The Impacts of the Voice Change, Grade Level, and Experience on the Singing Self-

Efficacy of Emerging Adolescent Males

Author(s): Ryan A. Fisher
Source: Journal of Research in Music Education , October 2014, Vol. 62, No. 3 (October
2014), pp. 277-290
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. on behalf of MENC: The National Association for
Music Education

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 ļļJlEJ National Association
for Music Education
Article

Journal of Research in Music Education

2014, Vol. 62(3) 277-290
The Impacts of the Voice © National Association for
Music Education 2014

Change, Grade Level, and Reprints and permissions:

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Experience on the Singing DOI: 10.1177/0022429414544748

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Self-Efficacy of Emerging USAGE

Adolescent Males

Ryan A. Fisher1

Abstract

The purposes of the study are to describe characteristics of the voice chan
sixth-, seventh-, and eighth-grade choir students using Cooksey's voice-ch
classification system and to determine if the singing self-efficacy of adolescent
is affected by the voice change, grade level, and experience. Participants (N = 8
consisted of volunteer sixth-grade, seventh-grade, and eighth-grade males enroll
a public school choral program. Participants completed the Singing Self-Efficacy
for Emerging Adolescent Males (SSES). After completing the SSES, participants
individually audio-recorded performing simple vocal exercises to attain each bo
vocal range. Results revealed that 45% of sixth-grade participants, 48. 1 5% of sev
grade participants, and 87.88% of eighth-grade participants were classified as chan
voices. Results of a three-way between-subjects ANOVA revealed no main effec
voice-change stage or grade level. A main effect was found for experience, fav
participants with 3 or more years of experience in choir. No statistically signi
interactions were found.

Keywords
voice change, self-efficacy, male

'University of Memphis, Memphis, TN, USA

Corresponding Author:
Ryan A. Fisher, Rudi E. Scheidt School of Music, University of Memphis, 1 29 Music Building, Memphis, TN
38152-3160, USA.
Email: ryan.fìsher@memphis.edu

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278 Journal of Research in Music Education 62(3)

Despite extensive research on the topic of the male voice change, mid
high school choir directors continue to struggle with the various challe
change presents. Much of our current knowledge of the physical charact
male voice change has derived from John Cooksey. Influenced by his
McKenzie (1956), Cooper (Cooper & Kuertsteiner, 1970), and Swan
Cooksey engaged in several longitudinal studies, which resulted in a f
sification system for the changing male voice: Midvoice I, Midvoice II
New Voice, and Emerging Adult Voice (Cooksey, 1999; Cooksey &
Research has validated Cooksey's male voice-change classification syste
Bless, 1984; Cooksey, 1984, 1985; Cooksey & Welch, 1998; Fisher,
1984; Killian, 1999).
A preponderance of research on the adolescent male voice has focus
of onset of the voice change (Barresi & Bless, 1984; Cooksey, 1984;
Friesen, 1972; Hollien, Green, & Massey, 1994; Karr, 1988; Sturdy
recent research on the male voice mutation has indicated a trend toward
of onset (Fisher, 2010; Killian, 1999; Killian & Wayman, 2010; Rutk
Killian (1999) found that 50% of fifth-grade and 81% of sixth-gra
already in one of Cooksey 's voice change stages. Fisher (2010) measure
fifth-, and sixth-grade males who were either in general music, band,
not enrolled in any music elective and found the age of onset for tha
1 1 .20 years of age, with 46% of fourth-grade, 62% of fifth-grade, and
grade males classified as "changing" or "changed" voices. Most recently
Wayman (2010) measured the voices of boys enrolled in either cho
found that 81.25% of sixth-grade males, 85.1 1% of seventh-grade male
of eighth-grade males had begun their voice change.
Authors in other areas of research concerning the voice change hav
teacher knowledge of and accommodations for the changing voice
Chapman, 1989; Kennedy, 2004; Killian, 2003; Usher, 2005), adolesce
agility (Hook, 2005), and intensity control (Harris, 1996). As Killian
much of the body of research concerning the adolescent male has focus
physiological characteristics of the voice change with little knowledge
the psychological or psychosocial aspects of the changing male vo
(2001) performed an action research study on the perceptions of adolesc
ing the voice change by interviewing eighth-grade male members of her
ble. She reported that the boys felt at ease with their vocal mutation and t
director (the researcher) and parents treated them positively throughout t
process. Killian (1997) surveyed and interviewed boys with changing v
as adult men on their perceptions of the voice change process. She note
the adult participants had emotional responses when recalling the mem
voice change. Nineteen percent of the adult participants in Killian's stud
voice change process to be a negative experience. Singers seemed to be
aware of the voice change than nonsingers and reported feeling phys
hoarseness during the voice change. Several adult male participants respo
quality of their mature voice was not as good as their prepubertal voice.

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 Fisher 279

Research m
from the lit
little is actu
their own s
capability to
control and
people's mot
ceived effic
make at sign
efficacy ten
and are mor
Within the
ment, moti
1986; Multo
1995; Zimm
Students' se
(Pintrich &
impact stud
by impleme
(Meece, Her
ment (Ande
Research al
music achie
McCormick
2004), jazz im
tal ensembl
McCormick (
in music per
a choral pro
more efficac
program to b
The purpose
sixth-, seve
sification sy
ing on stage

Method

Participants (N = 80) consisted of volunteer sixth-grade (n = 20), seventh-grade (n

27), and eighth-grade (n = 33) males recruited from one intermediate school choir ( n
5), one middle school choir ( n = 47), and two junior high school choirs ( n = 28) fro
four separate schools located in a south-central state in the United States. Ages range
from 11.33 to 14.73 years old ( M= 12.95, SD = 0.87). Choirs were selected through
purposive sampling in order to ensure that adequate representation of possible ma
participants was present.

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280 Journal of Research in Music Education 62(3)

Instrument

In order to examine the singing efficacy of participants, the researcher created the
Singing Self-Efficacy Scale for Emerging Adolescent Males (SSES) with assistance
from another researcher with expertise in writing self-efficacy scales based on the
Bandura model.1 The 26-item scale consisted of statements like, "I can sing well," "I
can sing without my voice cracking," and "I can sing soft in my low voice when asked
to." Participants read each item and responded by circling one number on a scale from
0 to 10 with 10 being confident I can do and 0 being cannot do at all (see Figure 1).
Responses from all items were summed, resulting in an overall singing self-efficacy
score for each participant that could range from 0 to 260, with 260 indicating extremely
high efficacy and 0 indicating extremely low efficacy. On the back of the scale, partici-
pants provided demographic information, including date of birth, grade level, and
number of years in an organized choir.
Before administering the instrument to participants, a content validity panel con-
sisting of three choir directors with experience in working with emerging adolescent
males reviewed the scale and offered recommended amendments. The scale also was
field tested with 22 males in Grades 6 through 8 who were enrolled in a middle school
choir. Students who participated in the field test were not included in the main study
sample. Items containing the terms falsetto, head voice , and chest voice confused
many of the students in the field test. On the basis of recommendations by the content
validity panel and field test participants, falsetto and head voice were replaced with
high voice , and chest voice was replaced with mid voice. The scale also was color
coded with every other item in blue so that participants would not respond accidentally
to the wrong item. Each participant was assigned randomly a numerical code, and that
corresponding numerical code was placed on the right-hand side of his SSES in order
to ensure his score on the various measures (SSES and vocal exercises data) was prop-
erly attributed to him. The SSES was assessed for reliability and was found to be
internally consistent (a = .92).

Procedures

Participants in the study were escorted to a separate room so that the remaining choir
members who elected not to participate in the study could continue with regular
rehearsal. Each participant was issued the 26-item SSES for Emerging Adolescent
Males and was told to review the instrument but wait to begin until instructions could
be given. I then encouraged the participants to read each item carefully and to respond
by circling only one number (0 to 10) for each item. Participants were encouraged to
consider their own confidence ability to perform a given task when responding to each
item and not to consider how they perceived peers or teachers would rate them. I
instructed each participant to review his responses to ensure that no item had been
skipped unintentionally and that no item had multiple responses. Administration of the
scale took approximately 10 min.

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 Fisher 28 1

Singing Self-efficacv Scale for Emerging Adolescent Males

Please rate each of the following statements based on how confident you are that YOU can do
each of the following.
Please circle one rating for each statement - please do not circle between numbers.
Cannot Moderately Confident

1. I can sing well. 01 23456789 10

2. I can sing in tune. 01 23456789 10

3. I can move from my mid voice to high voice 0 1 2345678910

with no problem.

4. I can easily sing in my high voice. 01 23456789 10

5. I can sing loud in my low voice when asked to. 0 1 2345678910

6. I can sing without my voice cracking. 01 23456789 10

7. I can sing loud in my high voice when asked to. 0123456789 10

8. I can match pitch in any octave. 0 1 2345678910

9. I can sing without a breathy sound in my mid 0 1 2345678910

voice.

10. I can sing soft when asked to. 01 23456789 10

11. I can sing in my high voice comfortably. 0 1 2345678910

12. I can sing soft in my high voice when asked to. 0 1 2345678910

13. I can control my singing in my mid voice. 0 1 23456789 10

14. I can change notes quickly when I sing. 01 23456789 10

15. I can sing with a good sound in my low voice. 0 1 2345678910

16. I can sing soft in my low voice when asked to. 0 1 2345678910

17. I can sing with a full voice in all parts of my q 1 23456789 10

voice.

18. I can sing without a breathy sound in my high 0 1 2345678910

voice.

19. I can hold a high note for a long time. 0123456789 10

20. I can sing every note in my voice when I slide 0 1 2345678910

from low to high.

21. I can control my singing in my high voice. 01 23456789 10

22. I can hold a low note for a long time. 01 23456789 10

23. I can sing higher notes without straining. 0 1 23456789 10

24. I can sing a long phrase of music without 0 1 2345678910

having to take extra breaths.

25. I can easily sing in my low voice. 0 1 2 3456 7 8910

26. I can sing without a breathy sound in my low 01 2345678910
voice.

Figure I . Singing Self-Efficacy Scale for emerging adolescent males.

After completing and submitting the SSES, I audio-recorded participants individu-

ally performing simple vocal exercises in order to attain each boy's vocal range.

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282 Journal of Research in Music Education 62(3)

Unchanged Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5

Midvmoe I M&tvotae !J Uiâvùim IIA New Vtetce lEreergmg Adufe Vosee

Figure 2. Cooksey's voice-change stages for emerging adolescent males.

Before privately recording each participant, I reviewed and rehearsed the v

sandi exercises with each individual. Participants were instructed to glide slow
their lowest to highest note on an ah vowel. They would repeat the ascendin
sando for a total of three times with the attempt to get higher each time. N
were instructed to glide from their highest to lowest note on an ah vowel thr
while attempting to get lower each time. This procedure for measuring voc
without a stimulus pitch has shown to be effective in previous research (Fish
Willis & Kenny, 2008).
Participants were recorded using the internal microphone of a MacBook P
GHz Intel Core 2 Duo; Apple, Inc.). Students were instructed to stand on a m
near the computer and were signaled to begin each exercise. I used Gar
4.1.2 (Apple, Inc.) software to record and analyze each participant's perf
After data were collected at each school, I privately listened to each partici
recorded sound files. The highest note reached in the ascending glissandi ex
was labeled as the highest terminal pitch (HTP), and the lowest note reached
descending glissandi exercises was labeled as the lowest terminal pitch (L
HTP and LTP established the vocal range of each singer. In addition to
each participant's HTP and LTP, I documented vocal characteristics, lik
tional gaps, presence of falsetto, and hoarseness. As Cooksey (1999) not
presence of falsetto with phonational gaps is one characteristic of Stages 3,
5 of the voice change.
To determine the pitch class of the HTP and LTP, I used the internal digita
included in the GarageBand software and documented the results in an Excel
sheet. Portions of the sound file often were isolated in order to determine mo
rately the HTP or LTP. Inteijudge reliability of this vocal range test was re
Fisher (2008, 2010) with 93% agreement for HTP and 90% agreement for LT
vocal ranges were established, each participant was classified using Cooksey'
of the male voice change (Figure 2). Participants classified as unchanged wer
as 0, while those in Stages 1 through 5 were coded with the corresponding nu

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 Fisher

Data Ana
Descriptiv
latedfor a
classificati
participan
exercises.
(Hz) in ord
subjects A
change, gr
the voice-
years , 2 =
with a non

Results

I calculated means and standard deviations for HTP and LTP for all participants ( N =
80). HTP ranged from 233.08 Hz (Bb3) to 1244.51 Hz (Eb6) (M = 557.85, SD =
237.08), and LTP ranged from 98.00 Hz (G2) to 293.67 Hz (D4) ( M= 176.79, SD =
37.60).
Each participant was classified according to Cooksey's voice-change classification
system. Twenty-nine participants (36.25%) were classified as unchanged voices, 15
participants (18.75%) were classified in Stage 1,11 participants (13.75%) were classi-
fied in Stage 2, 13 participants (16.25%) were classified in Stage 3, 13 participants
(16.25%) were classified in Stage 4, and 3 participants (3.75%) were classified in
Stage 5 of the voice change.
The reported choral experience of the participants ranged from 1 to 1 1 years, with
57.5% having 1 to 2 years of choral experience and 42.5% having 3 or more years of
choral experience. Types of choral experiences referenced by the participants included
participation in school, church, and/or community choirs.
Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics for sixth-, seventh-, and eighth-grade par-
ticipants. Results indicated a steady decline of the mean HTP and LTP from sixth
through eighth grades. While the mean LTP seems to show a steady decline with each
successive grade level, the mean HTP lowered between seventh and eighth grades by
nearly 178 Hz (approximately a perfect 5th). Also, the percentages of unchanged
voices reduced from sixth to eighth grade, with the most sizeable reduction found
between seventh and eighth grades (-39.73%).
In order to determine the relationship of the voice change, grade level, and experi-
ence to participants' singing self-efficacy, a three-way between-subjects ANOVA was
used with singing self-efficacy serving as the dependent variable and voice-change
stage (0, 1, 2, 3, 4), grade level (6, 7, and 8), and experience (1 = 1 to 2 years of choral
experience , 2 = 3 or more years of choral experience) as the independent variables.
The reported choral experience of the participants ranged from 1 to 1 1 years, with

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284 Journal of Research in Music Education 62(3)

Table I. Overall Vocal Range Descriptive Statistics for Sixth-, Seventh-, and
Participants.

Sixth Grade Seventh Grade Eighth Grade

Variable (n = 20) ( n = 27) (n = 33)

Mean age 1 1 .92 (0.47) 1 2.69 (0.4 1 ) 1 3.79 (0.4 1 )

Mean HTP (in Hz) 644.64 (208. 18) 61 9.87 (26 1 .27) 44 1 . 1 1 ( 1 88.65)
Mean LTP (in Hz) 208.42 (29.69) 1 77.44 (33.44) 1 54.39 (35.44)
Voice-change stage
Unchanged 55.00% 51.85% 12.12%
Changing 45.00% 48.15% 87.88%
1 30.00% 11.11% 18.18%
2 10.00% 14.81% 9.09%
3 5.00% 7.41% 24.24%
4 0.00% 11.11% 30.30%
5 0.00% 3.70% 6.06%

Note. Numbers in parenthe

57.5% having 1 to 2 y
choral experience. Par
while the remainder of
stage. Because only 3 p
were eliminated from
categorized in Stage 5
Table 2 shows the ove
variables. Participants
SSES, and participants
grade participants sco
choir scored much hig
were met for all varia
using Levene's statistic
.18), grade level (L = 0
Results of the ANOV
1.41,/? = .24, t|2 = .07,
effect for experience,
more years of experien

Discussion

The purposes of the study were to describe characteristics of the voice change in six
seventh-, and eighth-grade choir students using Cooksey's voice-change classifica
system and to determine if differences in singing self-efficacy exist dependin
stage of voice change, grade level, and experience.

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 Fisher

Table 2. Ov
Grade Leve

Variable M (SD) Skewness Kurtosis

Voice-change stage
0 178.24(31.37) -.03 -.87
1 163.93 (34.36) -.57 -.65
2 189.44(29.03) -.73 -.78
3 170.91 (59.74) -.54 -.34
4 176.62(42.55) .55 -.77
Grade level

6 164.55 (35.01) .08 -.90

7 182.46(33.64) -.06 -.10
8 176.58(43.66) -.60 .54
Experience
1 167.07(35.14) -.31 .40
2 187.87(40.37) -.68 .59

Results from this study reveal

participants classified in the la
and seventh-grade participan
unchanged versus 12% of eig
Wayman (2010) reported only
participants as unchanged. A co
from other students reveals ot
only 1 7% of the sixth-grade ma
33% of sixth-grade males to b
19% of sixth-grade males to be
These inconsistencies may be
Killian (1999) measured males
measured general music and no
males enrolled in band and choi
classified in each voice-change s
to have higher percentages of c
sisted only of males enrolled in
males who begin their voice ch
"good singers" and therefore a
show that vocal training during
change or at least minimize the
research is warranted to compa
in choir and those who are not t

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286 Journal of Research in Music Education 62(3)

Results from this study also revealed that years of participation i

impact on emerging adolescent males' singing self-efficacy. This find
research that efficacy declines throughout schooling (Pintrich & Sch
can derive two explanations for this result. Choir directors of the par
study may have provided a positive and motivational climate in rehea
time, increased the singing efficacy of their students. This explanation
research that indicated teachers can impact student efficacy positivel
Kitsantas, 1996). If the effectiveness of these choir directors can
increased singing self-efficacy of choir members, then research on the
niques employed in these choir directors' rehearsals would be useful
music education community.
The other explanation for this finding could be that those with low
efficacy dropped out of choir and those with a higher singing efficacy c
research has shown that those with low efficacy, when faced with dif
give up (Bandura, 2006). Perhaps those with low singing-efficacy find
of vocal development (particularly through the vocal mutation) to be t
not worth continuing in choir. Though Klinedinst (1991) found stud
cept" in music to be a predictor variable of student retention in band,
needed to determine if singing self-efficacy plays a role in student re
ensembles.
It is interesting to note that the voice change did not seem to impact the singing
self-efficacy of the participants in this study. One might assume that the vocal difficul-
ties associated with the more advanced stages of the voice change would have an
impact on emerging adolescents' singing self-efficacy. One could conclude that the
small sample size and lack of equal representation of participants classified in each
voice change stage prohibited a statistically significant finding, but the low effect size
(r|2 = .07) indicates that a main effect, even with ideal sample size, may be improbable.
This finding may not support the assumption, then, that middle school and junior high
males drop out of choir because of their voice change. Perhaps performance achieve-
ment has more of an impact on self-efficacy and retention than simply the challenges
associated with the voice change. Authors of future research should consider examin-
ing if high singing self-efficacy correlates with high performance achievement in
emerging adolescent males, as has been found in other studies (McCormick &
McPherson, 2003; McPherson & McCormick, 2006).
In conclusion, the finding that emerging adolescent males who have participated in
a choral program for 3 or more years had a higher singing self-efficacy should provide
encouragement to the choral community. Choir directors strive to improve and increase
the singing abilities of their students, and the conclusions of this study suggest that,
over time, the self-perceptions of students' singing abilities may improve. Though the
voice change did not have an effect on singing self-efficacy, choir directors should
continue carefully and skillfully to guide these developing males through this tumultu-
ous period so that they emerge with confidence in their singing abilities.

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 Fisher 287

Declaration
The author de
and/or public

Funding
The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.

Note

1. Dr. Natalie Royston, assistant professor of music education at Iowa State University,
assisted with the creation of the Singing Self-Efficacy Scale.

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Author Biography
Ryan A. Fisher is assistant professor of music education and music education division head at
the University of Memphis. His research interests include the male voice change and self-
efficacy in music teaching and learning.

Submitted August 21, 2012; accepted June 24, 2013.

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