Lecture 1.

1. The Profession of Transportation:

Transportation is essential for a nation's development and growth. For as long as the human race
has existed, transportation has played a significant role by facilitating trade, commerce, conquest,
and social interaction.

The primary need for transportation has been economic, involving personal travel in search of
food or work, travel for the exchange of goods, exploration and the improvement of a society or
a nation.

*. The movements of people and goods, which is the basis of transportation,

*. basic objectives or tasks that require transfer from one location to another.
*. For example, a farmer must transport produce to market,
*. a doctor must see a patient in the office or in the hospital,

*. Every day, millions of people leave their homes and travel to a workplace-be it a factory,
office, classroom, or distant city.

2. Meaning of Transport:
Transport refers to the activity that facilitates physical movement of goods as well as individuals
from one place to another. In business, it is considered as an auxiliary to trade, that means, it
supports trade and industry in carrying raw materials to the place of production and distributing
finished products for consumption.

2. Importance of Transport
1. Makes available raw materials to manufacturers or producers: Transport makes it
possible to carry raw materials from places where they are available, to places where they can be
processed and assembled into finished goods.

2. Makes available goods to customers: Transport makes possible movement of goods from
one place to another with great ease and speed. Thus, consumers spread in different parts of the
country have the benefit of consuming goods produced at distant places.

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3. Enhances standard of living: Easy means of transport facilitates large-scale production at
low costs. It gives consumers the choice to make use of different quantities of goods at different
prices. So it raises the standard of living of the people.

4. Helps during emergencies and natural calamities: In times of national crisis, due to war or
internal disturbance, transport helps in quick movement of troops and the supplies needed in the
operation.

5. Helps in creation of employment: Transport provides employment opportunity to individuals

as drivers, conductors, pilots, cabin crew, captain of the ship, etc.

6. Helps in labor mobility: Transport helps a lot in providing mobility to workers. You may be
aware that people from our country go to foreign countries to work in different industries and
factories.

7. Helps in bringing nations together: Transport facilitates movement of people from one
country to another. It helps in exchange of cultures, views and practices between the people of
different countries.

4. History of Car

*. In 1769, the very first self-propelled road vehicle was a military tractor invented by French
engineer and mechanic, Nicolas Joseph Cugnot.

*. Cugnot used a steam engine to power his vehicle,

*. Speed (2.5 mile/h)
*.The vehicle had to stop every ten to fifteen minutes to build up steam power.

In 1771, Cugnot drove one of his road vehicles into a stone wall, making Cugnot the first person
to get into a motor vehicle accident.

*. This was the beginning of bad luck for the inventor.

*. After one of Cugnot's patrons died and the other was injured, the money for Cugnot's road
vehicle experiments ended.

*. Between 1832 and 1839 Robert Anderson of Scotland invented the first electric car. Electric
cars used rechargeable batteries that powered a small electric motor.

*. The vehicles were heavy, slow, expensive, and needed to stop for recharging

*. Around 1885s, the Early Gasoline-Powered Cars was invented which was better than the
electric and steam engine cars.

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Growth of the number of motor vehicles in UK

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 Lecture 2.

TRANSPORTATION MODES.

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 1. ROAD TRANSPORT

1.1. ADVANTAGES:

1. Less Capital Outlay:

Road transport required much less capital Investment as compared to other modes of transport
such as railways and air transport. The cost of constructing, operating and maintaining roads is
cheaper than that of the railways. Roads are generally constructed by the government and local
authorities and only a small revenue is charged for the use of roads.

2. Door to Door Service:

The outstanding advantage of road transport is that it provides door to door or warehouse to
warehouse service. This reduces loading and unloading expenses.

3. Service in Rural Areas:

Road transport is most suited for carrying goods and people to and from rural areas which are not
served by rail, water or air transport. Exchange of goods, between large towns and small villages
is made possible only through road transport.

4. Flexible Service:

Road transport has a great advantage over other modes of transport for its flexible service, its
routes and timings can be adjusted and changed to individual requirements without much
inconvenience.

5. Suitable for Short Distance:

It is more economic and quicker for carrying goods and people over short distances. Delays in
transit of goods on account of intermediate loading and

handling are avoided. Goods can be loaded direct into a road vehicle and transported straight to
their place of destination.

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6. Saving in Packing Cost:

As compared to other modes of transport, the process of packing in motor transport is less
complicated. Goods transported by motor transport require less packing or no packing in several
cases.

1.2. DISADVANTAGES:

1. Seasonal Nature:
Motor transport is not as reliable as rail transport. During rainy or flood season, roads become
unfit and unsafe for use.

2. Accidents and Breakdowns:

There are more chances of accidents and breakdowns in case of motor transport. Thus, motor
transport is not as safe as rail transport.

3. Unsuitable for Long Distance and Bulky Traffic:

This mode of transport is unsuitable and costly for transporting cheap and bulky goods over long
distances.

4. Slow Speed:
The speed of motor transport is comparatively slow and limited.

5. Lack of Organization:
The road transport is comparatively less organized. More often, it is irregular and undependable.

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 2. RAILWAY TRANSPORT
2.1. ADVANTAGES:

1. Dependable:
The greatest advantage of the railway transport is that it is the most dependable mode of
transport as it is the least affected by weather conditions such as rains, fog etc. compared to other
modes of transport.

2. Better Organized:

The rail transport is better organized than any other form of transport. It has fixed routes and
schedules. Its service is more certain, uniform and regular as compared to other modes of
transport.

3. High Speed over Long Distances:

Its speed over long distances is more than any other mode of transport, except airways. Thus, it is
the best choice for long distance traffic.

4. Suitable for Bulky and Heavy Goods:

Railway transport is economical, quicker and best suited for carrying heavy and bulky goods
over long distances.

5. Cheaper Transport:

It is a cheaper mode of transport as compared to other modes of transport. Most of the working
expenses of railways are in the nature of fixed costs. Every increase in the railway traffic is
followed by a decrease in the average cost.

6. Safety:

Railway is the safest form of transport. The chances of accidents and breakdowns of railways are
minimum as compared to other modes of transport. Moreover, the traffic can be protected from
the exposure to sun, rains, snow etc.

7. Larger Capacity:

The carrying capacity of the railways is extremely large. Moreover, its capacity is elastic which
can easily be increased by adding more wagons.

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2.2. DISADVANTAGES

1. Huge Capital Outlay:

The railway requires is large investment of capital. The cost of construction, maintenance and
overhead expenses are very high as compared to other modes of transport. Moreover, the
investments are specific and immobile. In case the traffic is not sufficient, the investments may
mean wastage of huge resources.
2. Lack of Flexibility:
Another disadvantage of railway transport is its inflexibility. Its routes and timings cannot be
adjusted to individual requirements.

3. Lack of Door to Door Service:

Rail transport cannot provide door to door service as it is tied to a particular track. Intermediate
loading or unloading involves greater cost, more wear and tear and wastage of time. The time
and cost of terminal operations are a great disadvantage of rail transport.

4. Unsuitable for Short Distance and Small Loads:

Railway transport is unsuitable and uneconomical for short distance and small traffic of goods.

5. Booking Formalities:

It involves much time and labor in booking and taking delivery of goods through railways as
compared to motor transport.

6. No Rural Service:

Because of huge capital requirements and traffic, railways cannot be operated economically in
rural areas. Thus, large rural areas have no railway service even today. This causes much
inconvenience to the people living in rural areas.

7. Under-utilized Capacity:

The railway must have full load for its ideal and economic operation. As it has a very large
carrying capacity, under-utilization of its capacity, in most of the regions, is a great financial
problem and loss to the economy.

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 3. SEA TRANSPORT

3.1. ADVANTAGES

1. Low Cost:

Rivers are a natural highway which does not require any cost of construction and maintenance.
Even the cost of construction and maintenance of canals is much less or they are used, not only
for transport purposes but also for irrigation, etc. Moreover, the cost of operation of the inland
water transport is very low. Thus, it is the cheapest mode of transport for carrying goods from
one place to another.

2. Larger Capacity:

It can carry much larger quantities of heavy and bulky goods such as coal, and, timber etc.

3. Flexible Service:

It provides much more flexible service than railways and can be adjusted to individual
requirements.

4. Safety:

The risks of accidents and breakdowns, in this form of transport, are minimum as compared to
any other form of transport.

3.2. DISADVANTAGES

1. Slow:

Speed of Inland water transport is very slow and therefore this mode of transport is unsuitable
where time is an important factor.

2. Limited Area of Operation:

It can be used only in a limited area which is served by deep canals and rivers.

3. Seasonal Character:

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Rivers and canals cannot be operated for transportation throughout the year as water may freeze
during winter or water level may go very much down during summer.

4. Unreliable:

The inland water transport by rivers is unreliable. Sometimes the river changes its course which
causes dislocation in the normal route of the trade.

5. Unsuitable for Small Business:

Inland water transport by rivers and canals is not suitable for small traders, as it takes normally a
longer time to carry goods from one place to another through this form of transport.

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 4. AIR TRANSPORT
Air transport is the most recent mode of transport. It is the gift of the 20th century to the world.
The two world wars gave a great impetus to the development of air transport in almost all the
countries of the world. The peculiar characteristic of air transport is that is does not need a
specific surface track for its operations.

4.1. ADVANTAGES

1. High Speed:

The supreme advantage of air transport is its high speed. It is the fastest mode of transport and
thus it is the most suitable mean where time is an important factor.

2. Comfortable and Quick Services:

It provides a regular, comfortable, efficient and quick service

3. No Investment in Construction of Track:

It does not require huge capital investment in the construction and maintenance of surface track.

4. No Physical Barriers:

It follows the shortest and direct route as seas, mountains or forests do not come in the way of air
transport.

5. Easy Access:

Air transport can be used to carry goods and people to the areas which are not accessible by other
means of transport.

6. Emergency Services:

It can operate even when all other means of transport cannot be operated due to the floods or
other natural calamities. Thus, at that time, it is the only mode of

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transport which can be employed to do the relief work and provide the essential commodities of
life.

7. Most Suitable for Carrying Light Goods of High Value:

It is most suitable for carrying goods of perishable nature which require quick delivery and light
goods of high value such as diamonds, bullion etc. over long distances.

4.2. DISADVANTAGES

In spite of many advantages, air transport has the following limitations:

1. Very Costly:

It is the costliest means of transport. The fares of air transport are so high that it is beyond the
reach of the common man.

2. Small Carrying Capacity:

Its carrying capacity is very small and hence it is not suitable to carry cheap and bulky goods..

3. Breakdowns and Accidents:

The chances of breakdowns and accidents are relatively high as compared to other modes of
transport (Sea +Rail). Hence, it involves comparatively greater risk.

4. Large Investment:

It requires a large amount of capital investment in the construction and maintenance of aero
planes. Further, very trained and skilled persons are required for operating air service.

6. Unsuitable for Cheap and Bulky Goods:

Air transport is unsuitable for carrying cheap, bulky and heavy goods because of its limited
capacity and high cost.

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 Lecture 3.

1. Components of the transportation system:

The movement of goods or passenger traffic, through rail, sea, air or road
transport requires adequate infrastructure facilities for the free flow from the place
of origin to the place of destination.

*Every transport system has some common elements:

Components of the transportation system:

a) Vehicle or carrier to carry passenger or goods
b) Route or path for movement of carriers
c) Terminal facilities for loading and unloading of goods and passengers from
carriers
d) Transit time and cost
e) Cargo
These elements influence the effectiveness of different modes of transport and
their utility to users.

• Vehicles:

The dimension of vehicles, its capacity and type are some of the factors, which
influence the selection of a transport system for movement of goods from one
place to the other.

• Routes:

Routes play an important role in movement of carriers from one point to another.
It may be surface roads, navigable waterways. Availability of well-designed and
planned routes is a vital necessity for smooth flow of traffic.

• Terminal Facilities:
The objective of transportation can't be fulfilled unless proper facilities are
available for loading and unloading of goods or entry and exit of passengers from
carrier. Terminal facilities are to be provided for loading and unloading of trucks,
wagons etc on a continuous basis.

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• Transit time and cost:
Transportation involve time and cost. The time element is a valid factor for
determining the effectiveness of a particular mode of transport.

• Cargo: Transportation basically involves movement of cargo from one place to

another. Hence, nature and size of cargo constitute the basis of any goods
transport system.

2. Major disciplines of transportation

Transportation engineering can be broadly consisting of the four major parts:

1. Transportation Planning
2. Geometric Design
3. Pavement Design
4. Traffic Engineering

3. ROAD CLASSIFICATION

3.1. BASED ON SPEED AND ACCESSIBILITY

The roads can be classified in many ways. The classification based on speed and
accessibility is the most generic one. Note that as the accessibility of road
increases, the speed reduces.

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Freeways:

Freeways are access controlled divided highways. Most freeways are four lanes, two
lanes each direction, but many freeways widen to incorporate more lanes as they
enter urban areas. Access is controlled through the use of interchanges, and the type
of interchange depends upon the kind of intersecting road way (rural roads, another
freeway etc.)

Expressways:
They are superior type of highways and are designed for high speeds(120 km/hr is
common), high traffic volume and safety. They are generally provided with grade
separations at intersections. Parking, loading and unloading of goods and pedestrian
traffic is not allowed on expressways.

Highways:
They represent the superior type of roads in the country. Highways are of two types -
rural highways and urban highways. Rural highways are those passing through rural

3
areas (villages) and urban highways are those passing through large cities and towns,
i.e. urban areas.

Arterials:
It is a general term denoting a street primarily meant for through traffic usually on a
continuous route. They are generally divided highways with fully or partially
controlled access. Parking, loading and unloading activities are usually restricted and
regulated. Pedestrians are allowed to cross only at intersections/designated pedestrian
crossings.

Local streets:
A local street is the one which is primarily intended for access to residence, business
or abutting property. It does not normally carry large volume of traffic and also it
allows unrestricted parking and pedestrian movements.

Collectors streets:

These are streets intended for collecting and distributing traffic to and from local
streets and also for providing access to arterial streets. Normally full access is provided
on these streets. There are few parking restrictions except during peak hours.

3.2. BASED ON CARRIAGE WAY

This classification is based on the type of the carriage way or the road pavement.
3.2.1. Paved roads with hard surface :
If they are provided with a hard pavement course such roads are called paved
roads.(eg: stones, Bituminous (BM), concrete roads)

3.2.2. Unpaved roads:

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 Roads which are not provided with a hard course of at least a BM layer they is
called unpaved roads. Thus earth and gravel roads come under this category.

3.3. BASED ON PAVEMENT SURFACE

Based on the type of pavement surfacing provided, they are classified as surfaced
and unsurfaced roads.

3.3.1. Surfaced roads

(BM, concrete): Roads which are provided with a bituminous or cement

concreting surface are called surfaced roads.

3.3.2. Unsurfaced roads:

(soil/gravel): Roads which are not provided with a bituminous or cement

concreting surface are called unsurfaced roads.

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 INTERSECTIONS DESIGN
Definitions and key elements
An intersection is defined as an area where two or more roadways join or cross.
Each roadway extending from the intersection is referred to as a leg. The
intersection of two roadways has usually four legs (or three if there one of the
roadway is ended). The leg used by traffic approaching the intersection is the
approach leg, and that used by traffic leaving is the departure leg.

The major street is typically the intersecting street with greater traffic volume,
larger cross-section, and higher functional class.

The minor street is the intersecting street likely to have less traffic volume,
smaller cross-section and lower functional classification than the major street.

Channelization is the separation or regulation of conflicting traffic movements

into definite paths of travel by traffic islands or pavement markings (regulation of
traffic).

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The angle of intersection is formed by the intersecting streets centerlines (best
angle is between 75 and 105 degrees).

2
Basic types of maneuvers within intersections
maneuvers - Crossing
- Merging
- Diverging
- Weaving
Basic types of maneuvers within intersections

All maneuvers within intersection result in conflicts.

Basic types of conflict points within intersections

Typical conflict points are:
- Crossing conflicts (through traffic, left turns with through traffic)
- Merging conflicts
- Diverging conflicts

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4
REMEMBER THAT:

1. Intersections are more complicated areas for drivers than uninterrupted

facilities.

Drivers have to make split second decisions within intersections by considering

their routes, intersection geometry, speeds and directions of other vehicles etc.
A small error in judgment can cause accidents. Understanding this is central to
intersection designs and to determine capacity.

2. Main function of intersections is to provide change of direction. Direction

changes within intersections define conflict points.

3. Intersections are sources of congestion in urban areas. Maneuvers within

intersections cause delays.

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BASIC DESIGN PRINCPLES

1. MINIMISE THE CARRIAGEWAY AREA WHERE CONFLICT CAN OCCUR:

Large uncontrolled carriageway areas within intersection provide greater opportunities for
collisions resulting from unexpected vehicle manoeuvres.

To prevent this – traffic island

channelisation can be used.

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2. SEPARATE (REDUCE) POINTS OF CONFLICTS

Left turning is prohibited within point of intersect by prohibiting certain traffic movements at an
intersection.

by conversion conventional intersection to a roundabout

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by using two separated intersection instead of a single more complicated one

3. TRAFFIC STREAMS SHOULD MERGE/DIVERGE AT FLAT ANGLES AND CROSS

AT RIGHT ANGLES

Merging / Diverging:
Merging / diverging should be as flat as possible (max 15ᵒ).

Crossing:
Crossings should be direct .
The angle of skew range have to be between 75ᵒ and 105ᵒ.
Oblique angles should be avoided if it is possible, or redesign according to figures a – d:

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4. REDUCE SPEEDS ON THE APPROACHES TO INTERSECTIONS

Minor road vehicles should approach the intersection slowly. Than they can easily stop and give
way to through traffic.

5. DECELERATING OR STOPPING VEHICLES SHOULD BE REMOVED FROM THE

THROUGH TRAFFIC STREAM, HIGH PRIORITY TRAFFIC MOVEMENTS
SHOULD BE FAVOUR

Separating the traffic streams into auxiliary lanes reduces the number and severity of rear – end
crashes and increase capacity.

rear – end crashes

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6. DISCOURAGE UNDESIRABLE TRAFFIC MOVEMENTS

Traffic islands and corner radii can be used to discourage motorists from taking undesirable
travel paths, and encourage them to take defined ones.

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11. PROVIDE SAFETY STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCES AND KEEP THE SIGHT
TRIANGLE WITHOUT ANY OBSTRUCTIONS

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 Sight Triangles at Intersections

Intersection Sight Distance (ISD)

 No control: vehicles adjust speed

 Stop control: where traffic on minor roadway must stop prior to entering major roadway
 Yield control: vehicles on minor roadway must yield to major roadway traffic
 Signal control: where vehicles on all approaches are required to stop by either a stop sign
or traffic signal
 All way stop
 Stopped major roadway left-turn vehicles – must yield to oncoming traffic

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Case A– No Control
 Minimum sight triangle sides = distance traveled in 3 seconds (design or actual?) = 2
seconds for P/R (perception reaction) and 1 second to actuate brake/accel.

Minimum Sight Triangle at a No-Control or Yield-Control Intersection—Cases A and C

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Ex: A tall building is located 45 ft from the centerline of the right lane of a local road (b in
Figure 7.20) and 65 ft from the centerline of the right lane of an intersecting road (a in Figure
7.20). If the maximum speed limit on the intersecting road is 35 mi/h, what should the speed
limit on the local road be such that the minimum sight distance is provided to allow the drivers of
approaching vehicles to avoid imminent collision by adjusting their speeds? Approach grades are
2%.

Solution:
• Determine the distance on the local road at which the driver first sees traffic on the intersecting
road.
Speed limit on intersecting road _ 35 mi/h
Distance required on intersecting road (da) _ 165 ft (from Table 7.7)
Calculate the distance available on local road by using Eq. 7.4

• Determine the maximum speed allowable on the local road.

The maximum speed allowable on local road is 20 mi/h (from Table 7.7).
No correction is required for the approach grade as it is less than 3%.

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AUXILIARY TURNING LANES

The length of auxiliary lanes depends on local conditions, traffic volumes traffic mix, design
speed, posted speed selected level of volumes, longitudinal slope and operating speeds.

Auxiliary lanes should be from 3 – 3 5 m wide to minimize encroachment of turning vehicles

upon the adjacent travel way. 30

In restricted urban locations where space is limited and operating speeds are low, a minimum of
2,5 – 2,75 m plus the curb offset may be the only width attainable.

(improvement of traffic continuousness – decelerating and stopping vehicles are removed from
through traffic stream).

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Intersections are classified into three general categories:

1. Grade-separated without ramps,

2. Grade-separated with ramps (commonly known as interchanges),

3. At-grade.

Types of at-grade intersections.

The basic types of at-grade intersections are:

1. T or three-leg intersections which consist of three approaches;

2. Four-leg or cross intersections, which consist of four approaches;
3. Multi leg intersections, which consist of five or more approaches.

Interchanges:
Trumpet
Three-Leg Directional

One Quadrant
Diamond

Single-Point Urban Interchange

Partial Cloverleaf

Full Cloverleaf
All Directional Four leg

T Intersections

 The intersection shown in Figure 1.a is suitable for minor or local roads and
may be used when minor roads intersect important highways with an
intersection angle less than 30 degrees from the normal.

 Also suitable for use in rural two-lane highways that carry light traffic.
 At locations with higher speeds and turning volumes, which increase the
potential of rear-end collisions between through vehicles and turning
vehicles. Usually an additional area of surfacing or flaring is provided, as
shown in Figure 1. b.

 The flare is provided to separate right-turning vehicles from through

vehicles approaching from the east.

Figure 1: Examples of T Intersections

 In cases where left-turn volume from a through road onto a minor road is
sufficiently high but does not require a separate left-turn lane, an auxiliary
lane may be provided, as shown in Figure 1.c.

 Figure 1. d shows a channelized T intersection in which the two-lane

through road has been converted into a divided highway through the
intersection. Intersection of this type probably will be signalized.
7.1.2 Four-Leg Intersections
Unchannelized intersection shown in Figure below is used mainly at locations
where minor or local roads cross.

It also can be used where a minor road crosses a major highway. In these cases, the
turning volumes are usually low and the roads intersect at an angle that is not
greater than 30 degrees from the normal.

Figure 7.5 Examples of Four-Leg Intersections

When right-turning movements are frequent, right-turning roadways, such as those

in Figure below can be provided.
Multi leg Intersections

-leg intersections have five or more approaches.

the diagonal road should be realigned to the minor road and the distance between
the intersections should be such that they can operate independently.

the diagonal road should be realigned to the minor road

7.1.4 Traffic Circles

with significant reduction in the crossing conflict points.

Two types of traffic circles:

1.Rotaries,
3. Roundabouts.

7.1.4 Traffic Circles

1.Rotaries have large diameters that are usually greater than 100m (300 ft),
thereby allowing speeds exceeding 45km/h (30 mi/h), with a minimum horizontal
deflection of the path of the through traffic.
.
Roundabouts
have specific defining characteristics that separate them from other circular
intersections. These include:

ly allow travel speeds of

less than 30 mi/h

Roundabouts can be further categorized into six classes based on the size and
environment in which they are located.

1.Mini roundabouts
2.Urban compact roundabouts
3.Urban single-lane roundabouts
4.Urban double-lane roundabouts
5.Rural single-lane roundabouts
6.Rural double-lane roundabouts
 CHAPTER 3: CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DRIVER, THE PEDESTRIAN,
THE VEHICLE, AND THE ROAD.

3.1 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS:

 Criteria for the geometric design of highways are partly based on the following:

3.1.1 Static,
3.1.2 Kinematic and
3.1.3 Dynamic characteristics of vehicles.

3.1.1 Static characteristics include:

1. The weight and

2. Size of the vehicle,

3.1.2 Kinematic characteristics involve:

1. the motion of the vehicle without considering the forces that cause the motion.

3.1.3 Dynamic characteristics involve:

1. The forces that cause the motion of the vehicle.

 Since nearly all highways carry both passenger-automobile and truck traffic, it is essential
that design criteria take into account the characteristics of different types of vehicles.

 A thorough knowledge of these characteristics will aid the highway and/or traffic engineer in
designing highways and traffic-control systems that allow the safe and smooth operation of a
moving vehicle, particularly during the basic maneuvers of passing, stopping, and turning.

 Therefore, designing a highway involves the selection of a design vehicle, whose

characteristics will encompass those of nearly all vehicles expected to use the highway.

 The characteristics of the design vehicle are then used to determine criteria for geometric
design, intersection design, and sight-distance requirements.

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 The size of the design vehicle for a highway is an important factor in the determination of
design standards for several physical components of the highway.

 These include lane width, shoulder width, length and width of parking, and lengths of
vertical curves.
 The axle weights of the vehicles expected on the highway are important when pavement
depths and maximum grades are being determined.

 Table 3.1 shows some features of static characteristics for which limits were prescribed. A
range of maximum allowable values is given for each feature.

3.1.1 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Tandem-axle

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 Since the passage of the Surface Transportation Assistance Act of 1982, the maximum
allowable truck sizes and weights on Interstate and other qualifying federal aided highways
are at most:

 80,000 lb gross weight, with axle loads of up to 20,000 lb for single axles and
 34,000 lb for tandem (double) axles
 102 in. width for all trucks
 48 ft length for semitrailers and trailers
 28 ft length for each twin trailer

 The federal regulations also stipulate that the overall maximum gross weight for a group of
two or more consecutive axles should be determined from Eq. 3.1:

 The regulations also stipulate that a gross load of 34,000 lb may be carried by two
consecutive sets of tandem axles if the overall distance between the first and last axles of the
consecutive sets is 36 ft or more.

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4
5
 AASHTO has selected four general classes of vehicles: passenger cars, buses, trucks, and
recreational vehicles.

 Passenger-car class are sport/utility vehicles, pick-up trucks, vans and minivans.

 Bus class are intercity motor coaches and city transit, school, and articulated buses.

the Bus class (intercity motor coaches)

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Articulated buses:

 Within the class of trucks are single-unit trucks, truck tractor-semitrailer combinations, and
trucks or truck tractors with semitrailers in combination with full trailers.

7
 Within the class of recreational vehicles are motor homes, cars with camper trailers, cars with
boat trailers, and motor homes pulling cars.

Recreational vehicle or RV is, in North America, the usual term for a Motor vehicle or trailer
equipped with living space and amenities found in a home

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 Minimum turning radii
AASHTO also has suggested the following guidelines for selecting a design vehicle:

 For a parking lot or series of parking lots, a passenger car may be used
 For intersections on residential streets and park roads, a single-unit truck could be considered
 For the design of intersections of state highways and city streets that serve bus traffic but
with relatively few Large trucks, a city transit bus may be used.
 In carrying out the design of any of the intersections referred to above, the minimum turning
radius for the selected design vehicle traveling at a speed of 16 km/h should be provided.
 Minimum turning radii at low speeds (16 km /h or less) are dependent mainly on the size of
the vehicle.
 The turning-radii requirements for single-unit (SU) truck and the WB-20 (WB-65 and WB-
67) design vehicles are given in Figures 3.2 and 3.3 respectively.

 The turning-radii requirements for other vehicles can be found in AASHTO's Policy on
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets.

9
3.1.2 KINEMATIC CHARACTERISTICS:

1. The motion of the vehicle without considering the forces that cause the motion.

 The primary element among kinematic characteristics is the acceleration capability of the
vehicle
 Acceleration capability is important in several traffic operations, such as passing maneuvers
and gap acceptance.
 Also, the dimensioning of highway features such as freeway ramps and passing lanes is often
governed by acceleration rates.

 Acceleration is also important in determining the forces that cause motion.

 Therefore , a study of the kinematic characteristics of the vehicle primarily involves a study
of how acceleration rates influence the elements of motion, such as velocity and distance.

Mathematical relationships
Acceleration Assumed Constant
When the acceleration of the vehicle is assumed to be constant, we can use the following
equations:

C1 and C2 are constants

Acceleration as a Function of Velocity

The assumption of constant acceleration has some limitations, because the accelerating
capability of a vehicle at any time t is related to the speed of the vehicle at that time (u t). The
lower the speed, the higher the acceleration rate that can be obtained. Figures 3.4a and 3.4b show
maximum acceleration rates for passenger cars and tractor-semitrailers at different speeds on
level roads.

10
Figure 3.4 Acceleration Capabilities of Passenger Cars and Tractor-Semitrailers on Level Roads,

11
 One model that is used commonly in this case is:

where a and b are constants.

After derivation, the velocity and the position are as follows:

(ut): speed of the vehicle at any time t

x(t) : distance traveled at any time t

12
13
3.1.3 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS:

Several forces act on a vehicle while it is in motion:

1) Air resistance,

2) Grade resistance,

3) Rolling resistance,

4) Curve resistance

Air Resistance
• A vehicle in motion has to overcome the resistance of the air in front of it as well as the
force due to the frictional action of the air around it.

• The force required to overcome these is known as the air resistance and is related to the
cross-sectional area of the vehicle in a direction perpendicular to the direction of motion
and to the square of the speed of the vehicle.

• Claffey has shown that this force can be estimated from the formula

14
Grade Resistance

• When a vehicle moves up a grade, a component of the weight of the vehicle acts
downward, along the plane of the highway.

• This creates a force acting in a direction opposite that of the motion. This force is the
grade resistance.

• A vehicle traveling up a grade will therefore tend to lose speed unless an accelerating
force is applied.
• Note:

grade resistance = weight X grade, in decimal.

Rolling Resistance

• There are forces within the vehicle itself that offer resistance to motion.

• These forces are due mainly to frictional effect on moving parts of the vehicle, but they
also include the frictional slip between the pavement surface and the tires.

• The sum effect of these forces on motion is known as rolling resistance.

• The rolling resistance depends on the speed of the vehicle and the type of pavement.
• Rolling forces are relatively lower on smooth pavements than on rough pavements.

• The rolling resistance force for passenger cars on a smooth pavement can be determined
from the relation

15
 Curve Resistance

• When a passenger car is maneuvered to take a curve, external forces act on the front
wheels of the vehicle.

• These forces have components that have a retarding effect on the forward motion of the
vehicle.

• The sum effect of these components constitutes the curve resistance.

• This resistance depends on the radius of the curve, the gross weight of the vehicle, and
the velocity at which the vehicle is moving.

16
 Power requirements

• Power is the rate at which work is done. It is usually expressed in horsepower (a U.S. unit
of measure), where 1 horsepower is 746 W.
•
The performance capability of a vehicle is measured in terms of the horsepower the
engine can produce to overcome air, grade, curve, and friction resistance forces and put
the vehicle in motion.

Figure 3.6 Forces Acting on a Moving Vehicle

17
 LECTUR 10
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DRIVER, THE PEDESTRIAN, THE VEHICLE AND
THE ROAD

3.1 DRIVER CHARACTERISTICS

 • Physiological–Measurable and Usually Quantifiable

 • Psychological–Much more difficult to measure and quantify

 Psychological:
 � Desired speeds
 � Desired safety distances

 Physiological:
 � Perception-Reaction time
 � Visual factor

 One problem that faces traffic and transportation engineers is:

 the varying skills and

 perceptual abilities of drivers on the highway, demonstrated by a wide range of abilities

to hear,

 see,

 evaluate, and

 react to in formation.

 Studies have shown that these abilities may also vary in an individual under different
conditions, such as:

 the influence of alcohol,

 fatigue, and

 the time of day.

 Therefore, it is important that criteria used for design purposes be compatible with the
capabilities and limitations of most drivers on the highway.

1
 The use of an average value, such as mean reaction time, may not be adequate for a large
number of drivers.

 Both the 85th percentile and the 95th percentile have been used to select design criteria; in
general, the higher the chosen percentile, the wider the range covered.

The Human Response Process

 Actions taken by drivers on a road result from their evaluation of and reaction to information
they obtain from certain stimuli that they see or hear.

 However, evaluation and reaction must be carried out within a very short time, as the
information being received along the highways is continually changing.

 It has been suggested that most of the information received by a driver is visual, implying
that the ability to see is of fundamental importance in the driving task.

Visual Reception

 The principal characteristics of the eye are;

 Visual acuity,
 Peripheral vision
 Color vision,
 Glare vision and recovery,
and Depth perception

Visual Reception- visual acuity

2
  Visual acuity is the ability to see fine details of an object.

 It can be represented by the visual angle, which is the reciprocal of the smallest pattern
detail in minutes of arc that can be resolved and given as (namely Phi ):

where

L = diameter of the target (letter or symbol)

D = distance from the eye to target in the same units as L

Two types of visual acuity are of importance in traffic and highway emergencies:

 static and
 dynamic visual acuity.

 Static visual acuity:

 The driver's ability to identify an object when both the object and the driver are stationary
depends on his or her static acuity.

 Factors that affect static acuity include background brightness, contrast, and time.
 Static acuity increases with an increase in illumination
 When other visual factors are held constant at an acceptable level, the optimal time required
for identification of an object with no relative movement is between 0.5 and 1.0 seconds.

3
Dynamic visual acuity:

 The driver's ability to clearly detect relatively moving objects, depends on the driver's
dynamic visual acuity.

 Most people have:

 clear vision within a conical angle of 3 to 5 degrees
 and fairly clear vision within a conical angle of 10 to 12 degrees.
 Vision beyond this range is usually blurred (unclear).
 This is important when the location of traffic information devices is considered.
Drivers will see clearly those devices that are within the 12 degree cone, but objects outside this
cone will be blurred.

3.2. PERCEPTION-REACTION TIME

The process through which a driver, cyclist, or pedestrian evaluates and reacts to a stimulus can
be divided into four sub processes:
1. Perception: the driver sees a control device, warning sign, or object on the road

2. Identification: the driver identifies the object or control device and thus understands the
stimulus

3. Emotion: the driver decides what action to take in response to the stimulus;
for example, to step on the brake pedal,
to pass, to swerve,
or to change lanes

4. Reaction: the driver actually executes the action decided on during the emotion sub-process

 The time that elapses from the start of perception to the end of reaction is the total time
required for perception, identification, emotion, and reaction, referred to as perception-
reaction time.

 Perception-reaction time is an important factor in the determination of braking distances,

which in turn dictates the minimum sight distance required on a highway and the length of
the yellow phase at a signalized intersection.

 Perception-reaction time varies among individuals and may, in fact, vary for the same
person as the occasion changes.

4
 These changes in perception-reaction time depend on:
a. how complicated the situation is,
b. the existing environmental conditions,
c. age,
d. whether the person is tired or under the influence of drugs and /or alcohol, and
e. whether the stimulus is expected or unexpected.

 The researchers noted that the 85th-percentile time to brake, obtained from several situations,
varied from 1.26 to over 3 seconds.

 The reaction time selected for design purposes should, however, be large enough to include
reaction times for most drivers using the highways.

 Recommendations made by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation

Officials (AASHTO) stipulate 2.5 seconds for stopping-sight distances.

 This encompasses the decision times for about 90 percent of drivers under most highway
conditions.

PRT or PIEV
• Perception of cue or stimulus
• Interpretation
• Evaluation of appropriate response (i.e., decision)
• Volition or physical response (i.e., reaction)

Reaction Distance:

• The most critical impact of perception-reaction time is the distance the vehicle travels while the
driver goes through the process.

• The reaction distance is simply the PRT multiplied by the initial speed of the vehicle.

d = 0.278 S.t

d = reaction distance, m
t = reaction time, s
S = initial speed of vehicle, km/h

Reaction Distance

Example 1:

• The importance of this factor is illustrated in the following sample problem: A driver rounds a
curve at a speed of 60 mi/h and sees a truck overturned on the roadway ahead. How far will the

5
driver’s vehicle travel before the driver’s foot reaches the brake? Applying the AASHTO
standard of 2.5 s for braking reactions:

The reaction distance may be computed as:

dr=1.47 S t

Where d = reaction distance, ft

t = reaction time, s
S = initial speed of vehicle, mi/h

dr = 1.47 * 60 * 2.5 = 220.5 ft

• The vehicle will travel 220.5 ft (approximately 11-12 car lengths) before the driver even
engages the brake. The implication of this is frightening. If the overturned truck is closer to the
vehicle than 220.5 ft when noticed by the driver, not only will the driver hit the truck, he or she
will do so at full speed-60 mi/h. Deceleration begins only when the brake is engaged-after the
perception-reaction process has been completed.

Example 2 Distance Traveled During Perception-Reaction Time:

A driver with a perception-reaction time of 2.5 sec is driving at 65 mi/h when she observes that
an accident has blocked the road ahead. Determine the distance the vehicle would move before
the driver could activate the brakes. The vehicle will continue to move at 65 mi/h during the
perception-reaction time of 2.5 sec.

Solution:

• Convert mi/h to ft /sec:

where v = velocity (ft/sec) and t : time (sec).

6
Example 3:

A breakdown of car B occurred resulting to completely stopping of this car. A driver in car A
noticed this breakdown from a distance of 150m and decided to brake. Do you think a collision
will occur if:

a) the speed of car A was 90 km/hr

b) the speed of car A was 80 km/hr

3.3 PEDESTRIAN CHARACTERISTICS

 The pedestrian is the major user of the roadway when the system fails; he/she is a major
victim. About 28% of all traffic death are pedestrian fatalities in USA,

 in urban area 7000 pedestrians are killed each year, and about 70,000 are injured.
 The very young & the very old are most affected
 The traffic engineer is responsible for designing a safe & convenient facilities for
pedestrians
 To save: Small children, elderly, Physically handicapped and blind

 Information required by the designer are:

1. Space requirements (needs) for pedestrians

2. Walking & running speeds

3. Traffic flow characteristics of groups of pedestrians

7
Space needs

study indicated that for the 95th percentile:

Shoulder breadth 22.8” = 58 cm

Body depth 13” = 33 cm

We should give the pedestrian slightly more spaces to avoid bodily contact with others & for
things, that many pedestrian carry with them

Total area = 2.3 ft2 = 0.214 m2 (Standing), 61cm*35cm=2135cm2=0.214m2

The above area is useful to determine the space needs or capacity where pedestrians are standing
rather than walking (elevators & conveyance)

Example1:

Assume that an area of about 33,000 m2. what is the capacity of this place for standing people?

Ans.: 154,205 persons

For sidewalks or other pedestrian corridors we should consider the dynamic spatial requirements
for avoiding collisions with other pedestrians.

Allow space of 2.30 m2 / pedestrian for walking freely

Average distance preferred between two pedestrians following each other = 8/3.28 = 244 cm =
2.40m, time spacing of 2 seconds.

Example:

Assume that the width of Omar Elmokhtar road is 30 m. Estimate a maximum number of
demonstrator when their walking platoon is 2000m? Ans. 26086.

Walking & running speeds

Under free flow conditions

Pedestrian speed are normally distributed

Range: 2 to 6 ft/sec, or 0.6m/s to 1.82 m/s

2.16 km/h to 6.55 km/h

8
Mean walking speed: 4.0 to 4.5 ft/s

1.22 m/s to 1.37 m/s

4.4 km/h to 5 km/h

In design use 4 ft/s (1.22 m/s)

If number of elderly is high use (0.9 m/s)

Lower if significant number of handicapped is present

Walking speed decreases with the increase in pedestrian density.

Running speed 470ft/min or 7.80 ft/s= 2.38m/s=8.6km/h

Fastest speed = 33 ft/s= 10m/s= 36.2km/h

Example:

a) Determine the time required for a pedestrian to cross a road of 20m width.

Answer = 16s

b) Find width of pedestrian cross if 20pedestrian want to cross a road of 20m width in 20second.

Answer = 6.65m

Turning Movements

• Low-speed turning characteristics

▫ ≤ 16 km/h
▫ The turning radius can be attained from graphs. (e.g. Fig 2.4)

9
Fig 2.4 Minimum Turning Path for Interstate Semitrailer

10
• High-speed turning characteristics

S : Speed km/h
R : Curve Radius m
e : Superelevation rate %
f : Coefficient of side friction

Or

S : Speed mi/h
R : Curve Radius ft
e : Superelevation rate %
f : Coefficient of side friction

Coefficient of side friction in wet pavements

By the Metric formula: r= 453.3594 m

By the US formula: r= 1482.456 ft =452 m

11
BRAKING CHARACTERISTIC

• Braking Distance

Total Stopping Distance (Metric unit)

Total Stopping Distance (US unit)

12
Eample1:

Safe Stopping Sight Distance

One of the most fundamental principles of highway design is that the driver must be able to see
far enough to avoid a potential hazard or collision. Thus, on all roadway sections, the driver must
have a sight distance that is at least equivalent to the total stopping distance required at the
design speed.

13
Decision Sight Distance

• There are some sections that should provide greater sight distance to allow drivers to react to
potentially more complex situations than a simple stop.

• AASHTO recommends that decision sight distance be provided at interchanges or intersection

locations where unusual or unexpected maneuvers are required; changes in cross-section such as
lane drops and additions, toll plazas…etc.

Metric:

US Units

14
Example

15
Change (Yellow) and Clearance (All Red) Intervals for a Traffic Signal

16
17
 CROSS SECTION AREA & VOLUMES

Cross section area

Cross section volume

1
2
3
4
5
 Calculating of SD2 Area

Method 1:

6
Method 1:

Method 2:

7
8
 Mass-Haul Diagram

Quantities

 Excavation- the amount of material that needs to be removed from the grade.(Cut)
 Embankment- the amount of material that needs to be added to the grade. (Fill)
 Excavation and embankment are calculated with cross sections using the average end area method.

Average End Area Method

 The area between the existing ground and proposed ground is calculated at each cross-section.
 The area between two consecutive cross-sections is averaged.
 This area is multiplied by the distance between two cross-sections.

1
Shrinkage
 Shrinkage is the % additional volume added to the embankment quantity.

Three States of Material

1. Bank
2. Loose
3. Compacted

2
Mass-haul diagram:

Continuous curve showing the relationship between the accumulated algebraic sums of corrected
earthwork volume and distance for the purpose of minimizing the cost of excavating hauling & damping
the materials (Soil).

Characteristics of Mass Curve:

1- Rising sections of the mass curve indicates areas where cut exceeds fill, whereas falling sections
indicate where fill exceeds cut.

2- Steep slopes reflect heavy cuts & Fills, while flat slopes indicate areas for small amount of earthwork.

3- Any horizontal line dawn to intersect two points within the same curve indicates a balance of
excavation (cut) and embankment (fill) quantities between the two points.

4- Points of zero slope represent points where roadway goes from cut to fill or from fill to cut.

5- The highest or the lowest points of the mass haul diagram represents the crossing points between the
grade line (roadway level) and natural ground level.

3
  Rising Cut
 Falling Fill
 Steep slop High cut or fill
 Zero slop Change from cut to fill or vice versa.
 Zero value Balance between cut and fill

Haul ( ‫ = ) النقل‬Volume (m3) * Distance (sta.)

Haul distance:

The distance of moving the masses of soil from one place to another, in the process of earthwork
.

Free haul distance (F. H. D.):

The distance within which there is a fixed price for excavating, hauling, and damping the materials
regardless of the distance moved.
Freehaul charge =

Over haul distance (O. H. D.):

The distance beyond (F. H. D.) for which there is an additional price for each (m3.sta.)

Over haul charge =

Limit of economical haul distance (L. E. H. D.):

The distance beyond which it is more economical to waste and borrow rather than to pay for the cost of
over hauling.

L. E. H. D. = F. H. D. + max. O. H. D.

4
5
6
7
Mass Diagram Problem 1:

8
Mass Diagram Problem 2:

9
Mass Diagram Problem 3:

Mass Diagram Problem 4:

10
Mass-haul:
EX1.

If the overhaul distance is 2.5 station , the overhaul price is 10$/m3.station and the
overhaul volume = 100 m3 , then the cost of overhaul due to the contractor is nearly:

a. 2100 $ b. 2500 $ c. 250 $ d. 25 $

EX2.

Complete the following table ? use shrinkage factor = 0.15

Area (m2) Total volume Net volume

Station (m) Cut area Fill area Cut Fill Cut Fill

0+00 140 60

1+00 40 0 - - - -

EX2.

Calculate Mass Diagram Assuming Shrinkage = 25%

11
Volumefill = adjusted for shrinkage = 37.0 yd * 1.25 = 46.3 yd3

12
Total cut = 333.3 yd3 - 46.3 yd3 = 287.0 yd3

13
 Free haul distance (FHD)- distance earth is moved without
additional compensation

 Limit of Profitable Haul (LPH) - distance beyond which

it is more economical to borrow or waste than to haul
from the project

 Overhaul – volume of material (Y) moved X Stations

beyond Freehaul, measured in sta–yd3 or sta-m3

 Borrow – material purchased outside of project

 Waste – excavated material not used in project

14
EX2.

Calculate Mass Diagram Assuming Shrinkage = 25%

1
Volumefill = adjusted for shrinkage = 37.0 yd * 1.25 = 46.3 yd3

Total cut = 333.3 yd3 - 46.3 yd3 = 287.0 yd3

2
3
4
 Horizontal Alignment

CE 566 Transportation Design

H i
Horizontal
t l Ali
Alignmentt
„ Design of Geometric Elements
Provide safe, continuous operation
Speed likely to be observed under normal
conditions
Vast majority of road users
H i
Horizontal
t l Ali
Alignmentt
„ Consists of straight sections of road
((tangents)
g ) connected byy horizontal curves
Horizontal curves follow the properties of a
circle
Radius will provide for smooth flow of traffic
along the curve
H i
Horizontal
t l Ali
Alignmentt
„ Curves are computed after:
Route has been selected
Field surveys have been done
Baseline and necessary topographic features
have been plotted
H i
Horizontal
t l Ali
Alignmentt
„ Principle consideration
Length of radius or
degree of curvature,
based on
„ Design speed
„ Sight distance
As lilimited
A it d b
by h
headlights
dli ht or
obstructions
H i
Horizontal
t l Ali
Alignmentt
„ The smaller
Th ll ththe radius,
di th
the sharper
h th
the
curve
For high speed highways, curves must be flat
and have large radius
„ Typical radii
12,000 feet on interstate highways
1,000 feet on major arterials
500 feet on industrial access roads
150 feet on residential roads
T
Types off Horizontal
H i t lCCurves
„ Simple Curve
„ Compound Curves
„ Reverse Curves
„ Transition
T iti (S(Spiral)
i l) CCurves
Si l C
Simple Curves
„ Curve
Segment of a circle with radius ‘R’
R
„ PC: Point of Curve
Point at which curve begins
„ PT: Point of Tangent
P i t att which
Point hi h curve ends
d
„ PI: Point of Intersection
Point at which two tangents intersect
G
Geometry:
t Perpendiculars
P di l
„ Curve radii
Perpendicular to the lines PC-PI
PC PI and PI-PT
PI PT
and to the entering and exiting straight-aways
between curves as well.

„ A line from Point of Curvature to the Point of

Tangency is perpendicular to a line running from
the Radius Point to the Point of Intersection
Geometry:
Intersection or Delta Angle
„ Delta Angle aka Intersection Angle aka
Central Angle
Angle
A l formed
f d between
b t the
th PC-RP-PT.
PC RP PT
Delta also appears at the PI as a deflection
angle.
„ Deflection angle at the PI = Delta because:
Sum of the interior angles at the RP, PC, PI and PT = (n-2)*180 = 360
Therefore, the interior angle at PI = Delta - 90 - 90 - 360 = Delta - 180
If interior angle = Delta - 180, then deflection angle must = Delta
Geometry:
Intersection or Delta Angle
„ Angle PI-PC-PT = Delta / 2 because:
Sum of the angles for the isosceles triangle
PC PI PT = 180
PC-PI-PT
The angle at the PI = delta - 180
Therefore the other two angles =
Therefore,
(180-delta-180)/2 = delta/2
Si l C
Simple Curves
C
Compound
d Curves
C
„ Consist of two or more simple curves in
succession
„ Turning in the same direction
„ Have a common tangentg p
point
„ Used in obtaining desirable shapes of
g
horizontal alignment
At-grade intersections, ramps of interchanges,
highway sections in difficult topography
C
Compound C
Curves
„ Radii of two consecutive curves should not
be widelyy different
„ Ratio of flatter radius to sharper radius
Highways 1 1.5:1
5:1
Intersections 2:1
Desirable 1.75:1
1 75:1
„ If Ratio is 2:1, a spiral curve should be
useddbbetween
t th
the curves
C
Compound
dCCurves
R
Reverse C
Curves
„ Consist of two simple curves with equal
radii
„ Turning in opposite directions
„ Have a common tangent point
„ Used to change the alignment of a
hi h
highway
R
Reverse C
Curves
„ Not recommended
Sudden changes to alignment result in drivers
finding it difficult to keep on their lanes
„ Preferable Design
Two simple curves separated by tangent to
achieve full superelevation
Separated by spiral curve
T
Transition
iti (S(Spiral)
i l) CCurves
„ Placed between tangents and circular
curves,, or between two adjacent
j circular
curves having substantially different radii
„ Provides a vehicle path that gradually
increases or decreases the radial force as
vehicle enters or exits the curve
T
Transition
iti (S(Spiral)
i l) CCurves
„ Degree of spiral curve at tangent = 0
„ At circular curve
curve, degree of spiral = degree
of circular curve
D
Degree off C
Curvature
t
„ Two definitions are used for the degree of
curve
Arc Definition
Chord Definition
Degree of Curvature -
Arc Definition
„ Most frequently
used in highway
design
„ It is the central
angle
g formed by y
two radii that
extend from the
center of a circle
to the ends of an
arc measuring
100 feet long
Degree of Curvature -
Arc Definition
„ Ratio between the degree of curvature (D)
and 360° is the same as the ratio between
100 feet of arc and the circumference (C)
of a circle having
g the same radius

D__ =
D 100__
100
360° C
Degree of Curvature -
Arc Definition
„ Since the circumference of a circle = 2πR
D__
__ = 100__
__
360° 2πR

„ R = 5729
5729.578
578 / D
Degree of Curvature -
Arc Definition

ƒ Smaller D means larger

g R;;
ƒ Larger D means smaller R

ƒ For a 100’ arc:

ƒ D = 32 degrees, R = 179.05’
ƒ D = 8 degrees, R = 716.20’
Degree of Curvature –
Chord Definition
„ Most frequently used
in railway practice
„ Degree of curve is
the central angle
f
formed d by
b ttwo radii
dii
drawn from the center
of the circle to the
ends of a chord 100
feet
ee long
o g
Degree of Curvature –
Chord Definition
„ The following trigonometric relationship
exists:
sin (D/2) = 50/R

„ Solving for R:
R = 50 / (sin(D/2))
H i
Horizontal
t l Si
Simple
l CCurves
„ POT: Point on Tangent
„ POST: Point on Semi-
Semi
Tangent
„ MPC: Midpoint of Curve
 H i
Horizontal
t l Si
Simple
l CCurves
„ I: Interior Angle,
Central Angleg of
Curve, Delta
„ T: Tangent
Distance from PI
to PC or from PI
to PT
„ C: Long Chord
from PC to PT
 H i
Horizontal
t l Si
Simple
l CCurves
„ M: Middle Ordinate, the
distance from the curve
to the midpoint to the
midpoint of the long
chord
„ E: External Distance,
the distance from the
vertex
t to
t the
th midpoint
id i t
of the curve
„ L: Length of Curve,
Curve
length of the curve
from PC to PT
H i
Horizontal
t l Si
Simple
l CCurve E
Equations
ti

„ T = R tan (I/2)
„ C = 2R sin (I/2) = 2T cos (I/2)
„ E = R tan (I/2) tan (I/4) = R(1/cos (I/2) -1)
„ M = R(1
R(1- cos (I/2)) = (C/2) ttan (I/4)
„ L = (RIπ)/180 = RIradians = 100 (I/D)
St ti i
Stationing
„ St ti
Station
A unit of measure
One station = 100 ft.
Shorthand used to make stationing easily readable.
„ For instance, a project begins at Sta. 0+00.00, and the PC,
which lies 160.23 ft. distance, is at Sta. 1+60.23.

„ Numerals to the left of the "+" represent whole

stations or 100 foot units
stations, units. Numerals to the right
of the "+" are feet and hundredths of feet.
H i
Horizontal
t l Si
Simple
l CCurve E
Equations
ti
„ Location of PC Station = PI Station – T
„ Location of PT Station = PC Station + L
„ Length of curve, given PC and PT stations = PT
station – PC station
„ St ti i iis reckoned
Stationing k d along
l th
the curve; th
thus th
the
PT station = the PC station + L (arc length).
Note that the PI station is computed
p using
g the
tangent length and the PC station NOT the PT
station.
 PI
Sta.4+10.23
PI Sta = PC Sta + T

Begin Project Sta 0+00

Arc Length vs. Chord Lengths

„ Actual distance along an arc is greater than the length of

a corresponding chord
When using the arc definition,
definition either use:
„ A correction is applied for the difference between arc length and
chord length
„ Shorter chords are used to make the error resulting from the
difference negligible.
negligible
The following chord lengths are commonly used for the degrees
of curve shown (maximum distances):
ƒ 100 feet—0 to 3 degrees of curve
ƒ 50 ffeet—3
t 3 tto 8 d
degrees off curve
ƒ 25 feet—8 to 16 degrees of curve
ƒ 10 feet-over 16 degrees of curve
„ Allowable error is 0
0.02
02 foot per 100 feet on most
construction surveys
 Laying Out a Horizontal Curve
Deflection Angle Method:

Problem:

Two tangents intersect at Station 4 + 016.770. The deflection angle to the right is 40 o 00' 00".
degree of curve, Da is to be 20o. Calculate T, La, R and the stationing of the P.C. and P.T. using
20 meter arc length.
Reversed Curve
Problem1:

Two parallel highways 1000 meters apart are to be joined by a reverse curve made up of two
circular curves of equal radius. These curves are to have a radius of 700 meters. Determine all
parts of the curves.

Problem2:

If a simple circular curve has a length of curve 410', and the degree of curvature (Da) is known to
be 21.000°, and the station of the PI is 155 + 75.42, what is the central angle of this curve?

I = 86°06'00"
Problem3:

Given the following elements of a circular curve: middle ordinate = 2 m; length of long chord =
70 m. Find its degree of curve, use arc basis.
A. 4.5°
B. 5.3°
C. 2.9°
D. 3.7°
Problem
The angle of intersection of a circular curve is 36° 30'. Compute the radius if
the external distance is 12.02 m.
A. 203.74 m
B. 253.72 m
C. 226.94 m
D. 214.67 m
 Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves

 A sightline obstruction is any roadside object within the horizontal sightline offset (M) distance,
2.0 feet or greater above the roadway surface at the centerline of the lane on the inside of the
curve.

Horizontal Stopping Sight Distance

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 Passing Sight Distance (PSD)

 Applicable for two-lane roads and two-way highways

 Major source of concern from a design viewpoint
 Many assumptions in the analysis (AASHTO, 2004):

a) Overtaken vehicle travels at uniform speed

b) Passing vehicle trails the overtaken vehicle

c) Passing driver needs short period to perceive and react to the passing maneuver

d) Delayed start and “hurried” to the opposing lane

e) When the passing vehicle returns to its travel lane there is enough clearance between this
vehicle and the oncoming vehicle

PSD = d1+d2+d3+d4

4
Initial maneuver distance (d1)

where:
ti : is the time of initial maneuver (s),
a: is the average vehicle acceleration (km/hr/s),
v: is the average speed of the passing vehicle (km/hr), and
m: is the difference in speeds of the overtaken vehicle and the passing vehicle (km/hr). For most
calculations AASHTO assumes the value of m to be 15 km/hr.

Distance While Passing Vehicle Occupies Left Lane (d2)

d2=0.278vt2

where:
t2 is the time the passing vehicle occupies the left lane (s) and
v is the average speed of the passing vehicle (km/hr)

Clearance Length (d3)

d3=[30,75]
This distance has been found by empirical observations to vary from 30 to 75 meters. Note that
the table below shows the appropriate clearance distance.(9)

5
Distance traveled by Opposing vehicle (d4)

d 4= d 2
Somewhat optimistic assumption but used in practice

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VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

1
Types of vertical curves:

Two kinds of vertical curve:

Types of vertical curves:

Crest Vertical Curves

Sag Vertical Curves

Types of vertical curves

2
Vertical tangents with different grades are joined by vertical curves such as the one shown in
Figure 4.7. Vertical curves are normally parabolas centered about the point of intersection (P.I.)
of the vertical tangents they join. Vertical curves are thus of the form:

3
Ex: Table 4.2. represents a 300 m sag vertical curve between a +1.0% grade and a
+6.0% grade. Find the Elevations on vertical curve at every 25 m.

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5
For highways, minimum length of vertical curve may be based on sight distance.

The equations used to calculate minimum lengths of vertical curves based on sight distance
depend on whether:

1. the sight distance is greater than or,

2. the sight distance is less than the vertical curve length.

For crest vertical curves, the minimum length depends on the sight distance, the height of the
driver’s eye, and the height of the object to be seen over the crest of the curve, as illustrated in
Figure 4.8.

For stopping sight distance, the height of object is normally taken to be 0.150 m. For passing
sight distance, the height of object used by AASHTO is 1.300 m. Height of eye is assumed to be
1.070 m.

6
Inserting these standard values for h1 and h2, Equation (4.4) may be reduced to:

SAG CURVES

For sag vertical curves, stopping sight distance is based on the distance illuminated by the headlights at night.

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EX3:

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SUPPERELEVATION
 APPLICATION OF SUPPERELEVATION
Axis of Rotation
1. Rotate pavement about centerline
2. Rotate about inner edge of pavement
3. Rotate about outside edge of pavement