Hydrological Sciences–Journal–des Sciences Hydrologiques, 49(4) August 2004 643

Remote sensing application to estimate the volume

of water in the form of snow on Mount Lebanon*

AMIN SHABAN, GHALEB FAOUR, MOHAMAD KHAWLIE &

CHADI ABDALLAH
Lebanese National Council for Scientific Research, National Center for Remote Sensing, Beirut,
Lebanon
geoamin@cnrs.edu.lb

Abstract At least one-quarter of the Lebanese terrain is covered by snow annually,

thus contributing integrally to feeding surface and subsurface water resources.
However, only limited estimates of snow cover have been carried out and applied
locally. The use of remote sensing has enhanced significantly the delineation of snow
cover over the mountains. Several satellite images and sensors are used in this respect.
In this study, SPOT-4 (1-km resolution) satellite images are used. They have the
capability to acquire consecutive images every 10 days, thus monitoring the dynamic
change of snow and its maximum coverage could be achieved. This was applied to
Mount Lebanon for the years 2001–2002. The areas covered by snow were delineated,
and then manipulated with the slope angle and altitudes in order to classify five major
zones of snowmelt potential. The field investigation was carried out in each zone by
measuring depths and snow/water ratio. A volume of around 1100 × 106 m3 of water
was derived from snowmelt over the given period. This is equivalent to a precipitation
rate of about 425 mm in the region, revealing the considerable portion of water that is
derived from snowmelt.
Key words Mount Lebanon; snow cover; SPOT-4; water volume
Application de la télédétection à l’estimation du volume d’eau sous
forme de neige sur le Mont Liban
Résumé La neige couvre annuellement au moins le quart de la superficie du Liban,
contribuant intégralement à l’alimentation de ressources en eaux de surface et de sub-
surface. Néanmoins, rares sont les estimations locales de la couverture neigeuse.
L’utilisation de la télédétection a ouvert des perspectives significatives pour la
cartographie de la couverture neigeuse en zones montagneuses. Plusieurs images et
capteurs satellitaires sont utilisés dans ce sens. Nous utilisons, dans cette étude, des
images du satellite SPOT-4 (de résolution 1 km). Il est possible d’acquérir des images
consécutives tous les 10 jours, ce qui permet de suivre l’évolution de la neige, ainsi
que la couverture maximale. Cela a été appliqué au Mont Liban pour les années 2001–
2002. Les zones couvertes par la neige ont été délimitées, puis croisées avec des
données de relief (angle de pente et altitude) afin d’identifier une classification du
potentiel de fonte en cinq zones principales. La profondeur et le rapport neige/eau ont
été mesurés in situ dans chaque zone. Un volume d’eau de fonte d’environ 1100 ×
106 m3 a été estimé pour la période d’étude. Cela équivaut à un cumul de précipitation
d’environ 425 mm sur la région, ce qui met en évidence la part considérable que
représente la fonte de la neige dans le bilan hydrologique.
Mots clefs Mont Liban; couverture neigeuse; SPOT-4; volume d’eau

INTRODUCTION

In Lebanon, a substantial portion of the freshwater resources is stored temporarily in

the form of snow, which acts as an important element in the water budget. Rivers and

* Based on a paper presented at the Conference on Snow Hydrology of Mediterranean Regions held at Beirut,
Lebanon, 15–17 December 2002.

Open for discussion until 1 February 2005

644 Amin Shaban et al.

springs are fed a large amount of water from the melting snow in the mountains. In
some regions, these waters may contribute up to about two thirds of the total volume of
yearly discharge of those sources. For example, Abd-El-Al (1947) estimated that, for
the Ibrahim River (a major Lebanese river), of 300 × 106 m3 year-1 discharged water,
around 200 × 106 m3 are derived from melting snow. It is a common practice that local
inhabitants project the expected yearly debits in springs and rivers directly from the
snow thickness and the time of snow fall.
Accurate knowledge of the distribution of snowfields and their volumes in terms
of water equivalents is required to know exactly how much water is stored. The
elevated regions of Mount Lebanon are typical zones for snow accumulation, with
large coverage every winter. As this snow melts in spring it becomes an inherent part
of surface and subsurface waters.
In Lebanon, local measurements of snow depth have been carried out only at
limited stations, which makes it insufficient to establish a final figure on the volume of
water resulting from snowmelt. A number of new estimates have been carried out
recently on that snow water. These are still in their initial phases, and rely mainly on
the use of remote sensing tools. Therefore, proper quantification of the water volume
from snow has not been established yet. This is attributed mainly to the difficulty in
assessing the actual yearly area of land covered by snow, as well as to lack of specific
meteorological data. The application of remote sensing in this respect serves to help in
solving the problem, although this application is still under research (Girard & Girard,
1999). Satellite imagery offers a new and valuable approach for snow monitoring and
mapping, as the technique can cover several aspects relevant to snow, namely: areal
extent, variation through time, land morphology, sloping terrain, land cover (forest or
barren), as well as climate and solar inputs. Nevertheless, determination of snow thick-
ness or its water equivalent is still under study in present operational satellite systems.
The most widely used satellite images for snow cover identification are the visible
and infrared bands of Landsat, SPOT, NOAA and AVHRR (Shi & Dozier, 1995) as
well as radar sensors (Bernier & Fortin,1992; Rott & Nagler 1995; Baghdadi et al.,
1997; Kelly, 1996). Further, these images cover large areas at short time intervals.
Until quite recently, the problem facing interpretation of snow cover from satellite
imagery involved the differentiation of snow from other features, especially those of
cloud cover, bare rocks and shadows on sloping terrain, as well as vegetation cover
which reduces the reflectance (Lucas & Harrison, 1990).
This study is supplementary research to a preliminary investigation done in 2002
by the authors. It aims to use satellite imagery, particularly to determine the snow
coverage area, in an attempt to estimate better the water volume that results from
snowmelt on the mountainous regions of western Lebanon (i.e. Mount Lebanon). The
results would help evaluate water replenishment of the issuing rivers and springs, as
well as provide accurate values for the water budget estimation of the area.

METHOD

Determining the volume of snow requires measurement of two principal variables:

areal coverage and depth. In addition to estimating the snow volume, it is necessary to
estimate the water-snow equivalent (or snow/water ratio, SWR = ratio of water volume
to snow volume) to establish the volume of water in the form of snow. In mountainous
 Remote sensing to estimate the volume of water in the form of snow on Mount Lebanon 645

Total area

Area above a given altitude

Area of snow cover

0 ESA
Lowest Highest
Altitude
Fig. 1 Snow line/altitude curve to estimate the average area of snow cover (according
to Lucas & Harrison, 1990).

regions, the snow line/altitude method (Fig. 1) is generally applied (Engman &
Gurney, 1985; Lucas & Harrison, 1990; Maxfield, 1994). This method depends on
classifying the snow cover distribution with respect to different altitudes. However, it
does not involve essential parameters that control the quantitative measures of snow
cover. In this study, in addition to altitude, two other fundamental parameters were
taken into consideration. First is the slope angle, because it is indicative of the relative
snow depth—the steeper the angle of slope, the lesser the thickness of snow. Second is
the maximum surface area of snow coverage during the whole period of snow
accumulation.
Accordingly, having determined the area of maximum snow coverage and
different slope angles, as well as the altitudes for that area, a map showing snowmelt
potential zones can be developed (Shaban, 2003). Snow depth and SWR can then be
measured in these zones.
The primary stage is the determination of the snowmelt potential zones according
to the following steps:

Mapping of snow coverage

The availability of SPOT-4 “Vegetation” images is useful in this approach. These

images are interpreted using ERDAS Imagine software. The introduction of a new
spectral band on the SPOT-4 instruments in the field of “SWIR” wavelength (short
wave infrared: 1.55–1.75 µm) enables one to obtain a better mapping of snow layers.
These images have a resolution of 1 km, and measurement periods of 10 days, which
allows estimation of the maximum snow accumulation in a specific year. The images
used are for the period April 2001–September 2002, i.e. 90 images. Figure 2 shows an
example of these images.
 646 Amin Shaban et al.

First snow accumulation on crests

Mediterranean
Sea

Beirut

20/09/2001 20/10/2001 20/11/2001

Snow cover shapes the limit of Mount Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Maximum snow cover (20/02/2000)

20/12/2001 20/01/2002 20/02/2002

Fig. 2 Selective images of snow coverage on Lebanon as identified from SPOT-4,

VEG.

Next, the image of the maximum snow coverage is selected, since it represents the
greatest areal cover of snow. From the available set of satellite images (Fig. 2), the
maximum coverage can be clearly seen in the image of 20 February 2002.

Classification of snow coverage zones

From the image of maximum snow coverage, the area covered by snow on Mount
Lebanon is classified into zones according to the density of snow distribution, referred
to as “snow coverage”. This can be obtained through a supervised classification.
According to Koskinen et al. (1999), who studied the density of snow distribution, the
classification of snow coverage zones was as follows: (a) zones totally covered by
snow; (b) more than half of the area covered by snow; (c) less than half of the area
covered by snow; (d) snow only exists in forests; and (e) dissipated snow (Fig. 3(a)).
In this study, a similar classification was followed, but relying on numerical values
to represent the percentage of snow coverage: >90%, 90–60%, 60–40%, 40–10 % and
<10% (Shaban et al., 2002).
 Remote sensing to estimate the volume of water in the form of snow on Mount Lebanon 647

(a)

(b)

Fig. 3 Maps showing zones of snow coverage, slope angle and altitude on Mount
Lebanon.

Classification of slope angle and angle of friction

From interferometric processing of raw SAR imagery (RADARSAT—20 m altimetric

and 20 m planimetric) of 18 December 2000, a digital elevation model (DEM) was
648 Amin Shaban et al.

acquired. Thus, both altitude and slope angle could be determined from this model.
Each map shows five classes (Fig. 3(b)) depending on the domain values, obtained by
dividing the range from minimum value to maximum value into five groups.
For the slope angle, as the angle of friction of terrain underlain by snow is around
30–35º (Hutter, 1996), the resultant zones can be classified as: <7.5º, 7.5–15º,
15–22.5º, 22.5–30º and >30º. For the altitude, the minimum elevation at which snow
was accumulated on 18 December 2000 was around 1200 m, and the maximum
elevation reached about 3000 m. So far, it has been found more reliable to have snow
steps at small intervals, e.g. 100 or 200 m. However, in order to have only five classes,
the same as those for the snow coverage and slope angle, the area was also classified
into five classes of altitude from 1200–1550 m to >2650 m (see Fig. 3(b)).
Accordingly, these two classifications are adapted in conjunction with previous
recorded physical data in the area of study, i.e. precipitation, snow depths, etc.

Determination of snowmelt potential zones

Having established the major three parameters that control the distribution and
coverage of snow, these must be combined in order to determine the snowmelt
potential zones. Each of the resulting maps is considered as a layer. Geographic
Information System (GIS) analysis was applied using ArcView software to merge
these layers, i.e. the snow coverage map with slope angle and altitudes, to provide a set
of polygons. Using the GIS application, five zones resulted from a systematic
reclassification of all the polygons. These express the snowmelt potential zones and
were named zones: I, II, III, IV and V (Fig. 4).

Field investigation

The second stage in this study is concerned with site investigations of the resultant
snowmelt potential zones. This is required to calibrate the mean snow depth (in
metres) as well as the snow/water ratio (SWR) for each zone. In other words, the
prevailing snow depth and the equivalent volume of water from snow in each zone
would be calculated from field surveys. In this study, 210 measuring sites were
investigated, covering a variety of terrain properties of the five zones. The
measurements were distributed as: 31, 43, 50, 53 and 33 for zones I, II, III, IV and V,
respectively.
Ground measurements were taken at representative sites for each of the five
snowmelt potential zones. To measure the depth of snow, a thin-walled tube with sharp
leading edges and a known diameter (10 cm) was prepared (Fig. 5). The tube is pushed
into the snow, so that it fills with snow to a specific level, which represents the snow
depth. Also, in each measurement, the volume of snow filling the tube is measured,
and then this volume is melted to calculate its water volume-equivalent ratio (Shaban,
2003).
Remote sensing to estimate the volume of water in the form of snow on Mount Lebanon 649

Fig. 4 Zones of snowmelt potential on Mount Lebanon.

Fig. 5 Tube used for field investigations of snow thickness and density on Mount
Lebanon.
 650 Amin Shaban et al.

RESULTS

It was found that the least potential of snowmelt was in zone V as it generally
represents the lower altitudes and the areas of least snow coverage. The graphical
behaviour of mean depth and SWR with respect to the three major controlling
parameters of snowmelt potentials was investigated (Fig. 6). This revealed that depth
and SWR are directly proportional to altitude and snow coverage, as well as inversely
proportional to slope angle. At the time of maximum snow accumulation, the
variability of mean values of snow depth was greater with respect to the snow
coverage density (0.03–1.83 m), than with respect to altitude (0.09–1.54 m), and least
with respect to slope angle (0.25–1.31 m). The range of mean SWR is between about
60 and 92%. However, the trends of altitude closely resemble those of snow coverage.
For the slope angle there is a steady trend from <7.5º to 30º, but an abrupt decline is
found for the >30º zone due to the likely avalanching of snow at that slope angle.

Altitude
(m) 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

>2600 M *
2250-2600 M *
1900-2250 * M
1550-1900 * M
1200-1550 * M
Slope angle
(º) 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

> 30 * M
22.5-30 * M
15-22.5 *
7.5-15 *
< 7.5 M *
Snow coverage density
(%) 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

> 90 *
90-60 M *
60-40 *
40-10 * M
< 10 * M

* Snow depth (m) M SWR (%)

Fig. 6 The relationship between the mean snow depth and SWR with respect to
altitude, slope angle and snow coverage in western Lebanon.
 Remote sensing to estimate the volume of water in the form of snow on Mount Lebanon 651

For each snowmelt potential zone, the mean snow depth and SWR were measured
and then multiplied by the surface areal coverage of that zone to determine the volume
of water from snowmelt as follows:
mean snow depth (m) × total coverage (m2) × mean SWR
Table 1 shows the values obtained for each zone. The sum of these values reveals
that the total volume of water in the form of snow is about 1110 × 106 m3, which is
estimated to be the available water from snowmelt on Mount Lebanon in the year
2000.

Table 1 Results of measured variables for water volume in the form of snow on Mount Lebanon.
Zone no. Total areal Mean snow Estimated SWR Water volume
coverage
2
depth snow volume (%) (× 106 m3)
(m ) (m) (× 103m3)
6
I 322 × 10 1.57 505 540 0.89 450
II 298 × 106 0.99 295 020 0.81 239
III 427 × 106 0.69 294 630 0.76 224
IV 341 × 106 0.46 156 860 0.74 116
V 517 × 106 0.23 118 910 0.68 81
Total volume of water in the form of snow 1110

DISCUSSION

Until recently, only a few studies on the characteristics of snow, its melting behaviour
and the calculation of water volume derived from snow have been done in Lebanon.
These include the studies of Corbane et al. (2002) who used RADARSAT to measure
the snow–water equivalent in regions of Mount Lebanon with dense snow cover (with
altitudes between 1400 and 2500 m); Somma et al. (2002) on the methodology for
studying Lebanese snow cover using confirmation data acquired from RADARSAT
images and those in the field; and Selim et al. (2002) on snowmelt modelling in the El-
Kalb River basin, relying on 35 experimental sites, which led to a model called DKM
(Degree-Kilometer). The present study covers the whole of Mount Lebanon, using
remote sensing, GIS and field measurements. The snow coverage on Mount Lebanon
contributes a large share of the waters of the coastal rivers. The total discharge of these
coastal rivers is around 2800 × 106 m3 year-1 (METAP, 1995). Therefore, one can
conclude from this study that snowmelt contributes about 40% of this volume. This
ratio has been pointed out by many authors such as Abd-El-Al (1947), which indicates
the accuracy of the method used.
Similar studies on snow covered surfaces of Mount Lebanon were carried out by
Bernier et al. (2003) and Aouad et al. (2004). In another study by Touma (2002), the
same value, i.e. 1100 × 106 m3 year-1 was obtained, which reinforces the reliability of
the approach developed in this study. Touma (2002) relied on superimposing a couple
of DEMs and Landsat TM to calculate the areal extent of snow, followed by field
measurements of snow cover thickness.
Recent data from the General Director of Civil Aviation (GDCA, 2002) estimates
that the average annual precipitation rate over Mount Lebanon is about 1200 mm.
652 Amin Shaban et al.

Dividing the resulting value, i.e. 1100 × 106 m3, of water volume derived from snow in
the area of Mount Lebanon, a rate of 400–425 mm would be obtained. This suggests
that about two thirds of the precipitation is derived from snowfall and not directly from
rain. This indicates the essential role that snow plays in replenishing the water
resources in Lebanon, such as rivers, springs and groundwater.
At present, while meteorological gauging stations to measure and monitor trends
of precipitation and river discharge are lacking, such a study can be usefully applied. If
the behaviour of the variables used (i.e. snow depth and SWR), when monitored over
several years, is found not to change, then only measurements of the snow coverage
area and snow coverage depth would be needed. These can be easily obtained from
satellite images. However, comparable trends of precipitation and river discharge
should also be calculated.
The application of remote sensing served the purpose of this study well. It was
shown to enable the monitoring and estimation of the areal coverage of snow, while it
is expanding and contracting, which is not readily done by conventional methods.

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Received 21 February 2003; accepted 31 March 2004