HEAT&MASS TRANSFER (CHTE472)

CHAPTER I

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Objectives
• Understand the physical description of convection mechanism and its
classification
• Visualize the development of velocity and thermal boundary layers
during flow over surfaces
• Gain knowledge of the dimensionless numbers such as Reynolds,
Prandtl and Nusselt
• Differentiate between laminar and turbulent flows
• Derive the convection equations based on mass, momentum and
energy conservations and obtain solutions for flow over a flat plate
• Employ analogies between momentum and heat transfer to determine
heat transfer coefficient
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I.I Physical description of convection mechanism
• Conduction and convection both require the presence of
material medium → Similarity
• Convection requires the presence of fluid motion.
• Heat transfer through a solid is always by conduction.
• Conduction in a fluid can be viewed as the limiting case of
convection.
• Fluid motion ameliorates heat transfer since it brings hotter
and cooler parts of fluid in intimate contact, thereby initiating
higher rates of conduction at several sites in a fluid.
• The higher the fluid velocity, the higher the rate of heat
transfer.
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 • Consider a fluid sandwiched between two plates.
• The temperatures of the fluid and the plates will be
the same at the points of contact because of the
continuity of temperature.

• In the absence of motion, the energy of the hotter fluid molecules near the the hot
plate will be transferred to the adjacent colder fluid molecules.
• This energy will thereafter be transferred to the next layer of colder fluid
molecules, and so on until the other plate.

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• Experience shows that convection heat transfer strongly depends on fluid
properties such as: dynamic viscosity, thermal viscosity, density, specific heat
capacity and fluid velocity.

• The convection heat transfer also depends on the geometry and the roughness of
the solid surface. It also depends on the type of fluid flow such as being
streamlined or turbulent.

• The rate of convection heat transfer is observed to be proportional to the

temperature difference and is conveniently expressed by the Newton's law of
cooling.

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• Judging from its units, the convection heat transfer coefficient (h) can be defined
as the rate of heat transfer between a solid surface and a fluid per unit surface
area per unit temperature difference.
• When a fluid is forced to flow over a nonporous solid surface, it is observed that
the fluid in motion comes to a complete stop at the surface and assumes a zero
velocity relative to the surface.
• The fluid layer in direct contact with the solid surface “sticks” to the surface and
there is no slip.
• The no-slip condition is responsible for the development of the velocity profile
for flow as shown in the figure on the next slide.

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• The flow region adjacent to the wall in which the
viscous effects are significant is called boudary
layer.

• The fluid property responsible for the no-slip

condition and the development of the boundary
layer is viscosity.

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• An implication of the no-slip condition is that heat transfer from the solid surface
to the layer adjacent to the surface is pure conduction, since the fluid is motionless
and can be expressed as follows:

• The convection heat transfer coefficient when the temperature distribution within
the fluid is known can be determined as follows:

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• In general, the convection heat transfer coefficient varies along the flow direction.
• The average convection heat transfer coefficient for a surface can be determined
by performing an average of local convection heat transfer coefficients over the
entire surface area (As) or length (Ls).

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I.2 Boundary Layer
I.2.1 Velocity Boundary Layer
• Consider a parallel flow of fluid over a flat plate, generally different
regimes are likely to develop or form as can be seen in the figure below.

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 • The region of the flow above the plate bounded by δ in
which the effects of viscous shearing forces caused by
the fluid viscosity are felt is called velocity boundary
layer.
• The boundary layer thickness δ is defined as the distance
y from the surface at which u = 0.99uꝏ.

• The hypothetical line u = 0.99uꝏ divides the flow over the plate into two regions:
• 1)Boundary layer region, in which the viscous effects and the velocity changes
are significant.
• 2)Inviscid flow region, in which the fricitional effects are negligible and the
velocity remains unchanged.

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Wall shear stress
• Consider the flow of a fluid over the surface of a flat plate.

• The fluid in contact with the surface will try to drag the plate along via friction,
exerting a friction force on it.

• Likewise, a faster fluid layer will drag the adjacent slower layer and exert a
friction force because of the friction between them.

• Friction per unit area is called shear stress.

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• Fluids that obey the shear stress linear
relationship are called Newtonian fluids.

non-
Newtonian fluids.

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• The determination of the wall surface shear stress from the previous formula is not
practical since it requires the knowledge of the velocity profile.
• A more practical approach in external flow is to relate the wall shear stress to the
upstream velocity V.

• The values of the friction coefficient are, in most cases, determined experimentally.

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• The friction coefficient, in general, vary with location along the surface.

• Once the average friction coefficient over a given surface is available, the
friction force over the entire surface can be determined from:

• The friction coefficient is an important parameter in heat transfer studies since

it is directly related to the heat transfer coefficient and the power requirements
of a pump or a fan.
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I.2.2 Thermal Boundary Layer
• Consider the flow of a fluid at a uniform temperature of Tꝏ over an isothermal flat
plate at temperature Ts as can bee seen in the figure below.

• The fluid particles in the layer adjacent to the

surface will reach thermal equilibrium with the
plate and assume the surface temperature Ts.
These fluid particles will then exchnage
energy with particles in the adjoining-fluid
layer and so on.
• As a result, a temperature profile will develop.

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• The flow region over the surface in which the temperature variation in the
direction normal to the surface is significant is the thermal boundary layer.
• The thickness of the thermal boundary layer δt at any location along the surface is
defined as the distance from the surface at which:

T  T s  0 . 99 (T  T s )

• The shape of the temperature profile in the thermal boundary layer dictates the
convection heat transfer between a solid surface and the fluid flowing over it

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Dimensionless Numbers in Convection Heat Transfer
• It is common practise in convective heat trasnfer studies to non-dimensionlize the
governing equations and combine their variables altogether in dimensionless
numbers. This practise aids to reduce the total number of variables.

• To u n d e r s t a n d t h e p h y s i c a l m e a n i n g o f t h e
Nusselt number, consider a fluid layer of thickness L and
temperature difference ΔT = T2 - T1 as shown below.

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• Heat transfer through the fluid will be by convection when the fluid involves
some motion and by conduction when the fluid layer is motionless. The heat flux
in either case will be:

• The Nussel number represents the enhancement of heat transfer through a fluid
layer as a result of convection relative to conduction across the same fluid layer.
• A Nusselt number of 1 for a fluid represents heat transfer across the layer is by
pure conduction.
• The larger the Nusselt number, the more effective the convection.

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Prandlt Number (Pr)

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• The Prandtl numbers of gases are roughly equal to 1. These values imply that
both momentum and heat dissipate through the fluid at about the same rate.

• If the Prandtl number is less than 1, heat diffuses quickly relative to momentum.
E.g. liquid metals

• If the Prandtl number is greater than 1, heat diffuses slowly relative to

momentum. E.g. Oils

• Therefore the thermal boundary layer is much thicker for liquid metals and much
thinner for oils compared to the velocity boundary layer.

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Reynolds Number (Re)
• The transition from laminar to turbulent flows does not occur sudenly, rather it
occurs over some region in which the flow fluctuates between laminar and
turbulent flows before it becomes completely turbulent.

• The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the surface geometry,
surface roughness, free-stream velocity, surface temperature and type of fluids
among other things.

• After exhaustive experiments in 1880s, Osborn Reynolds discovered that the

flow regime depends mainly on the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces.

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• At large values of Reynolds number, the inertial forces are large relative to the
viscous forces and thus the viscous forces cannot prevent the random and rapid
fluctuations of the fluid. Hence, the flow is turbulent.
• At small Reynolds numberd, the viscous forces are large enough to overcome the
inertial forces and to keep the fluid particles in line. Hence, the flow is laminar.
• The Reynolds number at which the flow becomes turbulent is called the critical Recr
number and it depends on geometries.
• For flow over a plate, the generally accepted value of Recr is 5x105.

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• Laminar flow is encountered when highly viscous fluids such as oils flow in
small pipes or narrow passages.
• Figures below show the behaviour of coloured fluid injected into the flow in
laminar and turbulent flows in a pipe.

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D e r i v a t i o n o f D i f f e re n t i a l C o n v e c t i o n E q u a t i o n s
(self study)
• To keep the analysis at a manageable • Consider the parallel flow of fluid
level. Consider the following over a surface as shown below.
assumptions.
1. T h e f l o w i s s t e a d y a n d t w o -
dimesional.
2. The fluid is newtonian with constant
p r o p e r t i e s ( d e n s i t y, v i s c o s i t y,
thermal conductivity, etc.)

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• Take the flow direction along the surface to be x and the direction normal to the
surface to be y.
• Chose a differential volume element of length dx and heigh dy and unit depth in the
z-direction.
• The fluid flows over the surfce with a uniform free stream velocity u ꝏ but the
velocity within the boundary layet is two-dimensional.
• x-component of the velocity is u and y-component is v.
• Note that u = u(x,y) and v = v(x,y) in steady two-dimensional flow.
• Then apply three fundamental laws: conservation of mass, conservation of
momentum and conservation of energy.

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• The conservation of mass relation also known the continuity equation is as
follows:

• The relation for the conservation of momentum is as follows:

• The energy equation:

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• When the viscous shear stress are not negligible, their effect is accounted for by
expressing the energy equation as:

• where the viscous dissipation function is obtained after a lengthy analysis to be:

• For the special case of a stationary fluid, u = v, the energy equation becomes:

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• Example 1: Temperature Rise of Oil in a Journal Bearing
Consider two large isothermal plate separated by 2 mm thick oil film. The upper
plate moves at a constant velocity of 12m/s, while the lower plate is stationary.
Both plates are maintained at 20 degrees Celcius.

a) Obtain relations for the velocity and temperature distribution in the oil.

b) Determine the maximum temperature in the oil and the heat flux from the
oil to each plate.

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Solutions of convection equations over a plate
• When viscous dissipation is negligible, the continuity, momentum and energy
equation reduce for steady, incompressible laminar flow of fluid with constant
properties over a flate plate to:

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• To solve the convection equations, Blasius (Prandtl's student) defined a
similartity variable, in conjunction with the stream function approach, he was
able to convert the first two equations from partial differential equations to an
ordinary differential equation.

(( (Similarity variable)

• (Stream function approach)

• where

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• Using the definition of f and η , the boundary conditions in terms of the similarity
variables can expressed as:

• The ordinary differential equation associated with the its boundary conditions has
been solved using numerical approaches. The results from such solution are
given in the table on the next slide.

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• Using the definition of f and η , the
boundary conditions in terms of the
similarity variables can expressed as:
• From the table, one can see that the value of
η corresponding to u/V=0.99 is η=5.0.
Substituting η=5.0 and y = δ into the
definition of similarity variable, then the
velocity boundary layer thickness becomes:

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• The shear stress on the wall can be determined as follows:

• Substituting the value of the second derivative of f at η = 0 from the table gives:

• The local skin friction coefficient becomes:

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Energy equation
The solution of the energy equation leads to:

• Note that these relations are valid only for laminar flow over an isothermal plate.
• The effect of variable properties can be accounted for by evaluating all such
properties at the film temperature defined as:

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Analogies between momentum and heat transfer
• In forced convection, the interest is primarily based on finding the friction
coefficient (to calculate shear stress at the wall) and the Nusselt number (to
calculate heat transfer rates).
• Consequently, it is desirable to have a relation between the friction coefficient
and the Nusselt number so that one can be calculated when the other is available.
• Such relations are obtained on the basis of the similarity between momentum and
heat transfers in boundary layers and are known as Reynolds analogy and
Chilton-Colburn analogy.

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Reynolds analogy

• This analogy allows to determine the heat transfer coefiicient for fluids with
Prandlt number roughly equal to 1 from a knowledge of friction coefficient which
can be obtained experimentally.
• The Reynolds analogy can also be expressed as follows:

• St is the stanton number, which is

also a dimensionless heat transfer
coefficient.

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Chilton-Colburn analogy
• This analogy is a modification of the Reynolds analogy so that it is applicable
over a wide range of Prandtl number.

• The modification is done by the addition a Prandtl number correction.

the Colburn j-factor.

• Although this realtion is valid for laminar flow over a flat plate, experimental
studies show that is also applicable approximately for urbulent flow over a surface.
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Example 2: Finding Convection Coefficient from Drag
Measurement

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Tutorials
Solve the following questions at the end of chapter 6 in the Heat&Mass
Transfer: Fundamentals & Applications fourth edition book by Cengel,
Y. A. and Ghajar, A. J.
6.8 - 11; 6.37 - 39; 6.43 - 45; 6.49 - 53

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Reference
This chapter on Fundamentals of Convection was adapted from:

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