CHAPTER 1

BASIC CONCEPTS IN ASSESSMENT

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the chapter, the students should able to:

1. Define the terms: assessment, evaluation, measurement, test, testing, formative

assessment, placement assessment, diagnostic assessment, summative assessment,
traditional assessment, portfolio assessment, performance assessment;
2. Discriminate the different purposes of assessment;
3. Differentiate the different types of assessment;
4. Identify and discuss the general principles of assessment;
5. Discuss the different guidelines for effective student assessment; and
6. Differentiate norm-referenced from criterion-referenced interpretation

INTRODUCTION

Assessment of Learning focuses on the development and utilization of assessment

tools to improve the teaching-learning process. It emphasizes on the use of testing for
measuring knowledge, comprehension and other thinking skills. As part of the overall
evaluation process, we need specifically to find out if the learners are actually learning
(changing their behavior) as a result of the teaching. This will show us whether the
teaching has been effective, which is ultimately the most important issue. Assessment is a
means of finding out what learning is taking place. As well as specific knowledge and skills,
we might also like to measure other changes in behavior related to personality’, social
skills, interests, learning styles, among others

There is a lot of debate about how to assess learning, and especially about how to
evaluate performance. Our objective give us guidance on what to assess, because they are
written in terms of what the learners should be able to do. Based on these objectives, it is
very useful to identify all the activities and skills which the learners will carry out, the
conditions under which they will perform these tasks and activities, the possible results
which might be obtained, and the standards by which their performance will be measured.

The assessment itself can be done in different ways:

1. Ask the learners to recall facts or principles) e.g.’ What is ‘x’?).

2. Ask the learner to apply given or recalled facts or principles (e.g.’ How does x help
you solve this problem?).
3. Ask the learner to select and apply facts and principles to solve a given problem
(e.g.’ What do you know that will help you solve this problem?).
 4. Ask the learner to formulate and solve her own problem by selecting, generating
and applying facts and principles (e.g.What I see as the problem here and how
can I reach a satisfying solution?).
5. Ask the leaner to perform tasks that shows mastery of the learning outcomes.

Once again, we need to stress the importance of participation, and this is especially
important in assessment and evaluation. Learners should be actively involved in both the
development o learning objectives, and as much as possible in their own assessment. In
many education systems, assessment is used as a tool for sorting students for selection
purposes (progression to a higher level of education, higher rewards, among others).
Assessment where students are compared with other is known as norm-referencing. It is
much better if learners are aware of what they need to learn and what they have learned,
so they can set their own targets and monitor their own progress. Of course, teachers and
trainers should advise the learners, and guide them in order to help them learn; this is the
key role if the teacher. Assessment of learners in relation to a particular target or level of
performance is called criterion-referencing.

DIFFERENT TERMINOLOGIES: ASSESSMENT, TEASTING, MEASUREMENT AND

EVALUATION

Assessment, measurement and evaluation mean many different things. These terms
are sometimes used interchangeably in the field of education. In this section, we shall point
out the fundamental different of the terms assessment, testing, measurement and
evaluation.

The term Assessment refers to the different components and activities of different
schools. An assessment can be used to student learning and in comparing student learning
with the learning goals of a academic program. Assessment is defined as an act or process
of collecting and interpreting information about student learning. Another source expands
this statement by adding that it is a systematic process of gathering, interpreting, and using
this information about student learning. It is a very powerful tool for education
improvement. It emphasizes on individual student or groups of individuals and on the
academic program of a certain educational institution. There are different purposes of
assessment such as: to provide feedback to students and to serve as diagnostic tool for
instruction. For this purpose assessment usually answer the questions, “Was the
instruction effective?” and “Did the students achieve the intended learning outcome?”

Assessment is a general term that includes different ways that the teachers used to
gather information in the classroom. Information that help teachers understand their
students, information that is used to plan and monitor their classroom instruction,
information that is used to a worthwhile classroom culture and information that is used for
testing and grading. The most common form of assessment is giving a test. Since test is a
form of assessment, hence, it also answer the question, “how does individual student
perform?” Test is formal and systematic instrument, usually paper and pencil procedure
designed to assess the quality, ability, skill or knowledge of the students by giving a set of
question in uniform manner. A test is one of the many types of assessment procedure used
to gather information about the performance of students, Hence, testing is one of the
different methods used to measure the level of performance or achievement of the
learners. Testing also refers to the administration, scoring, and interpretation of the
procedures designed to get information about the extent of the performance of the
students. Oral questionings, observations, projects, performances and portfolios are the
other assessment processes that will be discussed later in detail.

Measurement is a process of quantifying or assigning number to the individual’s

intelligence, personality, attitudes and values, and achievement f the students. In other
words, express the assessment data in terms of numerical values and answer the question,
“how much?” Common example of measurement is when a teacher gives scores to the test
of the students such as Renzelgot 23 correct answer out of 25 items in Mathematics test;
Princess Mae got 95% in her English first grading periodic test; Ronnick’s score 88% in his
laboratory test in Biology. In the examples, numerical values are used to represent the
performance of the students in different subjects.

After collecting the assessment data, the teacher will use this to make decisions or
judgment about the performance of the students in a certain instruction.

Evaluation refers to the process of judging the quality of what is good and what is
desirable. It is the comparison of data to a set of standard or learning criteria for the
purpose of judging the worth or quality. Examples, in judging the quality of an essay
written by the students about their opinion regarding the first state of the nation address of
Pres. Benigno C. Aquino, evaluation occurs after the assessment data has been collected
and synthesized because it is only in this time where teacher is in the position to make
judgment about the performance of the students. Teachers evaluate how well or to what
extent the students attained the instructional outcomes.

TYPES OF ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES

Classroom assessment procedures can be classified according to the nature of

assessment, format of assessment, use in the classroom instruction and methods of
interpreting the results (Gronlund and Linn,2000).

Nature of Assessment

1. Maximum Performance
 It is used to determine what individuals can do when performing at their
best. Examples of instruments using maximum performance are aptitude
tests and achievement tests.
2. Typical Performance
It is used to determine what individuals will do under natural conditions.
Examples of instruments using typical performance are attitude, interest, and
personality inventories, observational techniques and peer appraisal.

Format of Assessment

1. Fixed-choice Test
An assessment used to measure knowledge and skills effectively and
efficiently. Standard multiple-choice test is an example of instrument used in
fixed-choice test.
2. Complex-performance Assessment
An assessment procedure used to measure the performance of the learner in
context and on problems valued in their own right. Examples of instruments
used in complex-performance assessment are hands-on laboratory
experiment, projects, essays, oral presentation.

Role of Assessment in Classroom Instruction

“Teaching and Learning are reciprocal processes that depend on and affect one
another (Swearingen 2002 and Kellough, 1999).” The assessment component of the
instructional processes deals with the learning progress of the students and the teacher’s
effectiveness in imparting knowledge to the students.

Assessment enhances learning in the instructional processes of the result provides

feedbacks to both students and teachers. The information obtained from the assessment is
used to evaluate the teaching methodologies and strategies of the teacher. It is also used to
make teaching decisions. The result of assessment is used to diagnose the learning
problems of the students.

When planning assessment, it should start when teacher plans his instruction. That
is, when writing learning outcomes up to the time when the teachers assesses the extent of
achieving the learning outcomes. Teachers made decisions from the beginning if
instruction up to the end of instruction. There are four roles of assessment used in the
instructional process. The first is placement assessment, a type of assessment given at the
beginning if instruction. The second and third types of assessment are formative
assessment and diagnostic assessment and diagnostic assessment given during instruction
and the last is the summative assessment given at the end, of instruction.
1. Beginning of Instruction
Placement Assessment according to Gronlund, Linn, and Miller (2009) is
concerned with the entry performance and typically focuses on the questions: Does
the learner possess the knowledge and skills needed to begin the planned
instruction? To what extent has the learner already developed the understanding
and skills that are the goals of planned objectives? To what extent do the student’s
interest, work habits, and personality indicate that one mode of instruction might be
better than another? The purpose of placement assessment is to determine the
prerequisite skills, degree of mastery of the course objectives and the best mode
learning.
2. During Instruction
During the instructional process the main concern of a classroom teacher is
to monitor the learning progress of the students. Teacher should assess whether
students achieved the intended learning outcomes set for a particular lesson. If the
students achieved the planned learning outcomes, the teacher should provide a
feedback to reinforce learning. Based on recent researches, it shows that providing
feedback to students is the most significant strategy to move students forward in
their learning. Garnison and Ehringhaus (2007), stressed in their paper “Formative
and Summative Assessment in the Classroom,” that feedback provides students with
an understanding of what they are doing well, links to classroom learning. If it is not
achieved, the teacher will give a group ,or individual remediation. During this
process we shall consider formative assessment and diagnostic assessment.
Formative Assessment is a type of assessment used to monitor the learning
process of the students during instruction. The purposes of formative assessment
are the ,following: to provide immediate feedback to both student and teacher
regarding the success and failures of learning; to identify the learning errors that are
in need of correction; to provide teachers with information on how to modify
instruction; and also to improve learning and instruction.
Diagnostic Assessment is a type of assessment given at the beginning of
instruction or during instruction. It aims to identify the strengths and weaknesses of
the students regarding the topics t be discussed. The purpose of diagnostic
assessment are to determine the level of competence of the students; to identify the
students who already have knowledge about the lesson; to determine the causes of
learning problems that cannot be revealed by formative assessment; and to
formulate a plan for remedial action.
3. End of Instruction
Summative Assessmentis type of assessment usually given at the end of a
course or unit. The purposes of summative assessment are to determine the extend
to which the instructional objectives have been meet; to certify student mastery of
the intended learning outcomes as well as use it for assigning grades; to provide
 information for judging appropriateness of the instructional objectives; and to
determine the effectiveness of instruction.

Methods of Interpreting the Results

1. Norm-referenced Interpretation
It is used to describe student performance according to relative position in
some known group. In this method of interpretation it is assumed that the level of
performance of students will not vary much from one class to another class.
Examples: ranks 5th in a classroom group of 40.
2. Criterion-referenced Interpretation
It is used to describe students’ performance according to a specified domain
of clearly defined learning tasks. This method of interpretation is used when the
teacher wants to determine how well the students have learned specific knowledge
of skills in a certain course or subject matter. Examples: divide three-digit whole
numbers correctly and accurately; multiply binomial terms procedures correctly.

There are ways of describing classroom tests and other assessment procedures.
This table is a summary of the different types of assessment procedures that was adapted
and modified from Gronlund, Linn, and Miller (2009).

Classification Types of Function of Examples of

Assessment Assessment Instruments
Maximum It is used to Aptitude tests,
Performance determine what achievement tests
individuals can do
when performing at
their best.
Nature of
Typical It is used toAttitude, interest,
assessment
Performance determine what and personality
individuals will do inventories;
under naturalobservational
conditions. techniques; pee
appraisal
Form of Fixed-choice An assessment used Standard multiple-
Assessment Test to measure choice test
knowledge and skills
effectively and
efficiently.
Complex- An assessment Hands-on laboratory
performance procedure used to experiment, projects,
assessment measure the essays, oral
performance of the presentation
 learner in contexts
and on problems
valued in their own
right.
Placement An assessment Readiness tests,
procedure used to aptitude tests,
determine the pretests on course
learner’s objectives, self-
prerequisite skills, report inventories,
degree of mastery of observational
the course goals, techniques
and/ or best modes
of learning
Formative An assessment Teacher-made tests,
procedure used to custom made tests
determine the from textbook
learner’s learning publishers,
progress, provides observational
feedback to reinforce techniques
learning, and
corrects learning
Use in classroom errors.
instruction Diagnostic An assessment Published diagnostic
procedure used to tests, teacher-made
determine the diagnostic tests,
causes of learner’s observational
persistent learning techniques
difficulties such as
intellectual, physical,
emotional, and
environmental
difficulties.
Summative An assessment Teacher-made
procedure used to survey test,
determine the end- performance rating
of-course scales, product
achievement for scales
assigning grades or
certifying mastery of
objectives.
Criterion- It is used to describe Teacher-made tests,
referenced student performance custom-made tests
according to a from textbook
specified domain of publishers,
clearly defined observational
 learning tasks. techniques
Example: multiplies
three-digit to whole
numbers correctly
and accurately.
Norm- It is used to describe Standardized
Methods of Referenced student’s aptitude and
Interpreting performance achievement tests,
results according to relative teacher-made survey
position in some tests, interest
known group. inventories,
Example: rank 5th in adjustment
a classroom group of inventories.
40.
OTHER TYPES OF TEST

Other types of descriptive terms used to describe tests in contrasting types such as
the non-standardized versus standardized tests; objective versus subjective tests; supply
versus fixed-response test; individual versus group test; mastery versus survey tests, speed
versus power tests.

Non-standardized Test versus Standardized Test

1. Non-standardized test is a type of test developed by the classroom teachers.

2. Standardized test is a type of test developed by test specialists. It is administered,
scored and interpreted using a certain standard condition.

Objective Test versus Subjective Test

1. Objective test us a type of test in which two or more evaluators give an examinee the
same score.
2. Subjective test is a type of test in which the scores are influenced by the judgment of
the evaluators, meaning there is no one correct answer.

Supply Test versus Fixed-response Test

1. Supply test is a type of test that requires the examinees to supply an answer, such as
an essay test item or completion or short answer test item.
2. Fixed-response test is a type of test that requires the examinees to select an answer
from a given option such as multiple-choice test, matching type of test, or true/ false
test.

Individual Test versus Group Test

 1. Individual test is a type of test administered to student on a one-on-one basis using
oral questioning.
2. Group test is a type of test administered to a group of individuals or group of
students.

Mastery Test versus Survey Test

1. Mastery test is a type of achievement test that measures the degree of mastery of a
limited set of learning outcomes using criterion-reference to interpret the result.
2. Survey test is a type of test that measurers students’ general achievement over a
broad range of learning outcomes using norm-reference to interpret the result.

Speed Test versus Power Test

1. Speed test is designed to measure number of items an individual van complete over
a certain period of time.
2. Power test is designed to measure the level of performance rather than speed of
response. It contains test items that are arranged according to increasing degree of
difficulty.

MODES OF ASSESSMENT

There are different types of modes of assessment used by a classroom teacher to

assess the learning progress of the students. These are traditional assessment, alternative
assessment, performance-based assessment, and portfolio assessment.

Traditional Assessment

It is a type of assessment in which the students choose their answer from a given list
of choices. Examples of this type of assessment are multiple-choice test, standard true/
false test, matching type test, and fill-in-the-blank test. In traditional assessment, students
are expected to recognize that there is only one correct or best answer for the question
asked.

Alternative Assessment

An assessment in which students create an original response to answer a certain

question.Students response to a question using their own ideas, in their own words.
Examples of a alternative assessment are short-answer questions, essays, oral
presentation, exhibitions, demonstrations, performance assessment, and portfolios. Other
activities included in this type are teacher observation and student self-assessment.

Components of Alternative Assessment

 a. Assessment is based on authentic tasks that demonstrate students’ ability to
accomplish communication goals.
b. The teacher and students focus on communication, not on right and wrong answer.
c. Students help the teacher to set the criteria for successful completion of
communication tasks.
d. Students have opportunities to assess themselves and their peers.

Performance-based Assessment

Performance assessment (Mueler, 2010) us an assessment in which students are

asked to perform real-world tasks that demonstrate meaningful application of essential
knowledge and skills.

It is a direct measure of student performance because the tasks are designed to

incorporate context, problems and solution strategies that students would use in real life. It
focus on processes and rationales. There is no single correct answer, instead students are
led to craft polished, thorough and justifiable responses, performances and products. It also
involved long-range projects, exhibits, and performances that are linked to the curriculum.
In this kind of assessment, the teacher is an important collaborator in creating tasks, as
well as in developing guidelines for scoring and interpretation.

GUIDELINE FOR EFFECTIVE STUDENT ASSESSMENT

Improvement of student learning is the main purpose of classroom assessment. This

can be done if assessment is integrated with good instruction and is guided by certain
principles. Gronlund (1998) provided the general guidelines for using student assessment
effectively.

1. Effective assessment requires a clear concept of all intended learning out-comes.

2. Effective assessment requires that a variety of assessment procedures should be
used.
3. Effective assessment requires that the instructional relevance of the procedure be
considered.
4. Effective assessment requires an adequate sample of student performance.
5. Effective assessment requires that the procedures must be fair to everyone.
6. Effective assessment requires specifications of criteria for judging successful
performance.
7. Effective performance requires feedback to students emphasizing strengths of
performance and weakness to be corrected.
8. Effective assessment must be supported by comprehensive grading and reporting
system.