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B-8 Aerodynamics SR 2019-07-22
B-8 Aerodynamics SR 2019-07-22
B-8 Aerodynamics SR 2019-07-22
Subject B-8:
Aerodynamics
Copyright © 2019 Aviation Australia
All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, transferred, sold, or otherwise
disposed of, without the written permission of Aviation Australia.
The nature of the atmosphere may vary considerably from day to day at any given place, and may
also vary from place to place at any given time. Because of these variations and because aircraft
move from one place to another quickly, they continually experience changes in the air in which
they fly.
The characteristics of the atmosphere have important effects on the operation and maintenance
of aircraft.
Aircraft performance and forces such as lift, drag, and engine power are affected by changes in
densities which result from variations in atmospheric pressure, temperature or humidity.
Civil aircraft normally fly at altitudes up to 45,000 feet (14 km). Although the atmosphere is
divided into several regions, we will only be covering the three closest to the earth’s surface, these
being:
• Troposphere
• Tropopause
• Stratosphere
The troposphere is also characterised by a rapid drop in atmospheric pressure. The pressure drops
from approximately 15 psi at sea level to 3 psi at 36,000 feet.
Stratosphere
The atmospheric layer extending from the tropopause up to an average altitude of between 50 to
55 kilometres is termed the stratosphere. Pressure continues to drop from 3 psi at the tropopause
to about 0.015 psi at the top of the stratosphere.
The temperature remains almost constant at -57°C, forming an isothermal layer from the
tropopause up to an altitude of 20 kilometres (70,000 feet).
Between 20 kilometres and approximately 32 kilometres the temperature begins to slowly rise.
Above an altitude of 32 kilometres, the temperature starts to increase more rapidly. The
temperature rise ceases at around 0°C, between the altitudes of 50 to 55 kilometres. This point is
called the stratopause.
Air density has a major effect on an aircraft in flight. At high altitude (less air density), a greater
speed and distance can be achieved because of reduced resistance (drag).
Water Vapour
Water vapour makes up only a very small fraction of the total mass of air but it has a major effect
on flight.
Because water vapour is only 63% as heavy as air, it soon mixes with air and lowers air density.
This less dense air near the Earth’s surface rises and cools until its temperature drops to where it
can no longer hold the water as a vapour. The water condenses out to become a liquid, the liquid
forms very tiny droplets small enough to be supported by the moving air currents. This forms
clouds.
Airflow ............................................................................................................................ 3
Free Stream Airflow ..................................................................................................... 4
Friction ........................................................................................................................ 4
Boundary Layer ........................................................................................................... 5
Laminar Boundary Layer ............................................................................................. 5
Transition Point: .......................................................................................................... 6
Stagnation point .......................................................................................................... 7
Separation Points......................................................................................................... 7
Wake ........................................................................................................................... 7
Relative Airflow ............................................................................................................ 8
Coanda Effect .............................................................................................................. 8
Upwash........................................................................................................................ 9
Downwash ................................................................................................................... 9
Vortices...................................................................................................................... 10
Wing Tip Vortices ....................................................................................................... 10
Aerofoils ........................................................................................................................ 11
Chord Line ................................................................................................................. 11
Camber ...................................................................................................................... 11
Mean Camber ............................................................................................................ 12
Fineness Ratio ........................................................................................................... 12
Aerofoil Shapes .......................................................................................................... 12
High Lift Aerofoils ...................................................................................................... 13
General Purpose Aerofoils .......................................................................................... 13
High-Speed Aerofoils .................................................................................................. 14
Aspect Ratio .................................................................................................................. 15
Aspect Ratio and Maximum Lift Coefficient ................................................................ 16
Aspect Ratio and Induced Drag .................................................................................. 16
Wing Planforms.......................................................................................................... 17
Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC). .............................................................................. 17
Generation of Lift .......................................................................................................... 18
Angle of Incidence ...................................................................................................... 18
Angle of Attack........................................................................................................... 18
Friction
Skin friction is caused by the resistance which is set up when relative motion exists
between the surface of a body and the air; contact between the two gives rise to a layer of
retarded air in immediate contact with the surface over which it is passing. This layer is
known as the boundary layer and the amount of drag arising from it is determined by the
nature and thickness of the flow in the layer.
The boundary layer is caused by the viscosity of the air sticking to the surface of the
wing and the succeeding layers of air. The thickness of the boundary layer is relative to
the velocity, and depends on the type of flow.
Transition Point:
That point on the wing at which the boundary layer changes from laminar to turbulent
flow is called the transition point. Because the increase in drag resulting from a
turbulent boundary layer is considerable, care is taken to preserve laminar flow over as
much of the wing as possible, for example in a true laminar flow wing shown in Figure 5.
Skin friction is a major source of drag at high speeds and it is one of the most difficult to
reduce. It can never be eliminated completely.
As the speed increases the transition point tends to come further forward, so more of the
boundary layer becomes turbulent and the skin friction becomes greater.
If this much is understood it will be obvious that the main purpose of research work has
been to discover why the transition point moves forward, and how its movement can be
controlled so as to maintain laminar flow over as much of the surface as possible.
Separation Points
The separation points are the points on the wing at which the boundary layers break
away from the surface.
Wake
The wake consists of the unsteady rotational flow, resulting from separation of the
boundary layers from the wing, and which tends to be dragged behind the trailing edge.
For a chord of seven feet the wake is about four to five inches in depth during flight at
small angles of attack.
Refer Figure 6
Coanda Effect
Viscosity is defined as a fluid’s resistance to flow. One of the consequences of this is the
tendency of a viscous fluid to follow a reasonable curvature of, for example, the back of a
spoon, or the top surface of a wing. (Figure 8).
Figure 9 Upwash
Downwash
Hydrodynamics is similar to aerodynamics except for the fluid used. When a person
water-skis, the towing boat must have enough speed through the water that the ski will
continually force down enough water to equal the weight of the skier. When the rope is
released, the skier slows down sinks into the water.
An aeroplane generates its lift in the same way as the water ski. The aeroplane is
propelled through the air by its powerplant, and as the air passes over the lift-producing
surfaces, called the airfoils, it is deflected downward. This downward deflection or
downwashing of the air has an opposing effect, that of pushing upward on the aeroplane.
There is nothing mysterious about this downwashing action. In fact, any inclined plane
will force air downward, but, the shape of the aeroplane wing makes this downwashing
action more efficient.
This downwash should not be confused with the downwards flow caused be wing tip
vortices.
Chord Line
The chord of the aerofoil is the straight line joining the leading edge to the trailing edge.
(Figure 13). It is used as an arbitrary reference line when measuring the angular position
of the wing in relation to the airflow.
Camber
Camber is defined as the curvature of an aerofoil surface or an aerofoil section from the
leading edge to the trailing edge. (Figure 14). The degree or amount of camber is
expressed as the ratio of the maximum departure of the curve from the chord to the
chord length. An aerofoil having a double convex curvature means that it has camber
above and below the chord line.
Upper camber refers to the curve on the upper surface of an aerofoil, and lower camber
refers to the curve of the lower surface.
Figure 14 Camber
Maximum Camber
Maximum camber is the maximum or greatest distance between the chord line and the
mean camber line.
Fineness Ratio
The fineness ratio is a measure of the thickness of the aerofoil.
t
There is also a thickness ratio of where t is breadth and c is the length. (Figure 16).
c
Aerofoil Shapes
The performance of an aerofoil is governed by its contour. Generally, aerofoils can be
divided into three classes:
• High lift.
• General purpose.
• High speed.
Thus, if a wing has an area of 250 square feet and a span of 30 feet, the aspect ratio is
3.6. Another wing with the same span but with an area of 150 square feet would have an
aspect ratio of 6. Aspect ratio can also be found by dividing the span by the mean chord
of the wing. For example, a span of 50 feet with a mean chord of 5 feet gives an aspect
ratio of 10. From the foregoing, it can be concluded that the smaller the mean chord in
relation to the span the higher the aspect ratio.
The dimensions of the wing-tip vortices and therefore the amount of induced drag can be
reduced considerably by increasing the aspect ratio. Figure 21 shows three wings of the
same area but with different aspect ratios. The wing with the higher aspect ratio forms
smaller wing-tip vortices than the others because a smaller proportion of the total area is
involved in the process of spilling air from the lower to the upper surface. Consequently,
the rate of spilling or circulation around the tips of high aspect ratio wings is less.
The high aspect ratio wing can be said to be more efficient, from the point of view of low
induced drag. Since the total drag of a wing is the sum of the profile and induced drags,
and the induced drag changes with aspect ratio, the total drag also changes with aspect
ratio. The graph shows the effect of aspect ratio on the total drag of two wings of
different aspect ratios over the working range of angles of attack.
Angle of Incidence
The angle of incidence is the acute angle which the wing chord makes with the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft, when the wing is attached to fuselage. (Figure 26).
This angle is fixed in manufacture and does not change.
Angle of Attack
The angle of inclination between the aerofoil chord and the relative airflow is of great
importance. This angle is called the “Angle of Attack” (A of A; Figure 27).
For most aerofoils, lift increases as angle of attack increases from zero, at a slightly
negative angle, to maximum lift at about 15 degrees.
Above about 15 degrees angle of attack lift will very rapidly drop to zero again, where the
aerofoil is said to have stalled. This applies to wings, propeller blades, helicopter rotor
blades and jet engine fan, compressor and turbine blades.
Centre of Pressure CP
The centre of pressure is a point along the wing chord line where lift is considered to be
concentrated. For this reason, the centre of pressure is often referred to as the centre of
lift.
During flight, this point along the chord line changes position with different flight
attitudes. It moves forward as the angle of attack increases and aft as the angle of attack
decreases. As a result, pitching tendencies created by the position of the centre of lift in
relation to the Centre of Gravity (CG) vary.
For example, with a high angle of attack and the centre of lift in a forward position
(closer to the CG) the nose-down pitching tendency is decreased. The position of the
centre of gravity in relation to the centre of lift is a critical factor in longitudinal stability.
The location and direction in which the centre of pressure will move depends upon the
shape of the aerofoil section and the angle of attack.
The centre of pressure (CP) is the point at which the resultant force intersects the chord
of an aerofoil. Lift acts from the centre of pressure, or, stated another way, the centre of
pressure is the centre of lift.
The location and direction in which the resultant will point depends upon the shape of
the aerofoil section and the angle at which it is set to the airstream. Throughout most of
the flight range, that is, at the usual angles of attack, the CP moves forward as the angle
of attack increases and backward as the angle of attack decreases.
The centre of pressure is generally located at approximately the 25% chord position for
most aerofoils. On an aerofoil with a 60 inch chord, this would locate the centre of
pressure at 15 inches aft from the leading edge.
Lift Coefficient
When several wings of the same geometrical shape and area, but with different aerofoil
sections, are compared at a given angle of attack and air speed, the lift obtained from
each wing varies the exact amount of lift depending on the aerofoil section used.
Generally, at subsonic speeds at a given angle of attack, the greater the amount of lift
obtained from a given wing; conversely, the flatter the camber and the thinner the wing
the less the lift.
This difference is due to the greater accelerating effect on the air stream of pronounced
camber, resulting in a larger reduction in pressure.
The measure of the lifting effectiveness, or power of wing under a given set of conditions,
is its lift coefficient or CL.
The CL is not constant but varies with the angle of attack. Furthermore, various
aerodynamic aids can be used to increase the CL and thus raise the lifting effectiveness
of a wing.
The graph (Figure 30) shows that as angle of attack increases, so does coefficient in lift
up to a maximum of about 15 degrees.
Since the expression ½ ρ V2S (ρ Greek letter Rho) applies to all aerodynamic forces, it is
sufficient, when considering increases or decreases of lift under a given set of conditions,
to refer to the increase or decrease of the lift coefficient alone. Thus an increased CL
implies an increased lift, and vice versa.
When a wing aerofoil combination is placed in an air stream at a given angle of attack,
and the speed of this stream is then progressively increased, the lift increases in
proportion to the square of the speed as shown by the lift formula.
At higher subsonic speeds the rate at which the lift has been increasing, in accordance
with the V2 law, begins to fall appreciably.
This effect is caused by the compressible nature of the air which, although negligible at
lower subsonic speeds, begins to play an important part at the higher subsonic speeds.
Compressibility, as this is called, brings with it a reduction in the CL and hence a falling
off in the rate of increase of lift, owing to fundamental changes in the nature of the
airflow.
Summarising: The two math factors affecting co-efficient of lift are:
• Aerofoil shape;
• Angle of attack.
Note1: Velocity only affects the lift force of the aerofoil not the coefficient of lift.
Note2: Rho (Greek letter ρ) - air density at standard day (0.02378 slugs per cubic foot).
DRAG
Parasite Drag
Parasite drag (Figure 32) includes all drag created by the aeroplane, except that drag
directly associated with the production of lift. It is created by the disruption of the flow
of air around the aeroplane’s surfaces.
Parasite drag normally is divided into three types:
• Form drag.
• Skin friction drag.
• Interference drag.
Each type of parasite drag varies with the speed of the aeroplane. The combined effect of
all parasite drag varies proportionately to the square of the airspeed. In other words, if
airspeed is doubled, parasite drag increases by a factor of four.
Form Drag
Form drag is created by any structure which protrudes into the relative airflow. (Figure
33) The amount of drag created is related to both the size and shape of the structure.
For example, a square strut creates substantially more drag than a smooth or rounded
strut. Streamlining reduces form drag.
Interference Drag
Interference drag occurs when varied currents of air over an aeroplane meet and interact.
This interaction creates additional drag. One example of this type of drag is the mixing
of the air where the wing and fuselage join. (Figure 35).
Each type of parasite drag varies with the speed of the aeroplane.
Aerodynamic Forces
Aircraft flight is controlled by adjusting the relationship between the four aerodynamic
forces (Figure 40):
• Lift is the component of the aerodynamic reaction perpendicular to the relative
airflow;
• Drag is the component of the aerodynamic reaction parallel to the relative airflow;
• Weight is due to gravity;
• Thrust is produced by the power plant.
Drag Curves
In Figure 41, at low speeds, induced drag is high due to the large vortices created at high
angle of attack.
At high speeds, parasite drag dominates. Total drag starts high, decreases to a
minimum, and then increases towards the aircraft’s maximum speed.
Knot
A knot is a measure of speed, and equates to one nautical mile per hour.
The international nautical mile was defined by the First International Extraordinary
Hydrographic Conference, Monaco (1929) as exactly 1852 metres. This is the only
definition in widespread current use, and is the only one accepted by the International
Hydrographic Organisation and by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures
(BIPM).
Before 1929, different countries had different definitions, and the Soviet Union, the
United Kingdom and the United States did not immediately accept the international
value.
Both the Imperial and U.S. definitions of the nautical mile were based on the length of
1
one minute of arc ( degree) along a great circle of a hypothetical sphere (Figure 44).
60
The United States Nautical Mile was defined as 1853.248 metres: It was abandoned in
favour of the International Nautical Mile in 1954.
The Imperial (UK) Nautical Mile, also known as the Admiralty Mile, was defined in terms
of the knot such that one nautical mile was exactly 6080 feet (1853.184m). It was
abandoned in 1970.
The nautical mile has now been standardised as 1853 metres exactly.
Indicated Airspeed
Airspeed indicators (Figure 45) can be calibrated to read the ‘true airspeed’ at only one
value of air density. It is universal that they are calibrated to read true airspeed in
standard density air at sea level (ISA). It follows that with increase in altitude, the
indicated airspeed of an aircraft drops below its true airspeed. At 40 000 feet the
indicated airspeed is only half the true airspeed.
Indicated airspeed is important to the pilot because it is a gauge of the lift and other
aerodynamic forces acting on the aircraft. This is because the indicated airspeed is
aerodynamic pressure.
Thus, an aeroplane stalls at the same indicated airspeed close to sea level, or at 40 000
feet, even though at the higher altitude the true airspeed is twice the indicated airspeed.
If an aeroplane stalls at an indicated airspeed of 70 knots, the true airspeed at which it
stalls varies from 70 knots at sea level up to 140 knots at 40 000 feet.
A few aircraft have true airspeed indicators that automatically compute and display the
true airspeed.
Contamination caused by ice, snow and frost can alter the aerofoil shape. Ice build-up
can change the effective chord line. It can also alter the upper and lower camber of the
aerofoil. (Figure 50).
Table of Contents
TOPIC 8.3: THEORY OF FLIGHT............................................................................................................. 1
Aerodynamic Forces............................................................................................................................. 2
Four Forces of Flight ......................................................................................................................... 2
Lift ........................................................................................................................................................ 3
Weight .............................................................................................................................................. 4
Centre of Gravity .............................................................................................................................. 4
Adverse Forward Centre of Gravity.................................................................................................. 5
Adverse Aft Centre of Gravity .......................................................................................................... 6
Centre of Gravity Limits.................................................................................................................... 7
Straight and Level Flight ....................................................................................................................... 8
Forces in a Climb .............................................................................................................................. 9
Forces in a Descent......................................................................................................................... 10
Forces in a Glide ................................................................................................................................. 11
The Glide......................................................................................................................................... 12
Glide Angle ..................................................................................................................................... 13
Theory of the Turn ............................................................................................................................. 13
Centrifugal Force and Centripetal Force ........................................................................................ 13
Turning Flight.................................................................................................................................. 14
Sideslip............................................................................................................................................ 15
Skidding .......................................................................................................................................... 16
Balanced Turn ................................................................................................................................. 16
Wing Loading .................................................................................................................................. 17
Load Factor ..................................................................................................................................... 17
The Effect of Load Factor on Stall Speed .................................................................................... 19
Load Factor Limits ....................................................................................................................... 20
Lift Augmentation .............................................................................................................................. 21
Lift Augmentation - Slots ................................................................................................................ 22
Lift Augmentation – Slats ............................................................................................................... 22
The arrows which show the forces acting on an airplane are often called vectors. The magnitude of
a vector is indicated by the arrow's length, while the direction is shown by the arrow's orientation.
(Figure 2).
Figure 2 Vectors
When two or more forces act on an object at the same time, they combine to create a resultant.
When the lift force is in equilibrium with the weight force, the aircraft neither gains nor loses
altitude and can be considered to be in straight and level flight at a constant airspeed. The lift will
act through the centre of pressure, which will depend on the position of the wings; so the designer
must be careful to place the wings in the correct position along the fuselage. But the problem is
complicated by the fact that a change in the angle of attack means a movement of the lift, and
usually in the unstable direction. If the angle of attack is increased the pitching moment about the
centre of gravity will become more nose-up and tend to increase the angle even further.
Centre of Gravity
Centre of gravity is of major importance in an aircraft for its position has a great bearing upon
stability.
The centre of gravity is determined by the general design of the aircraft. The designer estimates
how far the centre of pressure will travel and will fix the centre of gravity in front of the centre of
pressure for the corresponding flight speed in order to provide an adequate restoring moment for
flight equilibrium. (Figure 4)
Figure 7 CG Limits
Figure 16 Sideslip
Figure 17 Skidding
Balanced Turn
During a correct bank the pilot will sit without any feeling of sliding either inwards or outwards. In
fact, the pilot will be sitting tighter on the seat than ever, his/her effective weight being magnified
in the same proportions as the lift. If the pilot weighs 70kg in normal flight, that 70kg will feel like
700 kg when banking at 84½ degrees. The relative airflow will be coming head-on. (Figure 18)
Load Factor
Load factor is the ratio of load imposed on an aircraft structure to the weight of the structure
itself. Some aircraft are fitted with a vertical accelerometer that measures the imposed load factor
during flight. Load factor is expressed in terms of g (gravity units), e.g. 2g is a load that is twice the
weight of the aircraft.
Load factor can be expressed as:
n = imposed load/aircraft weight
Where:
n = Load Factor
In straight and level flight, the load imposed on the airframe is equal to aircraft weight – thus,
Load Factor = 1g
During the turn - the load imposed on the airframe is equal-and-opposite to the increased overall
lift vector. The imposed load is greater than aircraft weight. Therefore, load factor in a turn is
greater than one.
There is a linked increase in lift and imposed load as the bank angle of the turn increases. These
increases are due to the need to oppose the centrifugal force of the turn. Load factor can be
calculated from turn bank angle – see formula below.
n = 1/Cos θ
Where:
n = Load Factor
θ = bank angle
e.g. The Cosine of a 60o bank is 0.5. Therefore; the load factor is 2g
Note: this formula only is valid for bank angle in a coordinated turn, i.e. it is not relevant to rolling
in a slide-slip.
The table below applies to an aeroplane that stalls at 60 knots in straight and level flight. The table
shows load factor and stalling speeds in turns through a range of bank angles:
Bank angle (θ) Load factor (n=1/Cos θ) Square root of Load Factor (√n) Stall speed (√n x Vs)
0o 1g 1 60 Kts
30o 1.15g 1.07 64 Kts
45o 1.4g 1.19 71 Kts
60o 2g 1.41 85 Kts
70o 2.9g 1.71 103 Kts
75.5 o 4g 2 120 Kts
Note: Stall speed rises in proportion to the square root of the wing loading, e.g. a 4g turn (or pull-
up manoeuvre) will double the stall speed.
The ability to fly slowly is particularly important during the approach and landing phases. For
example, an approach with full flaps allows the aircraft to fly slowly and at a fairly steep descent
angle without gaining airspeed. (Figure 23)
This allows for touch down at a slower speed.
Figure 24 Slot
Figure 25 Slat
Some slats can be automatically deployed at a predetermined angle of attack; other types can be
mechanically deployed by the pilot when needed.
Slots and slats can be placed ahead of the aileron to keep the outer section of the wing flying after
the root section of the wing has stalled.
Static Stability
There are three types of static stability:
• Positive
• Negative
• Neutral
Static stability is the initial tendency that an object displays after its equilibrium is
disrupted. An aeroplane with positive static stability tends to return to its original
attitude after displacement. A tendency to move farther away from the original attitude
following a disturbance is negative static stability. If an aeroplane tends to remain in its
displaced attitude, it has neutral static stability.
Static stability may also be termed as ‘Passive Stability’ where no active control is needed
by the pilot or device to maintain aircraft stability.
Longitudinal Stability
Longitudinal, or pitch stability of an aircraft determines its ability to be trimmed to fly
hands-off at any airspeed, or recover from a disturbance in pitch.
Because the wing’s centre of lift is behind the centre of gravity, the wing produces a
nose-down pitching moment. This pitching moment is counteracted by a down load
produced by the horizontal tail surface.
Elevator trim can be adjusted by the pilot to produce the required down load at any
speed or attitude, thereby balancing the aeroplane so that it will maintain the desired
flight path.
The stabiliser produces a similar force to counteract any disturbance in pitch. The
distance from CG to the tail is vital. (Figure 8)
Longitudinal Dihedral
The horizontal stabiliser is usually set at an angle less than that of the wings. The angle
between the chord of the horizontal stabiliser and the chord of the wings is known as
longitudinal dihedral.
Longitudinal dihedral is a practical characteristic of most types of aeroplanes. It is really
the angle of attack; the actual angle at which the horizontal stabiliser strikes the airflow
which matters. We must not, therefore, forget the downwash from the wings. This
downwash, if the horizontal stabiliser is in the stream, will cause the actual angle of
attack to be less than the angle at which the horizontal stabiliser is set. (Figure 15).
Torque Effect
There is a tendency for an aircraft to rotate in the opposite direction to the propeller.
(Refer Figure 19)
Ground Effect
There is tendency for an aircraft to ‘float’ when close to the ground during landing.
The effects of the downwash and air trapped between the under surface of the wing and
ground causes a cushion effect.
This cushion effect; which reduces the stalling speed of the aeroplane, is affected by
several factors including:
• Wing area;
• Height above the ground;
• Wing loading.
(Figure 21)
Dutch Roll
The effect of dihedral is to roll the aeroplane in the direction opposite that it is slipping,
and the vertical fin will try to yaw the aeroplane in the direction of the slip. Both of these
forces affect the lateral and directional stability of an aeroplane.
If the dihedral effect is greater than that of the fin, the aeroplane will have a tendency to
Dutch roll in flight.
If the vertical fin produces a greater aerodynamic force than the dihedral, the aeroplane
may be spirally unstable. The tail will yaw the nose of the aeroplane into the relative
airflow when a wing drops, and the dihedral effect will not be strong enough to roll it
back to straight and level flight. (Figure 22)
Figure 23 Spinning