After Virtue in Accounting Ethics

After Virtue and Accounting Ethics
Author(s): Andrew West

Source: Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 148, No. 1 (March 2018), pp. 21-36
Published by: Springer
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J Bus Ethics (2018) 148:21-36
https://doi.org/10.1007/sl0551-016-3018-9 yWj CrossMark
After Virtue and Accounting Ethics

Andrew West1
Received: 26 June 2015 /Accepted: 7 January 2016 /Published online: 14 January 2016
© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2016
Abstract Alasdair Maclntyre' s After Virtue presented Introduction

a
reinterpretation of Aristotelian virtue ethics that is con-
trasted with the emotivism of modern moral discourse, The and
high-profile ethical failures of professional accoun-
provides a moral scheme that can enable a rediscovery and in recent decades have been met with increased reg-
tants
reimagination of a more coherent morality. Since ulation After and oversight, as well as calls for greater attention
Virtue's (AVs) publication, this scheme has been applied to ethics education in accounting programs. As it is not yet
to a variety of activities and occupations, and hasclear beenwhether these measures are sufficient to prevent
influential in the development of research in accounting further accounting crises, or even whether these measures
ethics. Through a 'close' reading of Chaps. 14 and are 15 ofappropriately implemented (given no discernible
AV, this paper considers and applies the key concepts of in accounting ethics education from 2000 to 2012
increase
practices, institutions, internal and external goods, in the
Australia, for example (Dellaportas et al. 2014)),
examination of alternative perspectives on accounting
narrative unity of a human life and tradition, and the virtues
associated with these concepts. It contributes, firstly, by is both warranted and desirable. This paper provides
ethics
providing a more accurate and comprehensive application such an examination, based on Alasdair Maclntyre' s After
of Maclntyre's scheme to accounting than that available in (AV), a seminal work in twentieth-century virtue
Virtue
ethics, and one that has had significant implications for a
the existing literature. Secondly, it identifies areas in which
Maclntyre's scheme supports the existing approach to of occupations and activities. Maclntyre' s work
variety
presents a critique of modern moral philosophy and its
professional accounting ethics as articulated by the various
International Federation of Accountants pronouncements contemporary, emotivist, expression, and, drawing on the
as well as areas in which it provides a critique and Aristotelian
chal- philosophical tradition, he proposes an
approach to ethics that is intended to enable a rediscovery
lenge to this approach. The application ultimately provides
an alternative philosophical perspective through which of morality. Given the recent crises of accounting ethics,
accounting can be examined and further researchsuch intoa rediscovery would be timely indeed.
accounting ethics pursued. The purpose of this paper - to examine how Maclntyre' s
approach can be applied to professional accounting ethics -
Keywords Accounting ethics • After Virtue • Aristotle •
is achieved primarily through a 'close' reading of Chapts. 14
Maclntyre • Professional ethics • Virtue ethics and 15 of AV. Following his critique of contemporary moral
discourse and his review of pre-modern virtue ethics tradi-
tions, these two chapters deal expressly with the details of
Maclntyre' s reimagined virtue ethics. This approach enables
a more comprehensive analysis than that provided by Francis
El Andrew West
(1990), whose interpretation of AV suffers from several
andrew.west@qut.edu.au
significant weaknesses. Rather than simply updating and
1 School of Accountancy, Queensland University of extending Francis' work, however, the focus of this paper is
Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia on considering both how a Maclntyrean perspective may
Springer
22 A. West
provide
Salter 2008), managers (Brewer 1997), nurses (Armstrong s
2006; Sellman 2000, 2011), psychiatrists (Michel 2011),
accountin
psychologists (Richardson 2012), those involved in public
critique o
The pape
relations (Leeper and Leeper 2001), surgeons (Hall 2011),
and teachers (Fitzmaurice 2010; Noddings
virtue eth 2003; Dunne
the 2003). key c
Chaps. However, the existing research goes beyond considera- 14
duces the
tions of how Maclntyre's concept of a practice can (or
articulated in various International Federation of cannot) be applied to various activities and professions, and
some have
Accountants (IF AC) documents), which is followed bysuggested
an other ways in which AV can be
examination of how the key concepts of Maclntyre's
applied to business. These include arguments for a focus on
virtue ethics can be applied to accounting. This is fol-
'craftsmanship' (Moore 2005b), articulations of 'corporate
lowed by a section that summarises the implications,
character and virtues' (as opposed to corporate culture and
identifying the areas in which Maclntyre's scheme both2005a) and of organisational virtue (Moore
values) (Moore
andapproach,
supports and critiques the existing professional Beadle 2006; Moore 2008), application to the roles of
and the final section concludes. managers (Moore 2008), recommendations for reforming
organisational governance to 'crowd-in' virtue (Moore
2012b), an examination of how Maclntyre's scheme relates
to the concept of 'meaningful work' (Beadle and Knight
Existing Work in Virtue Ethics and Accounting
2012) and application of A V to economic systems (Keat
2008a) and 'varieties of capitalism' (Keat 2008b). A
Maclntyre's AV follows the work of Anscombe (1958), number of empirical studies have also illustrated how
Foot (1978) and Williams (1972) in arguing for more Maclntyre's approach may be evident in practice (Moore
attention to virtue ethics as a philosophical alternative2012a;
to Moore and Beadle 2006; Beadle 2013; Hine 2007),
deontological and utilitarian ethics. It is now fairly com-
and there are several articles that critique Maclntyre's
mon to see introductory books on business ethics interpretation
or of the modern bureaucratic manager
accounting ethics including a section on virtue ethics in(Mangham 1995; Nash 1995; Randels 1995; du Gay 1998;
their discussion of philosophical approaches (see, for Hine 2007) or that provide a more business-friendly
example, De George 2010; Grace and Cohen 2013; Duska interpretation of AV (Crockett 2008; Dobson 2008).
et al. 2011), with Pakaluk and Cheffers' (2011) work Although very little of this research applying Macln-
notable for explicitly taking an approach based on virtue
tyre's work to business explicitly considers accounting, A V
ethics. Academic research regarding virtue ethics has
andhad a significant influence on accounting ethics
business has also become common; some notable re- research. Uysal's (2010) analysis of 'business ethics
searchers in this area include Solomon (1992, 2003, 2004),
research with an accounting focus' identified A V as one of
Hartman (1998, 2006, 2008a, b), Sison (2008, 2012), Mele
the more cited works (the co-citation analysis groups
(2005, 2009), Audi (2012), Mintz (1995, 1996, 2006, 2010)
Maclntyre's A V in a 'professional ethics' cluster with Gaa
and Koehn (1995, 1998, 2013), see also Ferrero and Sison
1994; Larson 1977; Preston et al. 1995). Yet notwith-
(2014) for an overview of the virtue ethics in business and
standing the significance of A V as a source for accounting
management literature. There is also some academicethics research, there has been little direct application of
research on virtue ethics and accounting, often focussing
Maclntyre's interpretation of virtue ethics to accounting.
on accounting education (Mintz 1995, 2006; Armstrong Francis' (1990) article is the notable exception, providing
et al. 2003; Mele 2005). an early (relative to much of the work on Maclntyre and
Beyond more general applications of virtue ethics business
to mentioned above) overview of how AV might be
business and accounting, a significant body of work hasapplied to accounting, and using Maclntyre's work to
specifically considered how Maclntyre's approach to virtue
emphasise how accounting is both a "moral and discursive
ethics (drawing primarily on AV) may be applied to busi-
practice" (1990, p. 5). However, although Francis referred
nesses and organisations. Moore (2002) argued for 'busi-
to a number of key aspects of Maclntyre's virtue ethics,
ness' itself to be considered a Maclntyrean practice
including internal and external goods, and the distinction
(subsequently modifying this to describe 'business' asbetween
a practices and institutions, there are a number of
"practice-institution combination" Moore 2008, p. 507, see
key areas in which Francis' analysis does not reflect
also Beadle 2008), while others have focused on specificMaclntyre's approach (discussed in more detail below).
activities or professions, including those of jazz musicians This paper makes two significant contributions. Firstly,
(Banks 2012), journalists (Borden 2007; Lambeth 1990; it provides a more accurate and thorough examination of
â Springer
After Virtue and Accounting Ethics 23
how AV can be abilities (and

applied to'conceptions
accountingof the ends and goods
(when c
Francis' paper), involved') to
paying be extended. Such practices
attention toare contrasted
each of
cepts discussed in Chaps. 14
with (mere) technical skills and
- throwing 15
a football of AV
well, tic-
provides a single, philosophically grounde
tac -toe, bricklaying and planting turnips. There are several
scheme that providesways in which Maclntyre' s conception
support for of a 'practice'
some a
differs
profession's existing from such technical skills.
approach to Firstly, as suggested
accounting
also providing substantial critique
above, a practice can be distinguished by the way in and
which opp
reform. "conceptions of the relevant goods and ends which the
technical skills serve ... are transformed and enriched" (p.
193) by both the human powers and the internal goods
Maclntyre's Virtue Ethics
integral to the practice. Secondly, the goals of each practice
are not set in stone, but change over time, by the activity
AV presents a philosophical history
itself, such that each practice has its own particular in
history which
enment moral philosophy is that
and a community of practitioners critiqued,
includes those from an
totelian virtue ethics proposed.
generations past, Maclntyr
particularly where they contributed to
contemporary moral extendingdiscourse
our conceptions of the practiceis
itself. in a stat
Related to Maclntyre'
where, with the failure of modern s discussion of practices is his
attempt
rational justification for
identification morality
of two (whether
types of goods: internal and external.
deontological), moral claims
The external have
goods associated with become
a particular practice are
than expressions ofrelated
will not onlyor
to the activity, but to the social context
preference (even
moral within
argumentation which the practitioner
that aspires operates. They include
to, but ult
achieving, rational power, fame, status and wealth, and in Maclntyre'
justification). s view,
In contrast
tivism, Maclntyre are the objects of
traces thecompetition such that there are
virtue always
ethics tra
modern philosophy,
winnersidentifies vestiges
and losers (where one gains wealth, another loses of
features modern wealth).
life, ofIn contrast,
and internalproposes
goods are more intrinsically
a schem
related to the of
coherent understanding activity morality.
itself (and cannot be obtainedThere
else- a
distinct elements in
where), this scheme,
to the point where their characteristics arediscusse
defined
and 15 of AV, and to
by the which we
practice, and where only those now turn.
who have experience
in the practice (or who have been taught accordingly) can
Practices appreciate them.
Maclntyre does not provide lists of internal goods, but
envisages these varying from practice to practice. Using
Following Aristotle, and in contrast to modern conceptions,
portrait painting as an example he identifies two kinds of
Maclntyre locates the good in particular forms of activity.
Unlike Aristotle, however, he provides a fairly detailed
internal good: the first relates to the product or performance
account of the types of activity he has in mind, referring itself
to (an excellent work of art, or excellent painting
these as 'practices': activity), and the second to extending, or progressing the
practice of portrait painting ("participation in the attempts
By a 'practice' I am going to mean any coherent and
to sustain progress and to respond creatively to problems"
complex form of socially established cooperative
(p. 189)), to the point that for the artist, it is "his or her life
human activity through which goods internal to that
as a painter " (p. 190, italics in original) that constitutes
form of activity are realized in the course of trying to
this second internal good.
achieve those standards of excellence which are
The difference between internal and external goods is
appropriate to, and partially definitive of, that form of
brought out by an example:
activity, with the result that human powers to achieve
Consider the example of a highly intelligent seven-
excellence, and human conceptions of the ends and
goods involved, are systematically extended, (p. 187)year-old child whom I wish to teach to play chess,
although the child has no particular desire to learn the
Maclntyre includes football, chess, architecture and farm-
game. The child does however have a very strong
ing as examples of practices. Each requires cooperation to
desire for candy and little chance of obtaining it. I
achieve particular 'standards of excellence', and in the
therefore tell the child that if the child will play chess
course of so doing, provides the opportunity for our
with me once a week I will give the child 50 cents
worth of candy; moreover I tell the child that I will
1 This approach follows Bragues' (2006) call for greater attention to play in such a way that it will be difficult, but
always
'close' readings of seminal works in moral philosophy.
Springer
24 A. West
not "pointlessimpo
except as a device for achieving external goods"
child
(p. 191). win
worth of
The reasoning behind the identification of these three
plays to
necessary virtues (particularly in the w
light of conflicting
candy lists of virtues provided by different virtue ethicists overalo
reason time), is that they are implicit in the achievement fo of
to cheatexcellence in any practice. That is, in order to achieve a
can excellence, ado practitioner must display Courage, by being so
will come a time when the child will find in those "prepared to take whatever self-endangering risks are
demanded along the way" (p. 191), must display Justice,
goods specific to chess, in the achievement of a cer-
"learning to recognize what is due to whom" (p. 191), and
tain highly particular kind of analytical skill, strategic
imagination and competitive intensity, a new set ofHonesty, which requires not simply telling the truth, but
reasons, reasons now not just for winning on a par-that we "listen carefully to what we are told about our own
ticular occasion, but for trying to excel in whatever
inadequacies and to reply with the same carefulness for the
way the game of chess demands. Now if the child
facts" (p. 191).
cheats, he or she will be defeating not me, but himself
or herself. (Maclntyre 2007, p. 188) Institutions
What Maclntyre provides here is not simply a description

In order for practices to be established, maintained and
of alternative motivations,2 but a judgement regarding
furthered they need to be institutionalised. These institu-
which goods are to be preferred ("But, so we may hope,
tions (Maclntyre provides examples of chess clubs, labo-
there will come a time when..."); and although rejecting
ratories, universities and hospitals that correspond to the
Mill's (1863) utilitarianism, he acknowledges some simi-
practices of chess, physics and medicine) are by necessity
larity here with Mill's distinction between higher and lower
intimately and intricately involved with their associated
pleasures.
practices. However, whereas practices are characterised by
Virtues
internal goods (and by the virtues that enable these goods
to be achieved), institutions deal with external goods of
wealth, status and power. At the very least, institutions are
Having articulated the notion of practice, Maclntyre pro-
involved in providing structure to the community of prac-
vides a 'partial' definition of a virtue as "an acquired
titioners and in managing and distributing resources
human quality the possession and exercise of which tends
(whether financial or otherwise) related to the practice.
to enable us to achieve those goods which are internal to
Maclntyre identifies a constant tension between prac-
practices and the lack of which effectively prevents us from
tices and institutions, owing to their respective focuses on
achieving any such goods" (p. 190). It is not sufficient to
internal and external goods. Although he argues for the
simply assert that internal goods should be pursued;
development of virtues that enable internal goods to be
morality involves the development of those dispositions
realised, Maclntyre acknowledges that external goods are
that contribute to actually realising these goods, and
necessary for the ongoing functioning of practices, are
Maclntyre proceeds to identify three virtues in particular
related to some virtues (such as Justice and Generosity) and
that are essential to achieving internal goods in any prac-
remain 'goods'. The tension results from external goods
tice: Courage, Justice and Honesty. Without these three
(and the pursuit of such goods) limiting the development of
virtues, the internal goods associated with a practice cannot
the virtues and thus the achievement of internal goods,
be achieved, and indeed, without these a practice becomes
while the virtues can in turn limit the attainment of external
goods. In this sense, institutions (with their focus on
external goods) are considered to have a corrupting influ-
2 Although Maclntyre is not proposing a psychological theory ofence over practices, where the "ideals and creativity of the
motivation, there is some similarity between the motivations forpractice are always vulnerable to the acquisitiveness of the
pursuing internal and external goods and Deci and Ryan's (1985)
institution, in which the cooperative care for common
theory of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, where "The most basic
goods of the practice is always vulnerable to the compet-
distinction is between intrinsic motivation, which refers to doing
something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable, and itiveness of the institution" (p. 194).
extrinsic motivation, which refers to doing something because it leads The development of practices and their related institu-
to a separable outcome" (Ryan and Deci 2000, p. 55); however, see
tions over time is related to this tension, manifested in the
also Ryan and Deci' s taxonomy of human motivation (2000, p. 61),
development and exercise of the virtues and their associ-
where some extrinsic motivations may correspond to the pursuit of
some internal goods. ated vices:
Ö Springer
For the ability of aWhile

practice to retain
this may not seem controversial, its int
it can be contrasted
depend on the way with
in a modernist
which preoccupation
the with right action. Macln- can
virtues
exercised in sustaining
tyre' s point the
is that our institutional
behaviour is best understood as part for
are the social of a narrative,
bearers of a the drama in which we are co-authors, and
practice. Thethat in
a practice causally requires the
actions are only intelligible exercise
when considered in relation toof t
by at least some this narrative.4
of the individuals who em
their activities; and conversely
Associated with Maclntyre' s concept ofthe corr
an individual
institutions is always
narrativein
unity, part
are the virtuesat least
of Integrity an eff
and Constancy.
vices. The virtues are of course themselves in turn Although, in A V, he does not expound on these virtues (and
fostered by certain types of social institution andconsiders these as a single virtue 2007, p. 203), he has since
endangered by others, (p. 195) distinguished between the two (Maclntyre 1999, p. 318),
where Integrity refers to exhibiting "the same moral
The account of the virtues presented thus far is considered
character in different social contexts" and Constancy to
by Maclntyre to be a partial description as it is related
pursuing "the same goods through extended periods of
specifically and only to practices (including their relation to
time". For both of these virtues, the concepts of 'whole-
institutions). This partial description requires amplification
ness' of character and of being undivided are central (re-
in order to overcome several difficulties: firstly, the
flecting the alternative, often non-moral usage of the term
existence of competing practices and absence of objective
'integrity'), and Maclntyre bemoans the compartmentali-
criteria leave morality open to continued conflict and
sation of much of our modern ways of life that militates
arbitrariness, and a return to emotivism; secondly, our
against such Integrity and Constancy.
understanding of the virtues themselves is incomplete if
they are restricted to the exercise of specific practices, as
The Role of Tradition
some virtues are necessarily implicated in ordering or
ranking at a 'meta-practice' level; thirdly, one virtue - that
Where an intelligible account of actions is only possible
of Integrity (or Constancy) - refers, by definition, to the
within the context of a dramatic narrative, a more complete
'wholeness' of a human life rather than particular activ-
understanding requires that we appreciate the intersection
ities. In Maclntyre' s view, there are two further aspects of
of our narratives with those of others, the role that we play
virtue that require consideration, the first is in relation to
in others' narratives and the role they play as co-authors of
the 'narrative unity' of a human life and the role that
our own. It is thus also with reference to the community
virtues play, the second is in relation to one's community
and roles into which we are born and adopt, that our social
and the history of that community, expressed as a tradition.
and moral identity is constituted5:
Narrative Unity I am someone's son or daughter, someone else's

cousin or uncle; I am a citizen of this or that city, a
Maclntyre identifies both social and philosophical obsta-member of this or that guild or profession; I belong to
cles to conceiving of a human life as a narrative unity.this clan, that tribe, this nation. Hence what is good
From a social perspective, it has become common to for me has to be the good for one who inhabits these
conceive of distinct domains of human life: work versus roles. As such, I inherit from the past of my family,
leisure, private versus public, corporate versus personal, my city, my tribe, my nation, a variety of debts,
and childhood versus adulthood versus old age. He focuses, inheritances, rightful expectations and obligations.
however, on the philosophical obstacles that derive from These constitute the given of my life, my moral
both analytical philosophy and sociological/existentialiststarting point. (Maclntyre 2007, p. 220)
approaches, where the former emphasises the atomisticAnd:
nature of human action and the latter emphasises the dis-
tinction between an individual and his/her social roles.
Footnote 3 continued
Maclntyre argues that an individual's behaviour can only
expectations), we cannot gain a complete understanding of his
be completely understood if one also has an understanding
behaviour.
of his/her intentions and his/her setting (be it a practice,
4 In this respect, Maclntyre' s philosophy bears similarities with the
institution or other milieu), and where both the intentions
work of Ricouer (1992) and Taylor (1989); but see Strawson (2004)
and setting have a history and long-term orientation.3
for a contrary view. See also Christman (2004), Lippitt (2007) and
Rudd (2007, 2009) for further discussion and criticism of Maclntyre' s
3 He uses an example of a man gardening. Without understandingperspective.
his
intentions (is he gardening in order to reap vegetables or to please5 his
Lutz (2012, p. 125) succinctly describes Maclntyre' s concept of
wife), and the setting (is this part of an annual cycle, or marital tradition as "a final and thorough rejection of individualism".
£) Springer
26 A. West
I Given these limitations, mys

find and the potential for a Macln-
say, tyrean reimagining
wheth of accounting ethics, a closer analysis
not, one
of how the concepts of Maclntyre's virtue ethics can be
applied to accounting is warranted.
2007, p. Before doing so, 2
however, some consideration of how the accounting pro-
Maclntyre
fession addresses ethical issues is necessary.
understan
ted and re
only cons
The Context of Professional Accounting Ethics
partially c
pursuit of
The mission of IF AC is to "serve the public interest" in
and purp
relation to several aspects of professional accounting
identifies
(IF AC 2015b). The concept of the 'public interest' typi-
sense of t
cally has ethical connotations, and has been defined by
confront
IF AC as "the net benefits derived for, and procedural rigor
practical ju
employed on behalf of, all society in relation to any action,
particular
decision or policy" (IF AC 2012, p. 1). More specific issues
which he refers to a situation where one is confronted with
relating to accounting ethics are addressed primarily
mutually exclusive alternatives, both of which one ought to
through IF AC' s support of the International Ethics Stan-
pursue).
dards Board for Accountants (IESBA) and the International
Accounting Education Standards Board (LAESB).
After Virtue? Accounting as a Moral and Discursive
Practice
The IESBA has as its focus the development and
ongoing revision of the Code of Ethics for Professional
Accountants (see, for example, the IESBA Strategy and
Having reviewed the key concepts in Maclntyre 's virtue
Work Plan 2014-2018, in which three of its four strategic
ethics, it is possible to identify four significant limitations
themes focus on the Code, the fourth referring to engage-
in the previous work that considers AV and accounting:
ment with stakeholders).7 The Code itself consists of three
Francis' (1990) article AV? Accounting as a Moral and
sections (labelled 'Parts'). The first introduces the five
Discursive Practice. Firstly, Francis conflates virtues with
'fundamental principles' of integrity, objectivity, profes-
internal goods (see pp. 9-11). In a section titled 'Some
sional competence and due care, confidentiality and pro-
virtues of accounting practice', he identifies five candidates
fessional behaviour; brief descriptions of these are
for internal goods, one of which is Maclntyre's virtue of
provided in para. 100.5:
Honesty; furthermore, it is not clear exactly how the other
four internal goods correspond to Maclntyre's examples of
internal goods provided in AV. Secondly, he provides no
(a) Integrity - to be straightforward and honest in all
discussion of two of the virtues that Maclntyre considers
professional and business relationships.
essential to any practice (Courage and Justice). Thirdly, he
(b) Objectivity - to not allow bias, conflict of interest or
provides no explicit consideration of the narrative unity of
undue influence of others to override professional or
a human life, the virtue of Integrity/Constancy, the role of
business judgments.
tradition, and the associated virtue of having an adequate
(c) Professional Competence and Due Care - to main-
sense of one's traditions. Lastly, he emphasises the role of
tain professional knowledge and skill at the level
'discourse' and the objectification of humans, referring
required to ensure that a client or employer receives
explicitly to Foucault in this regard, a stance that is not
competent professional service based on current
particularly Maclntyrean (although it may be that some of
developments in practice, legislation and techniques
the points made by Francis could be conceived in Macln-
tyrean terms).
7 Other pronouncements issued by the IESBA deal with amending

6 Maclntyre's later work (including Whose Justice? Which Ration- particular issues addressed in Parts B and C of the Code (i.e., not the
ality and Three Rival Versions of Moral Enquiry ) pays particular fundamental principles), such as Changes to the Code Addressing
Certain Non-Assurance Services Provisions for Audit and Assurance
attention to the traditions associated with the practices of 'rationality'
and 'moral enquiry' themselves (see Lutz 2004; Nicholas 2012Clientsfor (IESBA 2015). Further guidance provided by the IESBA
more detailed analyses). See also Knight's (2008) discussion of primarily to how the Code should be implemented and
relates
Maclntyre's work as rival to, and extension of other broad traditions
interpreted, and does not introduce additional principles or values
in philosophy. (IESBA 2010, 2012).
£) Springer
and act diligently (e.g.independence,

and in objectivity, confidentiality, and
accordance with
technical and integrity), (c) professional
professional manner (e.g. due care,
standards.
(d) Confidentiality timeliness,
- to respect
courteousness, the and
respect, responsibility, confi
information reliability),
acquired as (d) pursuit of excellence (e.g.
a result of commit-
profes
business relationships and,
ment to continual therefore,
improvement and lifelong learn- n
any such ing), and to
information (e) socialthird
responsibility (e.g. awareness and
parties with
and specific
authority,
consideration of theunless there
public interest). (IAESB 2015, is
professional right p.or
61) duty to disclose, nor
information for the personal advantag
In addition to the prescriptions of the IES, the IAESB has
professional accountant or third parties.
published International Education Practice Statement 1
(e) Professional Behavior - to comply wi
("Approaches to Developing and Maintaining Professional
laws and regulations and avoid any act
Values, Ethics and Attitudes") that provides guidelines to
discredits the profession.
assist member bodies in implementing IES 4. The practice
statement includes a proposed 'Ethics Education Contin-
This is followed
by the articulation of a
uum' comprising four stages: enhancing ethical knowl-
framework' (para. 100.6) that requires profe
edge, developing ethical sensitivity, improving ethical
tants to "identify, evaluate, and address thre
judgment and maintaining an ongoing commitment to
ance with the fundamental principles", ther
ethical behavior, as well as suggested approaches to
them in "complying with the ethical requir
incorporating ethics into the accounting curriculum, and
Code and meeting their responsibility to act
to delivering and assessing ethics education.
interest". Application of this framework
requires both rational consideration of the p
particular situations, as well as the ability t
Applying Maclntyre's Ethics to Accounting
where necessary (which could include, f
disassociating oneself from particular in
Given this professional context within which ethical issues
activities) in order to reduce or mitigate th
are typically framed for accounting practitioners, this sec-
principles.
tion examines how each of the key concepts of Maclntyre's
The second section of the Code applies this conceptual
virtue ethics can be applied to accounting.
framework approach to a variety of situations faced by
professional accountants in public practice; the third sec- Practices
tion does the same for professional accountants in business.
One of the objectives of the IAESB is to establish "a
A case can be made for accounting to be considered a
series of high-quality standards and other publications
'practice', and contrasted to bookkeeping as a related
reflecting good practice in the education, development, and
technical skill. While both are cooperative human activities
assessment of professional accountants" (IAESB 2015, p.
with standards of excellence, it is within the domain of
I), which includes addressing the 'professional values,
accounting (rather than that of bookkeeping) that questions
ethics and attitudes' required of professional accountants.
regarding its purpose - to whom one reports, and why? -
In achieving this objective, the IAESB issued an Interna-
are raised, and answers suggested (see, for example, Bea-
tional Education Standard (IES 4) dealing specifically with
ver and Demski 1974). It is also within the domain of
'professional values, ethics and attitudes', and which
accounting that a history can be traced, where such ques-
requires that IF AC member bodies provide "a framework
tions have generated differing answers, and where related
of professional values, ethics and attitudes for aspiring
changes in accounting practice are observed (Edwards
professional accountants to (a) exercise professional judg-
2014; Lee and Parker 2014). The accounting history liter-
ment, and (b) act in an ethical manner that is in the public
ature is itself testament to this, and examples of such
interest" (para. 9), and that they "integrate relevant ethical
changes in accounting practice include the increasing for-
requirements throughout professional accounting education
malisation of social and environmental accounting in
programs" (para. 10). There is some indication that IES 4
recent decades (such as through the Global Reporting Ini-
goes beyond adherence to the five fundamental principles
tiative's (2013) G4 Sustainability Reporting Guidelines ),
identified in the Code, where 'professional values, ethics
the use (and decline in use) of value-added statements
and attitudes' are described as including
(Pong and Mitchell 2005; Burchell et al. 1985), and the
...a commitment to (a) technical competence and introduction of statements of comprehensive income
professional skills, (b) ethical behaviour (Robinson 1991; Van Cauwenberge and De Beeide 2007).
Springer
28 A. West
In each of
intrin
goods
practice it
on two.
'bookk
great
bookkeepin
Carn
focus on
made in
Cartet
ted
farming)in
t
pleas
between b
an vinsd
empiric
practices
accou
their
applicabili
Thereanare
inc
cussion
of of
th
and
Firstly, N
dr
"The i
excelling
in
practiceno
of
ing borin
the fo
and
internal gr
(i.e. Relate
financ
tion's fina
over i
ing the
that m
th
Secon
financial s
managem
player
measures
also a
in
and j
organisati
responds
report
(including
of re
chess
measures r
Repla
Excellence
most clea
the d
amendme
parap
accountin
... so
with vario
gradu
are devel
ing, t
2010), by
reaso
standards
cessf
ment and
A nu
standards
et al.
possibilitie
such as th
2005)
(Dey wealt
2003
signif
further ex
the traditi
profe
Maclntyr ing, s
not,A number of observations
howe can be drawn from the above.
Firstly, as suggested above, the current motivations asso-
accounting
thatciated with accounting are likely to be misplaced, and ali
the
the extern
focus on the external goods that may accrue to accountants
before
serves neither the practitioners nor their the
stakeholders well.
who Secondly, givenchoo
the uncontroversial belief that accountants
ought not to cheat, it follows to
ceived that, as in Maclntyre's d
to their
example of the chess player, we would hope instead thatpr
be intuiti
eventually (or, on balance) the internal goods associated
Ô Springer
with accounting (as

suggests outlined
some overlap with Maclntyre'sabove)
virtues of Honesty prov
motivation and and Justice. for
reward It also requires that when an accountant accou
practicing
larly, we can assert that
becomes aware it
of misleading is morally
information that he/she "take d
accountants pursue steps
such to be disassociated
internal from that information"
goods (Sec- asso
practice of tion 110.2), which could conceivably involve personal
accounting.
These implications loss, and thus requirenot
should Courage. While
be some aspects of
underesti
provide us with a these
normative judgement
virtues are thus evident in the description of Integrity, a
accountants, that goes beyond
there is room an
for greater and clearer exhortation
articulation of Cour-
defraud or misrepresent an
age, Justice and Honesty. organisation's a
we have a reasoned There is little attention to such virtues,
judgement that character enjoins
traits or
pursue internal goods over
dispositions in the IAESB publications,external
with no mention at g
excellence in the practice of accounting
all in IES 4. It is notable that, although not in its exposure and
lectual abilities associated draft, IEPS 1 does include
withtwo paragraphs
such on 'Ethical a pra
accumulation of wealth, status and power. Such an Courage' when discussing workplace learning. IEPS 1 also
approach stands in stark contrast to how accounting ethics proposes an 'ethical continuum' (para. 14) that includes
is articulated by the profession and how accounting is four stages: enhancing ethics knowledge, developing ethi-
currently taught, where the Code of Ethics is focused on cal sensitivity, improving ethical judgment and maintain-
removing opportunities to cheat (the conceptual framework ing an ongoing commitment to ethical behaviour. The first
approach of identifying, evaluating and addressing threats) of these stages includes developing an understanding of
rather than identifying opportunities to foster the internal "the fundamental theories and principles of... virtues"
goods of accounting, and where references to motivation in (para. 20). Although the fourth stage suggests a long-term
orientation that may align with (or could require) the
accounting textbooks typically refer primarily to extrinsic
rewards and the design of financial reward systems to development of character traits, the statement envisages
motivate behaviour (see, for example, Horngren et al. this to encompass application of the first three stages in the
2014). workplace (emphasising the importance of continuing
professional development, see paras. 28-30).
Virtues The lack of emphasis on virtues or character traits in
both IAESB and IESBA publications can be contrasted
Maclntyre's necessary virtues of Courage, Justice and
with research that stresses their importance. Not only is
Honesty can, conceptually, all be applied to the practice ofvirtue ethics frequently considered alongside utilitarianism
accounting. Firstly, an accountant may need to take risks and deontological ethics in introductory discussions of
that could result in loss (requiring Cçurage) when, formoral philosophy (De George 2010; Grace and Cohen
example, providing a complete account of a project's via- 2013; Duska et al. 2011), but the development of character
bility even when it reflects failure, or when an auditor
is important in both moral and positive psychology. Rest
provides a qualified audit report to a client that may resultet al. 's (1999) four component model of moral psychology
in losing the client's business. Secondly, the practice ofincludes moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral moti-
accounting itself does, to some extent, present a reckoningvation and moral character, and provides a useful contrast
of the interests of different parties, and consideration ofto the four stages presented in IEPS 1. Peterson and
how best to achieve a reckoning that is both accurate and Seligman's (2004) work in positive psychology emphasises
fair is subject to continued debate and analysis (reflectingthe importance of character traits in achieving well-being,
Justice). Lastly, while there is an obvious imperative to and they identify both Courage and Justice as virtues
provide accounts that are not only fair, but true, progress in(amongst four others), with Integrity (incorporating
accounting practice requires openness to alternative view- Authenticity and Honesty) as a strength of character
points and to critiques of existing accounting frameworksassociated with the virtue of Courage. Some accounting
and habits (requiring Honesty). researchers have accordingly argued for greater attention to
These three virtues can be contrasted with Part A of the virtues and character in accounting education (Armstrong
Code of Ethics (para. 100.5), where the fundamental et al. 2003; Mele 2005; Mintz 1995).
principles for professional accountants are identified, but of However, although Maclntyre's approach clearly iden-
which only one (Integrity) could correspond to a 'virtue' tifies the three virtues of Courage, Justice and Honesty, it is
(as a character trait or disposition). The Code describes notable for not only emphasising the development of vir-
Integrity as being "straightforward and honest in all pro- tues and character strengths, but for providing a framework
fessional and business relationships. Integrity also implies that links these virtues (and the development of individual
fair dealing and truthfulness" (Section 110.1), which character) to the internal goods of accounting and to
£) Springer
30 A. West
accountin
status, power and wealth, can lose sight of the internal
goods associated with the practices they house. While
contrasted
of instituti
empirical studies describe and explain such arrangements,
Maclntyre's account provides a normative framework
Institutions (with a reasoned justification) that requires the prioritisa-
tion of internal over external goods, with the prediction that
Applied to accounting, Maclntyre's understanding of "if in a particular society the pursuit of external goods were
institutions would include the professional bodies (such as to become dominant, the concept of the virtues might
the various Institutes of Chartered Accountants), profes- suffer first attrition and then perhaps something near total
sional accounting firms, and accounting departments ineffacement, although simulacra might abound" (2007,
public and private sector organisations, although each of p. 196).
these groups plays their distinct own role in establishing,
maintaining and furthering accounting practice. Within theNarrative Unity
various institutional contexts we can consider the extent to
which virtues and vices are exercised and/or promoted. Maclntyre's claim that actions are only intelligible when
Regarding the exercise of the virtues, there is some
we understand the individual's setting and intentions is
entirely consistent with how ethical transgressions in
(albeit brief) acknowledgement in the IF AC Code (as noted
accounting are popularly conceived. That is, few would
above), and the profession regularly reiterates its commit-
ment to fair and honest reporting (see, for example, theargue that the act of an accountant who misappropriates to
fund his/her child's life-saving medical treatment is ethi-
various discussion points related to ethics that are raised on
the IFAC website's 'Global Knowledge Gateway' 2015a). cally equivalent to one who misappropriates to fund his/her
Furthermore, a substantial portion of the IFAC Code Caribbean
is holidays. Furthermore, the proliferation of
devoted to identifying and mitigating risks to honest books (Carnegie and Napier 2010 identify nine non-aca-
accounting practice. Many of those employed in account-demic books published between 2002 and 2006 on the
ing departments and professional firms participate in this
Enron scandal alone) that provide more complete descrip-
approach by virtue of their professional affiliations, while
tions of accounting scandals and fraud suggest that such a
context is both necessary and desirable in order for the
also subject to measures taken by their own organisations
to curb dishonest accounting practices and fraud. supposed ethical transgression to be adequately
Complementing this, however, is evidence of the cor-understood.
rupting influence of the institutions, where research has Similarly, Maclntyre's view of personal identity,
documented how professional accounting bodies around
coherent and identifiable despite psychological changes
the world have, in the pursuit or maintenance of status,over time, is consistent with the typical understanding of
wealth and power, excluded groups of people, based on
the concept of 'accountability'. In his own words:
gender (Kirkham and Loft 1993; Lehman 1992), race
To be the subject of a narrative that runs from one's
(Hammond 1997; Hammond et al. 2009, 2012; McNicholas
birth to one's death is ... to be accountable for the
et al. 2004) or language (Spence and Brivot 2011).
actions and experiences which compose a narrat-
As mentioned above, there is also evidence of increasing
able life. It is, that is, to be open to being asked to
commercialisation of accounting in recent decades. Spence
give a certain kind of account of what one did or what
and Carter's (2014; see also Carter and Spence 2014) study
happened to one or what one witnessed at any earlier
of partners at Big 4 accounting firms is of particular interest
point in one's life than the time at which the question
as they distinguish between the commercial and technical
is posed, (p. 217)
logics that exist within accounting firms and describe how
This view is implicit in the various sanctions and modes of
the former, focused on increasing firm revenue and profits,
is completely dominant amongst partners. Their interviews
redress that are available for moral infringements, whether
also reveal how the technical and ethical aspects of
through the law or professional codes; for these laws and
accounting are relegated to staff at lower levels (including
codes to be intelligible we must accept such an account of
directors and senior managers) and how ethical issues arepersonal identity and reject those philosophies (whether of
interpreted legalistically, in terms of risk management. an analytical or continental tradition) that discard such a
Although Spence and Carter provide a sociological inter- notion.
pretation based on the work of Bourdieu, and contrast their Regarding the virtue of Integrity/Constancy, we would
findings with the public interest claims of the profession, expect an accountant with Integrity to maintain consistent
they provide a particularly vivid example of how institu- views, in differing social contexts, regarding issues such as
tions, necessarily involved in the allocation of the goods of
the appropriate information that ought to be disclosed to
£) Springer
various accounting.
stakeholders. That Concerning
is, the
a goods which provide
company acc
lack Integrity if accounting with
he/she 'its particularthe
limits point anddisclosure
purpose', and
side-effects to what arguments about which would
is legally characterise a traditionbut
mandated, of t
position as parentaccounting
and consumer,
practice deman
in 'good order', we can suggest two
grounds) that other companies go beyond
rival positions.
ments in disclosing the possible
According to side-effect
the first position, the practice of account-
product. Similarly, we
ing (and would
the institutions that haveexpect an
maintained and sustained ac
Constancy pursue to
thehasgoods
this practice) ofcontribution
provided a significant providing to the
cial statements year increased
after well-being of large numbers
year. An of auditor
people across the w
her client to make globe. In so far as the invention
particular of the limited liability
changes to ach
sentation one year, company
but then
is second ignores
only to the wheel in making the the
greatest sa
following year, contribution
would to humankind
lack the (Tricker 1990, p. 253),
virtue of Co
Maclntyre's approach to
accounting Integrity
has provided can
the means by which this invention be co
the approach taken is
byused, enabling
the those accounting
with access to capital to ensure it is
profes
damental principle' of
financially Integrity,
productive, describ
and those charged with employing
"straightforward capitalhonest
and to plan and controlin its use, such that
all financial
profession
objectives are
relationships. Integrity achieved. Put
also to such use, accounting
implies fair has deal
fulness" (para. 110.1),
facilitated
appears
the creation of new enterprises,
to reduce investment in Inte
'true and fair' new factories and offices, and already
(characteristics development of new prod-
covered
of Honesty and ucts and services, all However,
Justice). of which have provided increased
this d
requires employment
accountants to (and new opportunities for
display employment)Honest
such and
across differing contexts
greater material well-being
(the for thevariety
communities within of 'p
business which these businesses
relationships'), and operate. (To some
thus extent, thisreflec
does
approach to some approach reflectsHints
extent. neo-liberal market
of economics
a (Friedman
wider un
also evident inthe1962)Chartered Institute
and is consistent with both shareholder (Friedman o
Accountants' 1970) and
advice to instrumental members
their stakeholder (Donaldson and regardi
Pre-
as 'misconduct', which includes
ston 1995) approaches a "criminal
to corporate governance.)
acts of violence" (Chartered Institute
In this perspective, the primary ethical issue relates to of
Accountants n.d.) - the possibility
a of providing accounts that arenot
transgression false and/or
necess
professional and business
misleading (particularly torelationships,
the providers of capital). The a
Australia's 'fit and proper'
profession's requirement
approach (reflected in the Code) has been to t
account whether a require accountants to identify
member hasand evaluate scenarios
any criminalin
(CPA Australia 2015). However,
which principles such as integrity andby restrictin
objectivity might be
'professional and compromised, but continued
business ethical failures have led to
relationships', the
distinction between greater
the emphasis on ethics education for prospective
professional/busine
other aspects of theaccountants, and increased regulation andlife,
accountant's oversight of the
and th
the importance of profession.
Integrity as a state of 'wh
undivided. While this position is dominant (and implicit in most
accounting education), a second position can be suggested,
The Role of Tradition in which accounting practice and its institutions are com-
plicit in the oppression and exploitation of various groups
Maclntyre's concept of tradition, or indeed any concept andofindividuals. This goes beyond the use of accounting
moral identity that goes beyond the articulation of fivetechniques to facilitate the Holocaust (Lippman and Wilson
principles fundamental to professional accounting, and2007),
an and includes oppression and exploitation in capi-
appreciation of threats to the five fundamental principles, is democratic societies. While some of the ways in
talist,
completely absent in the profession's approach which to professional accounting bodies have excluded indi-
accounting ethics. The concept can, nevertheless, viduals
be based on their gender, race or language have been
documented (as discussed above), this position further
applied to accounting. It is obvious that, even if students
emphasises
are not taught about it, there is more to accounting than its the servitude of current accounting practice to
contemporary practice and institutions, and a more com- capital (Hopper 2013), with the consequence that those
without access to capital are, at best, ignored and excluded,
plete understanding of accounting must include its histor-
but at worst, are harmed in the pursuit of financial gain
ical development, its successes and failures and the debates
and arguments concerning what counts as 'good'
facilitated by accounting.
Springer
32 A. West
While mu
above regarding the history of accounting, the community
reflected
of professional accounting practitioners and the articulation
(Chua 198
of standards by this community that Maclntyre' s concept
of a 'practice' is well suited to accounting. Given the dif-
accounting
on ficulties in applying this concept to business in general
capitali
ism,(Beadle 2008; Moore 2002)
see this is itself significant, and M
ticular
immediately suggest that Maclntyre' s scheme is of use in in
could hav
this area. Secondly, there is some evidence of Maclntyre' s
necessary virtues of Courage, Justice fail
whose and Honesty in the
ethical fa
profession's emphasis on Honesty (as an element of the
fundamental principle of Integrity),
those that and in its (albeit
occasional) references to Courage and Justice. Thirdly,
unequal re
the secon
Maclntyre' s understanding of the narrative unity of one's
financial
life underlies the concept of accountability, and thus the
use of professional regulations to ensure such account-
achieving
ability. The approach to virtue ethics presented in AV
complicit i
partaccordingly provides
of some philosophical support for how Ch
Maclntyr
ethics is approached by the accounting profession.
archetype
There are, however, a number of challenges raised by
manager
the application of Maclntyre' s ethics to accounting, which
science
suggest areas in which the professional approach to ethics
to
ences, and
ought to be reconsidered. Firstly, the distinction Maclntyre
tivedraws betweenmeaninternal and external goods, and the
brought
imperative to prioritise internal goods, provides a norma- in
ticular
tive judgement lacking in the profession's approach. is
managers,
Without this requirement, Maclntyre' s perspective predicts
The that the practice
mere of accounting would become no more than
positing
a means of accumulating wealth, status and power, and the
evidence from studies of professional accounting firms
accounting
moderate
(Spence and Carter 2014; Carter and Spence 2014) sug-
gests that this may have already occurred. To avoid (or
accounting
outside th
reverse) this requires that those who manage the institu-
on the go
tions that house accounting practice (including professional
position
bodies, firms and accounting departments) re-focus atten- is
example,
tion towards the internal goods of accounting. Considering,
Horngren
for example, the relationship between high performance,
(such as
organisational prominence and fraud (Mishina et al. 2010), IE
thatand the pressures
accou associated with performance and
favour of
prominence, the manager of an accounting department may
without
need to identify and articulate a mission and strategy for su
tutions
his/her department that is at odds with the organisational o
mission of maximising shareholder wealth. The focus
according
within such a department must instead be on the excel-
lences of providing reports that fairly present the under-
Implications lying activities as accurately as possible, of exploring
possibilities for better accounting, and of further develop-
Having considered the key concepts of Maclntyre 's virtue ing the associated cognitive skills. In such an organisa-
ethics, and how these can be applied to accounting, it is tional context, it is imperative that an accountant who
possible to identify a number of implications. This section adjusts accounts in order to meet executive expectations or
considers both areas where Maclntyre' s ethics supports the aspirations is not mistaken for a good accountant.
approach taken by the profession, as well as areas in which Secondly, the three virtues that Maclntyre identifies as
it provides a critique and raises particular challenges. being essential to any practice provide a focal point for the
Regarding the former, it is apparent from the discussion development of moral behaviour in accounting. That is, in
â Springer
addition to emphasising principles

potential to provide alternative perspectives on ethics in such a
and objectivity, developing the
accounting, which can provide theoretical support forCourage
the
Honesty that is profession's approach
required in to ethics,
order while also raise for
issues for accoun
independence and further objectivity
consideration by the profession is necessary
and accounting
excellence in accounting practitioners. This paperpractice.8
has provided such an application, Greate
these three virtues in IESBA and IAESB documents is by examining how Alasdair Maclntyre's virtue ethics, as
warranted. articulated in Chaps. 14 and 15 of AV, can be applied to
Thirdly, the concept of narrative unity and theprofessional
associ- accounting.
ated virtue of Integrity/Constancy require that individual
The paper makes two principal contributions. Firstly, by
accountants question the degree to which their ethics the key concepts in AVs virtue ethics, and
articulating
reflects the compartmentalisation of modern life. For how each of these can be applied to account-
considering
example, to what extent do they maintain different stances
ing, it provides a more accurate and thorough analysis than
previous (Francis 1990) work in the area. Secondly,
in their roles as preparer and consumer of accounting
application
information? Maclntyre's more substantial interpretation of of these key concepts provides philosophical
support for several aspects of the profession's existing
Integrity also questions whether the profession's definition
is adequate, and whether the requirement to be approach
honest, to accounting ethics, while also raising a number
of areas in which the profession's approach can be cri-
straightforward and fair in one's professional and business
relationships sufficiently captures the meaningtiqued
of this
and challenged. Ultimately, Maclntyre's scheme of
virtue. practices and institutions, internal and external goods,
Lastly, the importance of tradition, and the virtue
virtues,
of narrative unity and tradition, provides a useful,
having an awareness of one's traditions, requires that a framework through which accounting ethics can
alternative
be nec-
broader understanding of one's communal setting is examined.
Such an application is not without its limitations. While

essary. Perhaps the most challenging of these implications,
this requires reflection of the role that accounting aplays
closein
reading of two chapters of AV enables a detailed
andthe
society by both its practitioners and those managing accurate application to accounting, other aspects of
Maclntyre's
institutions that house accounting practice. Accordingly, it work have not been considered in depth. This
precludes an unquestioning acceptance of the moralincludes
bene- Maclntyre's perspective on capitalism (and how
fits of accounting, and instead requires ongoingaccounting
critical may be related to this), and how the economic
reflection on how the accounting product, andarrangements
the that Maclntyre believes are more conducive
accounting processes that are adopted, contribute to to
thethe
flourishing of individuals and communities may be
community of accountants and those who use related and areto accounting practice. Accordingly, while this
affected by accounting information. It also implies paper provides a basis for understanding accounting in
explicit
recognition of the potentially deleterious effects of
Maclntyrean terms, there is scope for further theoretical
research in this area.
accounting, and the active pursuit of accounting possibili-
ties that could overcome these. The implications identified in this paper also suggest
areas which would benefit from empirical research.
Examinations of particular ethical failures in accounting
Conclusion could highlight the degree to which the three virtues of
Courage, Justice and Honesty are involved (or absent), and
whether there are additional virtues essential to achieving
Recurrent ethical scandals perpetrated and facilitated by
the internal goods peculiar to accounting. Such studies
accountants have resulted in greater attention to accounting
could also investigate the degree to which the institutions
ethics, with knowledge of ethics being incorporated in the
of accounting have corrupted the goods of accounting
accounting curriculum, and opportunities for unethical
practice (or how this may have been ameliorated by the
behaviour addressed through changes in corporate gover-
virtues). The degree to which accountants compartmen-
nance. Yet despite this greater attention to ethical issues,
there has been little detailed philosophical attention to the their ethical stances can provide evidence related to
talise
the virtue of Integrity /Constancy, and Maclntyre's broader
profession's approach to ethics. Application of particular
moral philosophies or philosophical concepts has the
interpretation of Integrity provides an alternative approach
to analysing ethical failures in accounting. Lastly, the need
for accountants to have an awareness of one's own and
8 This also has implications for accounting educators, where although
there have been calls for greater attention to virtues and character in
competing traditions, and the apparent dominance of a
accounting education, a focus on these three virtues may be more
single 'mode of understanding' accounting suggests a need
manageable than lengthier lists of virtues (cf. Mintz 1995; Solomon
1992, p. 330). for research into how such an awareness can be cultivated:
£) Springer
34 A. West
are Carnegie, G. D., & Napier, C. J. (2010). Traditional accountants and

there a
business professionals: Portraying the accounting profession
in which al
after Enron. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 35(3),
heard
360-376. or m
accountants
Carter, C., & Spence, C. (2014). Being a successful professional: An
exploration of who
house makes partner in the Big 4. Contemporary
accou
Accounting Research, 31(4), 949-981.
goods of ac
Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (n.d.). Misconduct.
encourage
Retrieved June 19, 2015, from http://www.cimaglobal.com/ a
AV provide
Professional-ethics/Conduct/Misconduct/.
Christman, J. (2004). Narrative
vision of unity as a condition of personhood.
a
Metaphilosophy, 35(5), 695-713.
of restorin
Chua, W. F. (1986). Radical developments in accounting thought. The
that the
Accounting Review, 61(4), 601-632. ap
demonstrat
CPA Australia. (2015). Fit and proper requirement. Retrieved June
opment 19, 2015, from http://www.cpaaustralia.com.au/about-us/mem
of
ber-conduct-and-discipline/fit-and-proper-requirement.
Crockett, C. (2008). Maclntyre: From transliteration to translation.
Philosophy of Management, 7(1), 45-66.
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After Virtue and Accounting Ethics

Author(s): Andrew West

After Virtue and Accounting Ethics

Abstract Alasdair Maclntyre' s After Virtue presented Introduction

how AV can be abilities (and

What Maclntyre provides here is not simply a description

For the ability of aWhile

Narrative Unity I am someone's son or daughter, someone else's

I Given these limitations, mys

7 Other pronouncements issued by the IESBA deal with amending

and act diligently (e.g.independence,

with accounting (as

addition to emphasising principles

Such an application is not without its limitations. While

are Carnegie, G. D., & Napier, C. J. (2010). Traditional accountants and

Hammond, Lambeth, E. B.complete

Moore, transformation of institutionalized fields. The Academy of

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