task is
shown are steps shown are steps shown are done, and/or the
Mathematical mathematically error- mathematically error- correct and could steps shown are
Content free, and the result is free; the result is potentially lead to a mathematically
(100%) correct and expressed correct but still correct result if wrong, unrelated or
in its required form. requires one or two worked through. inappropriate.
steps to bring it to its
required form.

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