Chapter – II

ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION

OF VIMANAS
 CHAPTER - II

ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF VIMANAS

2.1 Early Hindu Temple Architecture

Every culture and civilization of the world has its own history. It also
related to Architecture. The dictionary meaning of this word, it is "Art and
Science of Designing and Constructing Buildings." As per the Oxford
Dictionary, architecture is derived from the Greek word, "ARCHITEKTON,"
and means consciously evolving playful and pleasing environment. As per the
Encyclopedia Britannica, architecture is the art and the technique of the
building to fulfils the practical and expressive requirements of the civilized
people. These definitions talk of the ability of the society or the civilization to
construct a shelter for protection. Further, the architecture, mentioned here, can
also be regarded as a symbol of development from primitive to civilized
institutions 1.

Vastusastra or "The Hindu Style of Architecture and Civil Engineering

has its ambits much beyond the "shelter for human" concept. According to
Bhrgu- Samhita,Vastusastra) is one of the ten branches of Silpasastra and,
basically, deals with abodes of human beings, their animals, their trees and the
Divinity. Thus the history of the Vastusastra begins with history of
Silpasastra. It talks of the origin of the earth; the creation of continents,
oceans, rivers and countries. It can be said that Vastusastra started evolving
from the first house built and the introduction of division of the society into the
varnas and asramas.

8
 Right from the Harappan civilization, we can link the principles of this
science, employed in building the various structures in India. Therefore, we
can see the finest houses forming the towns of Indus civilization and even the
temporary erections or rudimentary structures of reeds and bamboos observed
in this country, exhibiting more or less same symbolization 2.

The rise and development of art and architecture ultimately culminated

in Visvakarma school or Northern School (which is primarily based on
VisvakarmaPrakasa and Samarangana Sutradhara), Maya School or dravidian
School (which is, primarily, based on Mayamatam and Manasara). We also
see few other styles like Vesara, Gandhara or Gupta School, Cholean,
Buddhist, Lata, Varata and Pandya Schools 3.

All the Hindu temple architecture of South India which followed the
Pallava style can be divided into six distinct periods:

1. Pallava - 600 to 850 C.E

2. Badami Chalukya - 543 to 753 C.E

3. Early Chola - 850 to 1150 C.E

4. Later Chola - 1150 to 1350 C.E

5. Vijayanagara - 1350 to 1600 C.E

6. Post Vijayanagara - 1600 to 1900 C.E

The rockcut temples such as those at Mahabalipuram were built during

the Pallava period. In fact, they served as original models for all the temples
constructed during the periods that followed. But the Pallava period did not

9
stop with these experimental rock cut rathas. Other temples were built
following the design and principles of these monolithic rathas. The most
important of them being the shore temple at Mahabalipuram and the
Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram. Both of them are in good state of
preservation. No worship is being carried out in the shore temple at
Mahabalipuram today remains as an archaeological monument of great
interest.

Many forms that existed in the previous periods in an embryonic stage

underwent changes in the subsequent periods. Later some of them became
atrophied and continued to be so for some time and in some cases they
disappeared altogether. The changes were not only architectural but also
sculptural. They pertain only to the detail and decorative element.

The Chalukyan style originated in Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal (all in

Bagalkot district of Karnataka). Chalukyan artists experimented with different
styles, blended the Indo-Aryan Nagara and Dravidian styles, and evolved their
own distinctive style. One can see magnificent examples of their earliest works
in Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal.

During the Early Chola period the vimana assumed gigantic proportions.
It is to this part of the edifice the architects of the period gave all the care. The
great vimanas of Tanjore and Gangaikonda cholapuram belong to this period.
They are magnificently erected and rise almost 190 feet high. In the following
periods, vimanas get atrophied and finally reduced to forms of only a few feet
height.

In the temples prior to the Later Chola period one finds only the embryo
of gopuras. The temple of Kailasanatha at Kanchipuram has only a miniature

10
gopura. At the temple of Tanjore, which belongs to the Early Chola period, the
gopura is already a little elevated. But at the Later Chola epoch we find grand
and beautiful gopuras. The gopuras of Chidambaram and Jambukeswaram are
perfect examples of this period.

Though the epoch of Vijayanagara period saw still more immense

vimanas and gopuras, it is evident, that this part of the edifice was not much
cared for. It was not upon this that the sculptor of the period concentrated his
efforts. During the Vijayanagara epoch a new form of construction appeared in
the form of the mandapa or resting place 4. The mandapa of the Vijayanagara
period arrests our attention by its monolithic pillars, in which the sculptured
horses, rearing lions, gods and goddesses. The kalyana mandapas of Hampi,
Kanchipuram and Vellore and the mandapas of Lepakshi are characteristic of
the art of this period.

During the Vijayanagar style or semi modem style it is distinguished by

its corridor. A perfect example of the architecture of this period can be seen in
the temple at Rameswaram, where the predominance of the corridor becomes
manifest. Another example is the most celebrated temple at Madura, with its
pudu mantapa5.

2.1.1. Characteristics of Hindu Temple Architecture

Basically, Hindu temples can be divided to North Indian and South

Indian Styles. Malaysia has more South Indian style of temples and all three
temples chosen for the case study are of South Indian origin as explained in the
setting. All the temple architecture of South India can be divided into six
distinct periods which are given tabular form.

11
 The Hindu temple (Fig-2.1, 2.2 & 2.3) evolved from simple building to
a huge complex and then to simple shrines again. The early ancient temples are
caves temples or rock cut caves. The Simplest form of temple in Sanchi during
the Gupta period consists of moolasthanam with an attached pillared porch and
a flat and simple roof, which evolved from the rock cut temple.

When kings are deeply involved in religious matters, they started

building temples in a larger scale. The Pallava temples such as Mahabalipram
and Kanchipuram, The Badami Chalukyan temples such as Pattadakal, Badami
and Aihole and Alampur. The Chola temples such as Tanjavur, Gangaikonda
Cholapuram, Darasuram and Tribuvanam became the prototype for the Hindu
temples. Under the royal patronage during the Vijayanagara and Post
Vijayanagara periods the Hindu temple became a huge complex (with various
substructures; sub temples, tanks and service structures like kitchen and
residential complexes etc).6

Fig-2.1: Hindu Temple Plan

12
Table No. 1: Hindu Temple Characteristics in different periods

Style Periods Characteristics Example

Mahabalipuram
600- 850 Rock cut and rock cut temples
Pallava
C.E Structural Kanchipuram
Structural Temples
Badami rock cut
543-753 Rock cut and temples
Chalukyas
C.E Structural Pattadakal and
Aihole Temples

The great vimanas

850-1150 Immense vimana
C.E of Tanjore and
Early Chola (190 ft), miniature
Gangaikonda
gopuram.
Cholapuram

Kailasanatha at
1150-1350 Miniature gopuram Kanchipuram
C.E Immense and grand Thegopuras of
Later Chola
gopuram Chidambaram and
Jambukeswaram.

Immense and grand

gopuram. Mandapa Kalayanamandapa of
for resting and Hampi, Kanchipuram
1350-1600 monolithic pillars and Vellore, and
Vijayanagara C.E with sculptured mandapas of
horses, roaring lions, Lepakshi.
gods and goddesses.
Post 1600-1900. Semi-modem style. Rameswaran at
Vijayanagara C.E Corridors Madura.

13
 Fig-2.2: Elements of Hindu Temple

Fig-2.3: Hindu Temple as the Body of deity

14
2.2. Origin and Evolution of the Vimana

2.2.1. Origin of Vimana

Vimana means the tower sikhara, raised to its final height above the
sanctum. The southern texts describe the temples as Sadvarga devalaya. The
Sadvargas of a vimana are Adistana, Pada, Prastara, Kanta, Sikhara and
stupi. The vertical expansion of the sadvarga developed into vimanas of
dvitala (in two stages) and tritala (in three stages) structures 7.

The scholars have their confined their attention, so far, to a consideration

of the ground plan and the basal structure of the South Indian temple. They
have purposely ignored an important feature of the temple architecture. i.e the
vimana which is built on the temple, just above the sanctum. They have not
been able to detect even a trace of its origin in the primitive dravidian temple.
Its origin is, therefore, shrouded in darkness. Some people are inclined to see
in it a foreign element some trace its origin to the Egyptian Pyramids others
find in it an adaptation of Chaldean Ziggarets. The most important of the
theories explaining the origin of the vimana comes from Mr. Longhurst
follows the stupi, as the vimana is called, is the corrupted form of Sanskrit
stupa which signifies a Buddhist shrine.‟ It was originally “a dome shaped
structure which was a development of the low sepulchral tumulus, or mound of
earth and stones, in which the bricks were substituted for earth, with a view to
durability 8.

The Buddhists did not, however, bring the stupa into existence. It
existed long before the time of the Buddha. It was a pre Buddhist institution,
held in great reverence by the people. It was “a common form of tomb at that
period” and “nothing more or less than a regularly built dome shaped pile of

15
masonry, which was undoubtedly the oldest form of funeral monuments” 9. To
secure the loyalty of the masses, the Buddha is said to have adopted it for the
purpose of his new religion. And after the death of the master, it was further
developed and universalised by his followers, and it became the religious
edifice of the Buddhists. “A striking change in the mediaeval stupa is the
introduction of figure- sculpture. Only ordinary mortals are sculptured in the
earlier stupas, while Buddha never appears. Now he is even the object of
worship, his image being placed in a niche in front of the stupa itself” 10.It was
this developed Buddhist stupa which the Hindus adopted as their own when
Buddhism began to decay.

The Hindus had no temples before this period. The earliest

representations of the Hindu deities are found on Buddhist temples. “The
oldest remains of independent Hindu art are either sculptural or architectural
only date from several centuries after the beginning of (the Christian) era.
These considerations justify the presumption that Hindu architecture is derived
from the older art of the Buddists” 11.

So far, everything appears to run smooth; but there emerges a difficulty

when this theory has to be adapted to the South Indian temple, on account of
its independent origin. We have already seen that the South Indian temple is a
development of the primitive grave; and how can the theory of Buddhist origin
square with it? There is, however, a splendid way out of the difficulty. We are
not able to trace the origin of the vimana surmounting the temple from
indigenous sources. It has a striking resemblance to the developed stupa, and is
also called by the name „stupi.‟ Therefore, it is nothing more or less than a
conventionalized model of a medieval Buddhist stupa, erected purely as an
architectural ornament, denoting the position of the image enshrined within the

16
 12
building” .Thus the one feature of the Dravidian temple which defied
explanation from native sources appears to have been sufficiently accounted
for, and the difficult problem concerning its origin seems to have been finally
solved.

According to Manasara, vimanas are of three types distinguished from

one another by the principal materials of which they are formed as suddha,
(pure), misra (mixed) and sankirna (anomalous). (The materials used are, in
the languages of the Mandgapattu inscription timber, stone, brick, etc.) An
edifice is suddha which is composed of one material such as stone, brick, etc.,
and this is considered best of all. Misra is that which is composed of two kinds
of material, such as brick and stone and metals, and sankirna is that which is
composed of three or more kinds of materials, such as timber, stone brick,
metals, etc. First time to introduce temple architecture in South India by the
Pallava rulers and introduced the vimana also13.

There is another type of architecture that seems to have been known in

South India in early times. The most primitive representative of this type is the
sudalai madan‘s pillar, which is a common feature of the county surrounding
the town of Tirunelvelly district. The pillar is generally pyramidal in shape,
although the conical variety is not unknown. Occasionally, pillars resembling
miniature temple vimanas as for instance, we can see at palamcottah. Three of
these pillars generally stand together, although single ones are met with,
standing here and there. They built of bricks and mortar, but more frequently
of clay. They are supposed to be the dwelling places of sudalai madan or the
lord of the cremation ground. This appellation is fully explained by the legends
associated with him. He was originally a demon of the graveyard feeding on
corpses, although at present, he is identified with God Siva.

17
 Again, we see the same style of architecture in a more developed form in
another part of South India. At mudu bidri in South Canara in Karnataka are
seen tombs of the priests. They vary much in size and magnificence, some
being from three to five or seven storeys in height. In spite of what Fergusson
says to the contrary, their kinship to our temple towers or vimanas is
unmistakable. These tombs mark a stage in the development of sudalai‘s
pillars. Both of them are pyramidal in shape, the tombs have storeys, whereas
sudalai‘s pillar has generally none.

The next stage in the growth of this type of building or temple generally
can be seen in the graveyards. Over a good number of graves, they are found
structures of brick and chunam which consists of a series of square platforms
placed one above the other. The platform at the bottom is the biggest in the
series. The one above it is smaller than that in size, the next still smaller, and
so on. The whole structure, if of sufficient height, resembles a temple tower in
miniature. Sometimes this structure is built on a basement of solid brick. Then
its resemblance to a temple is complete 14.

Another variety of the vimana with barrel shaped summit. The sikara of
this kind of vimana bears a striking resemblance to the roof of the Buddhist
chaitya. It is generally inferred from this that the vimana with the barrel shaped
summit is derived from the Buddhist chaitya. It may be admitted that some of
the vimanas belonging to this class are modeled upon Buddhist chaityas. This
style of architecture seen in the chaitya is very primitive and pre-Buddhist.

The Arthsastra says that the chaitya was a structural building, its external
appearance could not have been very different from that of the shrine found
among the bas reliefs of Barhut which according Ferugusson is so exactly like the

18
ratha that there can be no doubt that such buildings were use in the North India
two centuries at least before Christ. It is not unreasonable to conclude from this
that the rathas at Mahabalipuram and consequently the vimanas with the barrel-
shaped summits are the lineal descendants of the pre-Buddhist.

The modern temple consists of a sanctum, an adjoining hall in front, and

a conical or pyramidal tower called vimana or stupi which stands upon the
sanctum. People generally believe that this feature of our temple architecture
was borrowed from the Buddhist stupa. But this view is not based upon any
evidence we may say. That suppose that the Dravidians learnt the art of
constructing vimanas from the Aryanas who came to the South much earlier
than the time of the Buddha, there is no need to think that the Dravidians
borrowed the idea of vimana from the proselytizing Buddhist.

From very early times, there existed in South India two important types
of temple, the dolmen shaped and the hut shaped. What really happened was
that these two types coalesced under the influence of the Aryans. All the local
cults of South India were united and built into a single universal cult. The
result of this union was the formation of a federation of all the religious sects
of South India15.

2.2.2. The Evolution of Vimana

The term vimana used in the South Indian temple epigraphs refer to the
entire structure from upana to stupi. The vimanas are different in one region to
another region and one period to another period and also dynastic variations in
their style. Manasara accepted vimana upto twelve storeys of a temple
kashyapasilpasastradescribes the sixteen storeys of a temple. The haras or row

19
of miniature shrine composed of kutas and salas around each of the storeys
form the most characteristic features (Fig-2.4) of South Indian vimana16.

The measurement and characteristics of the vimana are classified into

three categories according to Mayamatha, viz. uttama, mathyama, and athama17.
Based on the shape of the vimana especially its sikhara and griva, the temples
are classified into Nagara, Dravida and Vesara style18. Five basic shapes of
vimana are referred in the Silpa texts, they are Vajra (square) is affiliated to
Vishnu, Kailasa (circular) is related to Siva, pushpaka (rectangular) is
associated to Vaisanava, Manika (oval) is connected to varuna and trivistapa
(octagonal) is affiliated to Indra19.

The Indian temple employed universally applied principles of

construction. The Hindu temples construction is based on the usage of post,
beam and corbel techniques marked by great exterior mass and small poorly lit
interior spaces. The profession of constructing temples mentioned in
Brihatsamhita suggest that they implied elevation of double the width of the
shrine, kati (waist), one third of the total height and garbhagriha and half the
width of the shrine. Kapotapali, which architecturally represent dovecot made
in between the projecting gable ends at the roof level, is to be provided to raise
the height of smaller temple structure. In medieval age temple, a moulding or
cornice with a curvature is often called kapota, which seems to have originated
with actual dovecot covered by an ornamental Chhadya20.

2.2.3. Classification of Hindu Temple Vimanas

The most outstanding feature of the ancient texts on Hindu temple
architecture is their classification different orders. The terms Nagara, Dravida
and vesara which are found in these texts do not function as all embracing

20
stylistic categories, but indicate a general impulse to classify temples according
to their typological features. Actually, these terms describe temples that
primarily employ square, octagonal or apsidal ended shapes for their plans,
these shapes regulating other parts of the temple including its vertical profile.
These three shapes are sometimes joined by two more shapes, the ellipse and
the rectangle to produce the five shapes listed in the Brihatsamhita. Nagara
and Dravida temples are mostly identified with the northern and southern
temple styles respectively, as the further categories of prasada and vimana
temples which also appear in most textual classifications. Each temple style
has its own distinct technical language, though some terms are common but
applied to different parts of the building in each style. Thus sikhara refers to
the whole superstructure in the northern style, but only to the finial of the
superstructure in the southern style. This stylistic terminology is accompanied
by distinct systems of proportionate measurement. In the description of
southern temples the sashtras take into account such variants as buildings
whose elevations are based upon a single unit or a number of units vertically
superimposed; temples with unlimited and progressive series of units are also
described. For northern temples, the sashtras list the horizontal divisions of the
vertical profile of the building, from the base to the superstructure and its
finial, and classify temples according to these divisions, elaborated in the later
texts into many sub parts21.

2.3 . The types of Vimanas

According to Fergusson “they are very much in size and magnificence,
some being from three to seven storeys in height”22. In spite of what
Fergusson says to the contrary, their kinship to our temple towers or vimanas is
unmistakable. These tombs mark a stage in the development of sudalai's

21
pillars. Both of them are pyramidal in shape; the tombs have storeys, whereas
sudalai‘s pillars have generally none.

For the next stage of development, we have to cross the narrow Gulf of
Mannar and go to Ceylon. At Pollonnaruva in Ceylon, there stands a building
called the „Sathmahal Prasada.‟ It is describe as one of the most perfect represen-
tations existing of the seven storeyed temples of Assyria23. Its kinship with the
rathas of Mamallapuram and other buildings of the Dravidian style is admitted on
all hands.

These structures are closely related to one another. In fact, they belong to
the same style of architecture. This also is shown by their association with the
graveyard. The connection of the first three with the cemetery is already noted
that the last one also is similarly related to it is so on by the close association of
the „Sathmahal Prasada‟ with a splendid dolmen which stands before it. Thus,
there is an inner unity binding them all together into a single class. To the same
class belongs the temple with the pyramidal vimana and the dome shaped sikhara.
Havell calls this sikhara Siva's dome. If he is right in this, the connection of this
kind of vimana with the above is at once established, it is a well known fact that
some of our important Siva shrines are actually built upon graves. In some of the
important places of pilgrimage, the temple of Siva stands or had at one time stood
on the cremation ground. In this connection, it may be interesting to note that
sudalai whose temple we have already described is identified with Siva. There
appears to be some justification for this identification for sudalai, the lord of the
cremation ground, cannot after all be very different from rudra, the lord of the
rudra-bhumi or „the crematorium‟. These considerations seem to justify us in
concluding that the pyramidal vimana marks the final stage of development of the
primitive type of Dravidian architecture represented by sudalai madan’s pillars.

22
 Another variety of the above type is the vimana with the barrel shaped
summit. The sikhara of this kind of vimana bears a striking resemblance to the
roof of the Buddhist chaitya. Acomparative study of the vimana of the Sri
Ranganatha temple at Srirangam or of some of the rathas at Mahabalipuram,
and the structural chaitya at once reveals their kinship. It is generally inferred
from this that the vimana with the barrel shaped summit is derived from the
Buddhist chaitya. It may be admitted that some of the vimanas belonging to
this class are modeled upon Buddhist chaityas, does not mean that the one is
derived from the other. The style of architecture seen in the chaitya is very
primitive and pre Buddhist. This has already been noted by Fergusson.
According to him, "the external forms or construction of these halls” bear very
close resemblance to "the huts of the Todas on the Nilagiri Hills.” He says,
“Their roofs have precisely the same elliptical forms as the chaitya with the
ridge, giving the ogee form externally, and altogether, whether by accident or
by design, they are miniature chaitya halls.” He adds further, “Such forms may
have existed in India two thousand years ago, and may have given rise to the
peculiarities of the chaitya halls, but it is, of course, impossible to prove it”24.

We have shown in a previous context that the chaitya was not invented
by the Buddhists. It was in existence much earlier than the time of the Buddha
and was commonly venerated by all the Hindus. It was still an important Hindu
institution at the time of Kautilya. Moreover, it is clear from the arthasastra
that the chaitya was a structural building. Its external appearance could not
have been very different from that of the shrine found among the bas reliefs of
Barhut which in the language of Fergusson is " so exactly like the ratha here
(at Mamallapuram), that there can be no doubt that such buildings were used in
the North of India two centuries at least before Christ”. It is not unreasonable

23
to conclude from this that the rathas at Mamallapuram and consequently the
vimana with the barrel shaped summits are the lineal descendants of the pre-
Buddistic Hindu chaitya. Perhaps, the modern Tamil temple of Ceylon which
Fergusson mentions (Bk. IV, ch. II) may be taken as a fair representation of the
intermediate stage in the development of the primitive chaitya into our modern
temple vimana25.

2.3.1. Classification of Vimanas

Structural Temples are classified from different angles according to size,

(alpa and maha prasada), according to the number of floors (tala or bhumi,
ekatala dvitala, tritala etc)., and according to their shape and design,
(chaturasra (square), vritta (circular), chaturasradirga (rectangular), hasti-
prshtha (apsidal), vrttayata (elliptical) shat-kona (hexagonal) and ashtasra
(octagonal) ). According to Manasara and Suprabhedagama, the three main
styles of temple architecture are defined as follows:

Nagara means across the vimana was square, Vesara means vimana was
crowned with a circular ridge above the griva (neck), and in Dravida the
vimana was crowned with an octagonal or hexagonal ridge above the (griva)
neck, and in the case of the Vesara and Dravidian styles the manasara adds an
apical shape.

Architecture is one among the classifications of fine arts (Fig-2.5). It is a

predominant of all other fine arts. It is the principal, visible and material record
through the ages. It is considered to be the matrix of civilization. It is generally
classified into two main divisions. They are secular architecture and Religious
architecture. Secular architecture is in no way connected with any religion, or it

24
does not have any religious motifs. On the basis of erection, execution and
creation, the architecture again is classified into two divisions as, Rock cut
architecture and structural architecture26.

(A) Nagara type of Vimana

The temples in Northern India are built according to a style known as the
Nagara style. The Nagara style was developed during 5th century C.E. This
style is characterized by a beehive shaped and multi-layered tower, called
sikhara. The layers of this tower are topped by a large round cushion like
element called amalaka. The plan is based on a square but the walls are
sometimes so segmented, that the tower appears circular in shape.

The Nagara style is typically characterized by the architectural wonder,

which ideally portrayed the craftsmanship of the artists. A study of the temples
of Northern India reveals two distinctive features. One of the distinctions is in
planning and the other one is in elevation. In plan the temple was always a
square with the projections in middle of every side. These projections give it a
cruciform with multiple reentrant angles each side. In elevation, it shows a
sikhara inclining inwards in a convex curve27.

The projections are carried upwards to the top of the sikhara, and thus
there is strong emphasis on vertical lines in elevation. On account of this and
the prominence of the vigorous and unbroken outline of the tower it is also
known as the rekha sikhara. The Nagara style is widely distributed over a
greater part of India. It therefore, exhibits distinct verities and ramifications in
different lines of evolution and elaboration that each locality chose for it.The

25
curvilinear tower and the cruciform plan are the common features in every
medieval temple of Northern India, wherever it is situated and whatever its
local stamp might be. Nagara style of architecture, developed can be seen in
six distinct regions. These can be mentioned as Orissa, Central India,
Rajputana, Gujarat and Kathiwar, Deccan and Sindhu Ganga valleys.

The development of the Nagara style took place in Orissa from the 7th
to 13th century C.E. It has, therefore, probably more temples than in all the rest
of Northern India. The activity centered on Bhuvanesvar, which alone contains
hundreds of temples. The three most important temples of Orissa are
Muktesvara temple, Rajarani temple and the Linga Raja temple 28.

(B) Vesara Type of Vimana

Vesara is a type of Indian architecture primarily used in temples. Which

is a combination of Nagara and Dravida temple styles. Etymologically, the
term Vesara is believed to have been derived from the Sanskrit word vishra
meaning an area to take a long walk. The quarters of Buddhist and Jain monks
who left urban areas to live in cave temples were called viharas. This is also in
conformity with the prevalence of Vesara style of architecture in the Deccan
and central parts of South Asia vis-à-vis Nagara style prevalent in North India
and Dravida style prevalent in South India.

The Vesara style is also described in some texts as the „Central Indian
temple architecture style‟ or „Deccan style‟. However many historians agree
that the Vesara style originated in Karnataka.

26
 The trend was started by the Chalukyas of Badami who built temples in
a style that was essentially a mixture of the Nagara and Dravida styles, further
distinguished by the Rashtrakutas in Ellora, Chalukyas of Kalyani in Lakkundi,
Dambal, Gadag etc. and epitomized by the Hoysalas.

The Hoysala temples at Belur, Halebidu and Somnathpura are supreme

examples of this style. It is understood that the Virupaksha temple at Aihole
and Pattadakal in northern Karnataka served as an inspiration for the design of
the famous Khajuraho temples at Madhya Pradesh. Early temples constructed
in this style include temples at Sirpur, Baijnath, Baroli and Amarkantak. The
temple complex at Khajuraho, is a typical example of the Vesara style29.

(C) Dravida type of Vimana

Dravidian architecture is a structure that originated in the Indian

subcontinent thousands of years ago.They consist mainly of pyramid-shaped
temples based on intricate carved stone to form stages with statues of gods,
warriors, kings and dancers.Most of the existing temples are in Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh, South India.Most of the existing temples are located in the
various states of the South Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Kerala and Karnataka Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, Cheras, Chalukyas,
Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas, Nayakas and Vijayanagara rulers made significant
contributions to the evolution of Dravidian architecture through the ages30.

27
 Fig-2.4: Characteristics of Vimana

Fig-2.5: Classifications of Vimanas

28
References

1. Rahul Vishwas Altekar., Vastusastra: Ancient Indian Architecture and

Civil Engineering,Delhi,1846, p.3.

2. Ibid., p.4.

3. Ibid., p.5.

4. Gopala Rao, A., Lepakshi, A Publication of the Andhra Pradesh Lalit Kala
Academy,Hyderabad, 1969,p.29.

5. Ibid.,p.30.

6. Sujatavani Gunasagaran., A Study on Hindu Temple Planning construction

and vastu, March 2002,p.20.

7. Muthiah Stapathi, M., Alaya Nirmana Binba Lakshana, HR&CE

Publications, Madras, 2012, p.122.

8. Annual Report of the Archaeological Department, Southern Circle, 1915-

16 p.30.

9. Ibid., p30.

10. Ibid., p31.

11. Ibid.

12. Ibid.

13. Parthiban, T., IJPSS January 2103,Hyderabad, Vol-3, ISSN: 2249-5894,

p.189.

14. Ibid., p.190.

15. Ibid., p.191.

29
16. Edith Tomory., Introduction to the History of Fine Arts in India and the
West, Bombay, 1968, p.124.

17. Subrahmanya Sastri, K.S., (Ed), Mayamatham, part.I, Thanjavur, 1966, p.

56.

18. Gupte , S.P., & Vijaya Kumar, S., Temples in India- Origin and
Developmental Stages, New Delhi, 2010, p.147.

19. Soundara Rajan, K.V., The Matrix of South Indian Architecture, Journal of
Indian History, Vol.XLIII, Part.III, Trivandrum, Dec. 1965, p.791.

20. Joshi, M.C., Buddhist Art and Architecture , aryan books

international,2018 p.209.

21. Ramachandra Dikshitar, V.R., Studies in Tamil Literature and History,

Read Books, Redditch, 2007. p.112.

22. James Ferguson., History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, Vol-1.p.275.

23. Ibid., p.202.

24. Ibid., p.105-106.

25. Ibid., p.105-106.

26. Muruganandan, K., Temples of Pudukkottai District – A Comprehensive

And Comparative Study, PG & Research Dept. of Philosophy, Religion &
Culture, Melayur (T.N), Aug 2010, p.101.

27. Ibid., p.102.

28. Ibid., p.103.

29. Ibid., p.107.

30. Ibid., p.110.

30