Development of the specific emission factors

for buses in Hanoi, Vietnam

Trung-Dung Nghiem, Yen-Lien

T. Nguyen, Anh-Tuan Le, Ngoc-Dung
Bui & Huu-Tuyen Pham

Environmental Science and Pollution

Research

ISSN 0944-1344
Volume 26
Number 23

Environ Sci Pollut Res (2019)

26:24176-24189
DOI 10.1007/s11356-019-05634-9

1 23
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 Author's personal copy
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2019) 26:24176–24189
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-05634-9

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Development of the specific emission factors for buses in Hanoi,

Vietnam
Trung-Dung Nghiem 1 & Yen-Lien T. Nguyen 1,2 & Anh-Tuan Le 3 & Ngoc-Dung Bui 4 & Huu-Tuyen Pham 3

Received: 22 January 2019 / Accepted: 29 May 2019 / Published online: 21 June 2019
# Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2019

Abstract
This paper develops the specific emission factors for buses in the real-world traffic conditions in the inner city of Hanoi, Vietnam.
An engine stationary cycle consisting of 14 modes was developed based on the typical driving cycle of Hanoi buses which had
been constructed with the application of Markov chain theory. This is the first engine stationary emissions test cycle constructed
for heavy-duty engine in Vietnam. Based on this cycle, the country-specific emission factors (CSEFs) of air pollutants including
CO, HC, NOx, CO2, and PM for buses in Hanoi have been developed using the emission measurements on the engine test bed. It
is found that almost all developed emission factors are higher than those derived from the emission measurements to the ECE
R49 on the same engine. These emission factors, therefore, can be used to improve the quality of the emission inventory of buses
in Hanoi.

Keywords Emission factor . Exhaust measurement . Engine dynamometer testing . Engine stationary cycle . Bus . Hanoi

Introduction 2015). Developing the public transport system using buses

has been considered as a solution to improve the air quality
The transport sector is one of the main sources of air pollutants in Vietnam in recent years. For the period of 2001 to 2017, the
in big cities, especially in developing countries including number of bus routes, the fleet, and the number of passengers
Vietnam (Elkafoury et al. 2016; Grigoratos and Martini in Hanoi, the capital of Vietnam, have been increased 3, 4.2,

Highlights •An engine stationary cycle consisting of 14 modes for buses

in Hanoi, called HBSC, was constructed.
•The exhaust emissions were measured on the D1146TI diesel engine
under the HBSC.
•The country-specific emission factors for buses in Hanoi were
developed.
•Emission factors determined to the HBSC are higher than those to the
R49 cycle.
•High correlations between the emission rate of CO, NOx, CO2, and the
engine power were observed.
Responsible editor: Philippe Garrigues
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article
(https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-05634-9) contains supplementary
material, which is available to authorized users.

* Trung-Dung Nghiem 2
Faculty of Transport Safety and Environment, University of
dung.nghiemtrung@hust.edu.vn Transport and Communications, 3 Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam
* Yen-Lien T. Nguyen 3
nylien@utc.edu.vn School of Transportation Engineering, Hanoi University of Science
and Technology, 1 Dai Co Viet, Hanoi, Vietnam

1 4
School of Environmental Science and Technology, Hanoi University Faculty of Information Technology, University of Transport and
of Science and Technology, 1 Dai Co Viet, Hanoi, Vietnam Communications, 3 Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam
 Author's personal copy
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2019) 26:24176–24189
and 28.7 times, respectively (Ministry of Transport 2018).
However, the operation of the bus system is not really effec-
tive due to poor transportation infrastructure, frequent traffic
jams, poor vehicle maintenance, low fuel quality, and old ve-
hicles not meeting the emission standards. Therefore, bus
transport is still a significant emitter of air pollutants including
PM, NOx, CO, and SO2, affecting the air quality of the city. As
a result, levels of PM10 and PM2.5 in the urban areas of Hanoi
exceeded Vietnam ambient air quality standards on more than
20% of the total days of the year (MONRE 2016). This leads
to a need for the emission inventory of buses to serve as a
scientific basis for integrated air quality management in the
city.
Emission factor (EF) is a useful tool to estimate the level of
pollutant released from a specific source; hence, it is widely
used in the emission inventory. For vehicles, EF is dependent
on several factors including the type and age of the vehicles,
air pollution control technologies, the type and quality of
fuels, inspection and maintenance (I/M) conditions, ambient
air conditions, and their operating conditions. Therefore, using
EFs derived from other countries or organizations would not
fully reflect the local vehicle emission characteristics of
Vietnam. Meaning that, the use of the country-specific emis-
sion factors (CSEFs) instead of values adopted from other
countries can reduce the level of uncertainty in national emis-
sion inventories (LEAD 2013). In addition, the real-world
emission of the vehicle is always higher than the emission
limits used in type approval (Peitzmeier et al. 2017).
Therefore, for air quality management, the development of
CSEFs is very important.
At present, studies on the development of EFs for road
vehicles in Vietnam are still scarce. Most of them including
Nguyen et al. (2011), Oanh et al. (2012), Nghiem et al. (2013),
Nghiem and Ho (2014), Trang et al. (2015), and Nguyen and
Nghiem (2017) used the simulation method of vehicle emis-
sion, in which, based on the collected real-world driving data,
the EFs for motorcycles, light-duty vehicles (LDVs), and bus-
es were developed using the International Vehicle Emission
(IVE) model provided by the US Environmental Protection
Agency (US EPA). The emission models are usually devel-
oped relying on experimental data collected in vehicle emis-
sion measurement in certain conditions (Franco et al. 2013).
Therefore, in order to obtain the EFs of better quality, it is
necessary to adjust the parameters of the models, especially
when applying the models of developed countries for devel-
oping ones where there is difference in the level of technology,
the quality of fuels, and the driving behavior. However, the
adjustment of model parameters to be in conformity with the
emission characteristics in Vietnam was not performed be-
cause of high cost for emission measurement data. In addition,
the IVE model is a type of “unadjusted” models based on
engine power demand due to classification as presented in
the study of Boutler et al. (2007), in which the real-world
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vehicle driving characteristics are converted into a number
of bins; each bin denotes an appropriate emission level of
the vehicle. According to Boutler et al. (2007), the dynamic
deviation of the emission signals was not taken into account
during the development of “unadjusted” models. Therefore, in
the approach of those studies, the vehicle emission character-
istics cannot be fully captured. In an effort to reflect better the
emission characteristics of vehicles in Vietnam, Ta et al.
(2010), Tung et al. (2011), and Le et al. (2012) used emission
measurement under the controlled conditions in the laboratory
based on the local driving cycles. This technique is usually
used for the type approach of vehicle and engine because of its
superiority, and the results of emission measurement obtained
in this method are used to develop and adjust the emission
models. In other words, this is an ideal approach to CSEF
development in the transport sector once the local driving
cycle has been developed (Franco et al. 2013). However, the
previous studies using this approach in Vietnam dealt with
motorcycles and LDV only, but not heavy-duty vehicles
(HDVs) including buses. In addition, the method of local
driving cycle development used in those studies was based
only on the clustering and combination algorithm of
microtrips. Therefore, the operating modes’ frequency distri-
bution of the real-world driving data is not fully captured (Lin
and Niemeier 2003). For this reason, in our study, the local
driving cycle constructed based on Markov chain theory was
used for the vehicle emission measurement. This approach has
been being applied for the driving cycle construction in many
recent studies such as Bishop et al. (2012), Brady and
O'Mahony (2013), and Ashtari et al. (2014).
The vehicle emission measurement under the controlled
conditions in laboratories based on the local driving cycle is
the ideal approach for CSEF development (Franco et al.
2013). This measurement is conducted by chassis dynamom-
eter tests or engine dynamometer tests. However, chassis dy-
namometer testing on HDVs is quite limited because the cost
for this experiment is quite high. Thus, the engine dynamom-
eter tests on HDVs are used more popularly (Franco et al.
2013). The engine stationary and transient cycles are used in
the engine dynamometer tests. According to the European
emission standards, the stationary test cycle ECE R49 is used
for HDVs which meet the Euro II emission standard, while the
stationary test cycle (European Stationary Cycle, ESC) and
the transient test cycle (European Transient Cycle, ETC) are
used for HDVs which meet the emission standards from Euro
III to Euro V. In Vietnam, the Euro II emission standard has
been applied for HDVs taken into use prior to 2018, and the
Euro IV emission standard has come into effect on HDVs
since 2018 (Government Office 2017). At present, up to
70% of buses operating in Vietnam are originally put in use
prior to 2018 (Bus-WebGPS 2018). Therefore, in this study,
EFs for the buses in Hanoi are determined based on the sta-
tionary cycle under the emission test at the Laboratory of
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Internal Combustion Engines, Hanoi University of Science
and Technology. This stationary cycle was constructed from
the typical driving cycle of buses in Hanoi, Vietnam.
Methodology
The overall methodology used to develop EFs for buses in
Hanoi is presented in Fig. 1.
Figure 1 shows the whole process of our study to determine
the CSEFs for buses in Hanoi. Our overall study is divided
into two main parts. The first part is the development of the
typical driving cycle for buses in Hanoi. This part was done
based on the real-world driving data collected along 15 routes
in the inner city using the global positioning system (GPS)
technique. The Markov chain theory was used to synthesize
the typical driving cycle for buses in Hanoi. The result of this
part has been published in a separate paper (Nguyen et al.
2019). According to this result, the typical driving cycle (also
called the transient vehicle cycle) for the buses in Hanoi,
namely, HBDC, has the time duration of 3936 s, the average
velocity of 16.76 km/h, the maximum speed of 44 km/h, and
the total distance of 18.32 km (Fig. 2).
In this paper, we present the second part of our study, in-
cluding the steps from the transformation of the transient ve-
hicle cycle into the engine transient cycle to the end of the
flowchart as highlighted by a blue color in Fig. 1. The tran-
sient vehicle cycle was transformed into the engine transient
cycle, and after that, we built the engine stationary cycle and
measured engine emissions under the controlled conditions in
laboratories to determine the CSEFs.
Fig. 1 Overall methodology of
EF development for buses in
Hanoi
Algorithms for
transformation of V(t) into
M,n(t)
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2019) 26:24176–24189
Collection of information on bus fleet in Hanoi
To develop the CSEFs for the buses in Hanoi, it is necessary to
have detailed information on their fleet. This was obtained by
the compilation of data collected from the website of the
Hanoi Transportation Service Corporation (Bus-WebGPS
2018). Based on the data collected from overall 1830 buses
up to November 2017, information on the bus fleet in Hanoi
was obtained as shown in Fig. 3. As can be seen in Fig. 3, the
average age of buses in Hanoi is 7.5 years and most of them
are HDVs.
Transformation of the transient vehicle cycle
into the engine transient cycle
The emission measurement of HDVs using the chassis dyna-
mometer testing is not available in Vietnam. Therefore, the
transient vehicle cycle has to be transformed into a transient
engine cycle to measure the emission according to engine
dynamometer testing. Transformation of the transient vehicle
cycle into a transient engine cycle (actual engine speed and
load versus time) can be performed using a drive train model
(Giakoumis 2017; Steven 2001). The application of the drive
train model would request a computer program (Steven 2001);
therefore, the computer program developed by Japanese
Ministry of the Environment (JMOE 2002) was used in this
study. The C++ version of the program for the diesel engine
was used in this study. This code was compiled in Microsoft
Visual Studio, whereby the instantaneous speed values of the
vehicle, V(t), were transformed into the instantaneous torque
and speed values of the engine, M(t) and n(t), respectively. In
Collection and preprocessing of real-world
driving data
Preprocessed GPS data
Construction driving cycle using Markov
chain
Transient vehicle cycle
Transformation of the transient vehicle cycle
Collection vehicle information
into the engine transient cycle
Engine transient cycle
Transformation of the engine transient cycle
into the engine stationary cycle
Engine stationary cycle
Engine dynamometer test
Emission factors
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Environ Sci Pollut Res (2019) 26:24176–24189 24179

HBDC
50

Velocity (km/h) 40

30

20

10

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Time (s)
Fig. 2 The typical driving cycle of the buses in Hanoi (Nguyen et al. 2019)

this code, the normalized engine speed and torque are defined dynamic characteristics was performed to determine several
as follows (JMOE 2002). points of the maximum engine torque according to the tech-
n−nidle nical parameters of engine and vehicle which were used in
nnorm ð%Þ ¼  100 ð1Þ this study. The maximum engine torque data are presented in
nrated −nidle
Table 2
Te
T norm ð%Þ ¼  100 ð2Þ & moe_ed12.txt: contains the driving pattern data (the vehi-
T emax cle instantaneous speed versus time, in terms of the typical
driving cycle of the buses in Hanoi) as described in Fig. 2
where nnorm is the normalized engine speed (%), n is the actual
engine speed (rpm), nidle is the idling engine speed (rpm), n-
rated is the rated engine speed (rpm), Tnorm is the normalized Transformation of the engine transient cycle
engine torque (%), Te is the engine torque (Nm), and Temax is into the engine stationary cycle
the maximum engine torque (Nm).
Three input files related to the vehicle specification, the The engine stationary cycle was used for heavy duty engine
maximum engine torque, and the driving pattern are required testing on the engine dynamometer. According to Vietnam
to run this program, including the following: Government’s regulations, buses, which were put into opera-
tion prior to 2018, have to meet the emission standards Euro II
& spec_15.txt: contains the vehicle specification data as pre- with stationary emission testing requirements as said above.
sented in Table 1 Therefore, in the next step of this study, the transient engine
& maxtq_15.txt: includes the maximum engine torque data; cycle above developed has to be transformed into the engine
more than 5 points are advised. Calculation of vehicle stationary cycle.

Fig. 3 The general information 90 4.8

on the bus fleet in Hanoi
Passenger capacity

80 29.9
(Persons)

60 60.0

30 5.3

11 100.11 60.3
Vehicle age
(Year)

3 14.2

2 25.5

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Percentage (%)
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Table 1 The vehicle specification data used in this study engine speed (rpm) where the engine produces 70% of max-
Parameters Values imum power (same as for the European stationary cycles).
The steady-state modes are determined based on the joint
Curb vehicle mass (kg) 10,800 frequency distribution of normalized engine speed and load in
Payload (kg) 16,000 the engine transient cycle for the four engine speed ranges
Persons 80 consisting of the idling engine speed, and the engine speeds
Overall height (m) 3.225 A, B, and C. The specified speeds shall be held within ±
Overall width (m) 2.5 50 rpm. The weighting factors of modes are determined based
Tire rolling radius (m) 0.491 on the frequency of respective modes, not including the points
Number of gear 5 belonging to the motoring phase (same as the European sta-
1st gear ratio 6.589 tionary cycles).
2nd gear ratio 4.002
3rd gear ratio 2.429 Dynamometer testing
4th gear ratio 1.507
5th gear ratio 1 Dynamometer testing was conducted at the Laboratory of
Final gear ratio 4.875 Internal Combustion Engine, School of Transportation
Idling engine speed (rpm) 600 Engineering, Hanoi University of Science and Technology.
Rated engine speed (rpm) 2200
Highest engine speed (rpm) 2400 Testing engine

The value of parameters is referred to the new D1146TI engine and the The Euro II D1146TI diesel engine was chosen for engine
Daewoo BC212 vehicle type which are widely used in the bus fleet of dynamometer testing after the engine stationary cycle was
Hanoi
constructed. This engine has been put in use at the laboratory
since 2009; therefore, the engine age is suitable for the average
The engine speeds A, B, and C used during the engine age of the bus fleet in Hanoi. The engine specification is pre-
dynamometer testing according to the engine stationary cycle sented in Table 3.
are calculated from the following formulas (DieselNet 2018):
High dynamic engine test bed
A ¼ nlo þ 0:25ðnhi −nlo Þ ð3Þ
B ¼ nlo þ 0:50ðnhi −nlo Þ ð4Þ The test bed is able to conduct experiments for engines with
C ¼ nlo þ 0:75ðnhi −nlo Þ ð5Þ rated power up to 220 kW, maximum torque up to 934 Nm,
and speed up to 8000 rpm. This test bed is connected with
where nlo is the lowest engine speed (rpm) where the engine Coolant Conditioning System 553, Fuel Conditioning 753,
produces 50% of the maximum power, and nhi is the highest Throttle actuator THA 100, Fuel Balance 733S, and many
other equipments to ensure the accuracy of the measurements.
All of these devices were provided by AVL, Austria.
Table 2 The maximum
torque data of D1146TI Engine speed (rpm) Torque (Nm)
diesel engine Exhaust emission sampling and analysis
600 655.2
760 689.3 The engine test bed (ETB) is equipped with the CEBII emis-
920 715.9 sion test bench to measure the emission of gaseous pollutants,
1080 734.8 and the Smoke Meter AVL 415 to determine smoke.
1240 746.2
1400 750.0 Table 3 Specification of D1146TI diesel engine
1560 746.2
Engine type Turbocharged 6 cylinder in line
1720 734.8
1880 715.9 Displacement 8.071 l
2040 689.3 Bore 111 mm
2200 655.2 Stroke 139 mm
Max torque 735 Nm
The engine torque is determined by the
calculation of vehicle dynamic characteris- Max power 150 kW
tics following the new D1146TI engine Compression ratio 16.7:1
and the Daewoo BC212 vehicle
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Environ Sci Pollut Res (2019) 26:24176–24189
Test fuel
Conventional diesel fuel used in this study was supplied by
Vietnam National Petroleum Group (Petrolimex). The fuel
properties comply with the Vietnam standard for diesel fuel
used in the diesel engine of motor vehicles-TCVN 5689:2013
as presented in Table 4.
Ambient air conditions
The air conditions in the testing room were recorded during
the experimental period to use in the emission calculations.
The average of temperature and humidity was 24 °C and 74%,
respectively.
Emission factor calculations
Calculation of the brake-specific emission factor
After the completion of the measurements, the mass of each
pollutant was calculated to the actual work power of the en-
gine. The brake-specific emission factor (BSEF) of gaseous
pollutants was calculated according to Eq. (6) (Giakoumis
2017).
n BSEFi
∑ mi; j  WF j
j¼1
EFi ðg=kWhÞ ¼ n ð6Þ
∑ P j  WF j
j¼1
where mi,j denotes the mass flow of pollutant i emitted in the
testing mode j (g/h), Pj denotes the power produced by engine
in the testing mode j (kW), WFj denotes the weighting factors
of testing modes.
In this study, the mass of particulates was calculated based
on the measured smoke because there is a correlation of
smoke, soot, and particulates (Lakshminarayanan and Aswin
2016; Pham et al. 2009; Zhang et al. 2013). The smoke was
measured in the form of the filter smoke number (FSN) and
the smoke concentration (g/m3) in all testing modes.
Then, the mass flow of particulate in each testing mode was
calculated following Eq. (7) as presented in the study of
Lakshminarayanan and Aswin (2016).
mPM ¼ 1:024  C smoke  mexh þ 0:1  S  mfuel þ 0:1  C HC  mexh
ð7Þ
Table 4 Main properties
of the tested fuel Sulfur content (mg/kg) ≤ 350
Cetane index ≥ 48
Distillation 90% (°C) ≤ 360
Flash point (°C) ≥ 55
Density 15 °C (kg/m3) 820–850
24181
where mPM is the particulate mass flow (g/h), Csmoke is the
smoke concentration (g/m3), mexh is the exhaust mass flow
(g/h), S is the sulfur content in diesel fuel (g/kg), and CHC is
the hydrocarbon concentration in exhaust (g/m3).
Based on the determined particulate mass flow, the BSEF
of particulate can be calculated as described in Eq. (8)
(Giakoumis 2017).
n
∑ mPM; j  WF j
ð8Þ
j¼1
EFPM ðg=kWhÞ ¼ n
∑ P j  WF j
j¼1
where mPM,j denotes the particulate mass flow in the testing
mode j (g/h).
Calculation of the fuel-based emission factor
The fuel-based emission factor (FBEF) can exclude the
effects of vehicle characteristics, for example rated en-
gine power (He et al. 2017), and create favorable con-
ditions for the emission inventory. Therefore, the FBEF
was calculated based on the BSEF and the brake-
specific fuel consumption (BSFC) as presented in Eq.
(9) (Dreher and Harley 1998).
FBEFi ¼ ð9Þ
BSFC
where FBEFi is the fuel-based emission factor of pol-
lutant i (g/kg-fuel), BSEFi is the brake-specific emission
factor of pollutant i (g/kWh), and BSFC is the average
brake-specific fuel consumption (kg-fuel/kWh).
Calculation of the distance-based emission factor
In order to make specific EFs more useful and applica-
ble in the emission inventories, the distance-based emis-
sion factor (DBEF) was also developed based on the
emission rate of D1146TI engine and the real-world
driving characteristics as the following equation (He
et al. 2017):
3600  ERi
DBEFi ¼ ð10Þ
v
where DBEFi denotes the distance-based emission factor
of pollutant i (g/km), ERi is the emission rate of pollutant i
(g/s), and v is the average velocity of vehicle (km/h). The
average velocity of the vehicle is determined based on the
real-world driving data which have been collected using
the GPS technique.
For this approach, regression models describing the rela-
tionship between the engine emission rate and its power must
be firstly developed based on the data of emission rate and
engine power collected in the emission measurement process.
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After that, the average emission rate is determined based on
the actual average engine power, which is calculated on the
basis of the real-world driving characteristics as Eq. (11), and
the developed regression models above. Assuming that the
power train loss is 8%, the actual average engine power is
calculated as follows (Bishop et al. 2016).
Pengine ¼ 1:08  m  VSP
where Pengine is the engine actual power (kW), m is the vehicle
mass (tons), and VSP is the vehicle-specific power (kW/ton).
In this study, as we determined EFs for buses in the inner city
of Hanoi, VSP was calculated for driving on flat roads as
presented in the study of Zheng et al. (2017) with the follow-
ing equation.
VSP ¼ 1:1  a  v þ 0:132  v þ 0:000302  v3
Results and discussion
Engine transient cycle for the buses in Hanoi
The engine transient cycle
A transient cycle for bus engine was developed based on the
ð11Þ
typical driving cycle of the buses in Hanoi (HBDC, Fig. 2) and
the specifications of vehicle (Table 1 and Table 2). The devel-
oped engine transient cycle consists of 3936 points corre-
sponding to the 3936 points in the HBDC. This cycle, which
is called HBTC, is demonstrated in Fig. 4.
The ratio of idling modes in the HBTC is 16%, which is
quite close with that in the World Harmonized Transient Cycle
(WHTC) (14% (Steven 2001)), but higher than that in the
ð12Þ European Transient Cycle (ETC) (less than 7% (Giakoumis

HBDC
Vehicle speed (kph)

60

40

20

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Time, s
150
engine speed (%)
Normalized

100

50

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Time, s
100
engine torque (%)

75
Normalized

50
25
0
-25
-50
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Time, s
Fig. 4 Engine speed and torque profile of the transient engine cycle of the buses in Hanoi. The upper sub-diagram illustrates the testing cycle used in
chassis dynamometer testing (HBDC); negative torque values in the sub-diagram denote the motoring segments
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Environ Sci Pollut Res (2019) 26:24176–24189 24183

Fig. 5 Normalized engine speed–torque frequency distribution of the the normalized engine speed–torque data of the ETC are cited from
HBTC in comparison with the WHTC and the ETC. The normalized TCVN 6567: 2015 (the motoring points are not presented in the plot)
engine speed–torque data of the WHTC are cited from (UNECE 2007);

2017)). In other words, the bus engine operation pattern in
Hanoi is very different from that in the testing cycle of the
heavy-duty engines in Europe, but is quite similar to that in the
WHTC which is developed based on the worldwide pattern of
real heavy commercial vehicles.
The 3D-normalized engine speed-torque frequency distri-
bution of the HBTC in comparison with the WHTC and ETC
is illustrated in Fig. 5.
As can be seen in Fig. 5, the frequency distribution of
normalized engine speed–torque of the HBTC is concentrated

45
vehicle real speed
40 estimated speed

35

30
Speed (km/h)

25

20

15

10

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

Time (s)
Fig. 6 Comparison between the real speed and the estimated speed
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Fig. 7 Full load curve and the 151.1 75 105 1000 2310 0 0 Pmax
160
650 45.12 151.1 75 105 1000 2310 10 10
calculated values of nhi and nlo
680 47.66 151.1 75 105 1000 2310 20 20
760
140 54.54 151.1 75 105 1000 2310 108 75
840 61.53 151.1 75 105
920
120 68.57 151.1 75 105 70% Pmax

Engine power (kW)

1000 75.62 151.1 75 105
1060 80.88 151.1 75 105
100
1080 82.63Pmax 151.1
50% 75 105
1160 89.55 151.1 75 105
80
1220 94.66 151.1 75 CONTROL AREA
105
1240 96.34 151.1 75 105
1320
60 102.95 151.1 75 105 P (kW)
1380 107.75 151.1 75 105 n_hi
1400
40 109.32 151.1 75 105 n_lo

Speed A

Speed B

Speed C
1540 119.79 151.1 75 105 Speed A
1560 121.2 151.1 75 105
20 Speed B

nlo

nhi
1700 130.39 151.1 75 105
Speed C
1720 131.6 151.1 75 105
18600 139.17 151.1 75 105
600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400
1880 140.12 151.1 105
105
Engine
105 speed (rpm)

mostly on the range between 0 and 10% of normalized engine
speed that is the same to the WHTC, but is very different from
the ETC in which the frequency distribution between 50 and
70% normalized engine speed is increased.
Evaluation of the transformation algorithms
deviation between the estimated and the real speeds is ob-
served at only one point with the deviation of 14.6 km/h.
The average of deviations between these two data sets is
0.16 km/h. In other words, the program source code is suc-
cessful to transform the transient vehicle cycle into the tran-
sient engine cycle.

The reliability of the program code was evaluated through the
comparison of the real speed and estimated speed of the vehi-
cle, in which the estimated speeds are determined using this
code. The very high correlation between two data sets was
found with the correlation coefficient of 0.977, as described
in Fig. 6.
The total of estimated speed points which fit with the real
speeds is 3643 points, accounting for 92.6%. The highest
Stationary cycle for bus engine in Hanoi
Based on the constructed transient engine cycle, the full load
curve is determined, and the values of nhi and nlo are calculat-
ed as illustrated in Fig. 7. The values of nhi and nlo are 2300
and 1000 rpm, respectively. Therefore, the values of engine
speeds A, B, and C used during the test are 1325, 1650, and
1950 rpm, respectively.

Fig. 8 The engine stationary 4% 4%

cycle of the buses in Hanoi 100 8 10

90
11% 4% 2%
80 2 4 12
Load percentage (%)

70
3% 2%
60 6 14

50 11% 3% 1%
5 3 13
40

30

20 27% 6% 1%
7 9 11
10 Idle
21% A B C
0 1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Normarized engine speed (%)

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Environ Sci Pollut Res (2019) 26:24176–24189 24185

Fig. 9 Full-load curve of the

tested D1146TI engine 800 1000 1200 1400
160 900
140
53.0 83.0 99.4 112.0
800
600.00 707.00 760.00 780.00
700

Engine power (kW)

120
50.3 74.0 95.5 114.4 600

Torque (Nm)
100
500
80
400
60
Power (kW) 300
40 200
Torque (Nm)
20 100
0 0
600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400

Engine speed (rpm)

The testing modes of the stationary cycle of bus engine in
Hanoi, which is called HBSC, were determined based on the
combination of the normalized engine speeds and the normalized
engine torque distribution of engine speeds A, B, and C, which
are shown in Supplemental Material, as presented in Fig. 8.
As presented in Fig. 8, the number of modes of HBSC is 14,
which is higher than that in the ESC, the Japanese cycle of 13
modes, the steady-state diesel cycle of the USA, and the
Worldwide Steady State Cycle (WHSC). The number of modes
in the full load state of HBSC (2 modes) is lower than that in
ESC and WHSC, but is similar to the steady-state diesel cycle of
the USA.
To measure the emission of tested engine (in-use D1146TI
engine) according to the HBSC developed above, unnormalized
testing modes were conducted to determine the engine speed and
torque values at the testing points. The full-load curve of the
D1146TI engine was firstly set up as described in Fig. 9.
Concentration of pollutants in raw gas
The emission measurement results on the D1146TI according
to the HBSC cycle above are described in Fig. 10.
As presented in Fig. 10, over the test cycle, the pollutant
concentrations in raw gas vary quite large (CO ~ 50–380 ppm;
CO2 ~ 6800–93,000 ppm; HC ~ 60–150 ppm, and NOx ~ 50–
1050 ppm).
The concentration variance of HC is smallest, and that of
NOx is largest. This is reasonable as the operation modes did
not significantly affect on the HC emission of the diesel en-
gine (Haibo et al. 2008). However, the NOx emission depends
strongly on temperature and oxygen concentration in the com-
bustion (Ibrahim et al. 2015; Pham and Hausberger 2012).
Therefore, the variance of the test modes affects strongly on
the NOx emission, and the NOx concentration value range is
large.

1000
Table 5 Engine speed and torque at the testing points
900
Modes Engine speed (rpm) Load (%) Torque (Nm)
800
1 600 0 0
Concentration (ppm)

700 2 1000 80 566

600
3 1400 45 351
4 1400 80 624
500 5 1000 45 318
6 1000 60 424
400
7 1000 15 106
300 8 1400 100 780
9 1400 15 117
200
10 1800 100 741
100 11 1800 15 111
12 1800 80 593
0
CO CO2/100 HC NOx 13 1800 45 333
Pollutant
14 1800 60 445
Fig. 10 Variation of gaseous pollutant concentrations over the test cycle
 Author's personal copy
24186
Table 6 Brake-specific emission factors of buses in Hanoi
Studies Brake-specific emission factors (g/kWh)
CO
Buses in Hanoi, HBSC test cycle, the average 1.8
value of 5 testing series (this study)
In comparison with:
Emission measurement to R49 cycleb 0.4
The study of He et al. (2017)c
Euro 2 standard 4.0
a
Calculated as NO2
b
Emission measurement on the D1146TI engine used in this study but according to the R49 cycle
c
Diesel truck in Beijing, China, with the rated power around 150 kW
Specific emission factors for Hanoi buses
Brake-specific emission factors of buses in Hanoi
The BSEFs for the buses in Hanoi were determined based on
the emission measurement on the D1146TI diesel engine ac-
cording to the typical engine stationary cycle HBSC as men-
tioned above. Based on the results of engine emission mea-
surement at 14 modes, in which the engine torque and speed at
each mode are shown in Table 5, and the respective weighting
factors (see in Fig. 8), the brake-specific emission factors of
pollutants are calculated as presented in Table 6.
Table 6 shows that the emissions of NOx and PM of the
buses in Hanoi are approximately 1.7 and 1.5 times higher
than the Euro 2 standard, respectively. In this study, the emis-
sion measurement of the D1146TI engine according to the
R49 cycle was also performed to estimate the effect of test
cycle categories on the engine emission. As can be seen from
Table 6, on the same tested D1146TI engine, the BSEFs of
almost all pollutants measured following the HBSC cycle are
higher than those measured following the R49, particularly
CO (4.5 times higher); even the fuel consumption is quite
similar (approximate 220 g-fuel/kWh). This result can be
Table 7 Fuel-based emission
factors of buses in Hanoi Pollutants
CO
HC
NOx (as NO2)
CO2
PM
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2019) 26:24176–24189
HC NOxa CO2 PM
0.43 12.33 710.33 0.22
0.54 10.04 449.95 0.17
10.26
1.1 7.0 – 0.15
explained by the fact that the driving characteristics among
areas are very different (Tong et al. 2011) and the driving
characteristics of buses in Hanoi are strongly different from
those in Europe as indicated in the study of Nguyen and
Nghiem (2017). In addition, in comparison with heavy vehi-
cles in Beijing, which used the diesel engine with the rated
power equivalent to the engine used in this study, the BSEF of
NOx of buses in Hanoi is approximately 20% higher. This
indicates that, despite the same fuel consumption and the same
engine type and power, the EF is totally different. Thus, each
country should develop its own set of EFs as vehicle emission
is dependent on many factors.
Fuel-based emission factors of buses in Hanoi
The BSEFs obtained from engine dynamometer tests above
can be converted to the FBEFs based on the BSFC as Eq. (9)
above. In this study, the average BSFC value is 220 g-fuel/
kWh; then, the FBEFs of buses in Hanoi are determined as
presented in Table 7.
As presented in Table 7, almost all FBEFs of buses in
Hanoi are higher than those in Beijing, Macao, and also higher
than the average EFs introduced by IPCC, EEA, to support the
Fuel-based emission factor (g/kg-fuel)
This study Other studies
8.2 Bus in Macao (Wu et al. 2015): 16.4 (Euro 2)
1.9 Bus in Macao (Wu et al. 2015): 0.62 (Euro 2)
56.1 Bus in Beijing (He et al. 2017): ~ 40 (Euro 2): ~ 32 (Euro 3)
Bus in Macao (Wu et al. 2015): 41.7 (Euro 2)
European Environment Agency (EEA) (2013): 33.37
3228.8 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
(2006): 3140 (Europe); 3172.3 (USA)
1.0 Bus in Macao (Wu et al. 2015): 0.156 (for PM2.5)
European Environment Agency (EEA) (2013): 0.94
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Environ Sci Pollut Res (2019) 26:24176–24189 24187

Table 8 Distance-based emission factor of bus in Hanoi of 150 kW following equations below and being illus-
Pollutants Distance-based emission factor (g/km) trated in the Supplemental Material.
y ¼ −4:379:10−7 x4 ¼ 0:0001247x3 −0:009302x2 þ 0:1564x þ 16:19
This study Comparison with other studies HC
R2 ¼ 0:6341
CO 2.9 3.3 Bus in Hanoi* ð13Þ
4.2 Bus in Macao (Wu et al. 2015)
y ¼ 574:2x þ 1:031
HC 0.8 0.16 Bus in Macao (Wu et al. 2015) CO2 ð14Þ
R2 ¼ 0:9848
*
NOx 32.7 11.2 Bus in Hanoi
18.9 Bus in Beijing (Yang 2018) y ¼ e0:02443x þ 45:02
CO ð15Þ
CO2 1596.9 1212.8 Bus in India (India 2015) R2 ¼ 0:9198
1111.6 Bus in Hanoi*
y ¼ 11:69x þ 2:866
1120 Bus in Macao (Wu et al. 2015) NOx ð16Þ
1386 Bus in Beijing (Yang 2018) R2 ¼ 0:9760
a
Our previous study for buses, in which the DBEFs were calculated
based on the real-world driving data using the International Vehicle where y denotes the emission rate (g/h) and x denotes the
Emissions (IVE) model (Nguyen and Nghiem 2018)
engine power (kW).
In this study, the average specific vehicle power and vehi-
cle velocity were inherited from our previous study (Nguyen
emission inventory activities in the transport sector. For exam-
et al. 2019) to determine the actual engine power as in Eq.
ple, the FBEF of NOx of buses in Hanoi is 22% and 34%
(11). The determined actual engine power is 46.1 kW.
higher than that in Beijing and in Macao, respectively, with
Equation (10), as presented above, was used to calculate the
equivalent rated engine power.
DBEFs as shown in Table 8.
As can be seen from Table 8, EFs of NOx and CO2 deter-
Distance-based emission factors of buses in Hanoi mined to the proposed test cycle are 192% and 44% higher
than those in our previous study for buses in Hanoi (Nguyen
In this study, the DBEFs (g/km) are also calculated and Nghiem 2017). However, EF of CO determined to the
relying on the instantaneous emission rate and real- proposed test cycle is 12% lower than that in Nguyen and
world driving characteristics as in Eq. (10) above. The Nghiem (2017). This comparison is intended to indicate the
mathematical models describing the relationship between potential errors when applying the default driving cycle in
engine power and emission rate were developed based IVE model for buses in Hanoi without calibration with the
on the regression analysis on the Matlab software. The local test cycle. In addition, the EFs of buses in Hanoi are very
best regression models between engine power and pol- different from other countries. For example, the value of CO2
lutant emission rate were selected based on the value of is 32% higher than that in India while the value of CO is 31%
R2 for diesel engine 6 cylinder in-line and rated power lower than that in Macao.

Fig. 11 Comparison between the 70

model EF and the test EF
Testing Model
60
Fuel-based emission factor

50
(g/kg-fuel)

40

30

20

10

0
HC CO CO2/100 NOx

Pollutants
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24188
In this study, the obtained DBEFs could be validated by
comparing the FBEFs calculated from these DBEFs according
to Eq. (15) (He et al. 2017) and those derived from the engine
dynamometer test.
DBEFi  W C  1000
i ¼
FBEFm
0:273  DBEFCO2 þ 0:429  DBEFCO þ 0:866  DBEFHC
ð17Þ
where FBEFim is the fuel-based emission factor for pollutant i
determined to the model, in grams per kilogram of fuel, and
WC is the carbon mass ratio in diesel fuel.
As presented in Fig. 11, the difference between the model
EF and the test EF is quite small. It is shown that the relative
deviation of the FBEFs between the ones calculated from
engine dynamometer testing results and the others determined
based on the DBEFs above are 8%, 1%, 17%, and 7% for HC,
CO2, CO, and NOx, respectively. Therefore, the DBEFs deter-
mined with the approach above are highly reliable.
Conclusions
The engine transient cycle for the bus engine in Hanoi
(HBTC) consisting of 3936 transient points has been devel-
oped based on the typical driving cycle of buses in Hanoi
which was constructed using the Markov chain theory. This
was done by the transformation of the transient vehicle cycle
into the engine transient cycle using the algorithm developed
by the Japanese Ministry of the Environment. The reliability
of the algorithm is evaluated by the correlation between the
actual speed and the estimated speed of the vehicle. A very
high correlation between these two data sets with the correla-
tion coefficient of 0.977 has been found. The engine stationary
cycle for the bus engine in Hanoi including 14 modes
(HBSC), in which 2 modes are in the full-load state, has been
constructed relying on the HBTC for the purpose of the emis-
sion testing. The dynamometer testing for heavy-duty diesel
engine D1146TI was performed to measure the emission of
pollutants, namely, CO, HC, NOx, CO2, and smoke, according
to the HBSC cycle. The CSEFs for buses in Hanoi in terms of
the brake-specific, the fuel-based, and the distance-based ones
have been determined based on the emission measurement.
The relationship between the engine power and the emission
rate has also been proposed for CO2, CO, and NOx through
three mathematical models with R2 being higher than 0.9. The
determined CSEFs for buses are a very good basis for improv-
ing the quality of emission inventory as well as integrated air
quality management in Vietnam.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the Japanese
Ministry of the Environment for providing with the source code to trans-
form the transient vehicle cycle into the engine transient cycle.
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2019) 26:24176–24189
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