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BIOSIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS

A bio signal can be defined as a physiological phenomenon, a body variable that can
be measured and monitored. Since the number of physiological mechanisms is nearly
unlimited, the diversity of bio signals is huge.

Types of Bio signals:

1. Intrinsic/Extrinsic to body:

This first method takes the existence of bio signals as a way to classify them, dividing
the bio signals into

• Permanent Bio signals: This kind of bio signals exist without any excitation from
outside body and are always present in the human body because source is inside the
body.
• Induced Bio signals: This group of bio signals includes bio signals that are artificially
induced. In contrast with the permanent bio signals this one’s exist only during the
excitation. It means that, when the artificial induction is over the induced bio signal
decays with a time constant determined by the body properties.

Fig: Permanent and Induced Bio Signals

2. Static/Dynamic:

The second method takes in consideration the dynamic nature of the bio signal
according to:

• Static bio signal: Static bio signals carry information during their steady-state lever
which may show slow changes over the time.
• Dynamic bio signal: Dynamic bio signal shows big changes during time.

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Fig: Static and Dynamic bio signals

3. Origin:

The last method is using the origin of the bio signal as a basis for their classification,
here are some examples

➢ Electric bio signals

➢ Magnetic bio signals
➢ Mechanic bio signals
➢ Optic bio signals
➢ Acoustic bio signals
➢ Chemical bio signals
➢ Thermal bio signals

Fig: Origin of bio signals

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Frequency and Amplitude Ranges

ECG Waveform:

The electrocardiograph (ECG) is an instrument, which records the electrical activity

of the heart. Electrical signals from the heart characteristically precede the normal mechanical
function and monitoring of these signals has great clinical significance. ECG are used in
catheterization laboratories, coronary care units and for routine diagnostic applications in
cardiology.

Fig: ECG waveform

Depolarization:

When electrical activity occurs, heart muscle fibres are contracted and produce a
movement. This condition is referred as depolarization. When blood is pumped around the
body, it results in contraction. When chambers are contracted, it is called systolic.

Repolarization

The relaxation of heart muscles is called electrical repolarisation. Relaxed heart

chambers are called diastolic.

S. No Wave Origin Amplitude Duration

(mv) (seconds)

1 P wave Due to depolarization of atria 0.25 0.12 to 0.22

(PR interval)

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2 R wave Due to repolarization of atria and 1.60 0.07 to 0.1

(QRS complex) ventricle contraction

3 T wave Due to relaxation of myocardium 0.1 to 0.5 0.05 to 0.15

ST interval

4 ST interval Contraction of ventricles - -

5 U wave Due to slow expansion of 0.2 (T-U

purkinje fibers interval)

EEG waveforms:

The continuous electrical activity of the brain is recorded from the outer surface of
the brain. The excitation level of the brain decides the intensity and pattern of this electrical
activity. In the recorded electrical potentials, we find some variations, which are brain waves.
We have four major type of brain waves given as alpha, beta, theta, and delta waves. At most
of the instance our brain waves will be irregular and does not have regular pattern.

Fig: Brain wave

EMG waveform:

Electromyograph is an instrument used for recording the electrical activity of the

muscles to determine whether the muscle is contracting or not, or for displaying on the CRO
and loudspeaker the action potentials spontaneously present in a muscle or those induced by
voluntary contractions as a means of detecting the nature and location of motor unit lesions,
or for recording the electrical activity evoked in a muscle by the stimulation of its nerve.

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The amplitude of the signal can range from 0 to 10 mV (peak-to-peak) or 0 to 1.5

mV(rms). The usable energy of the signal is limited to the 0 to 500Hz frequency range, with
the dominant energy being in the 50-150 Hz range.

Fig: EMG waveform

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UNIT I
BIO POTENTIAL GENERATION AND ELECTRODES TYPES
Origin of bio potential and its propagation. Types of electrodes - surface, needle and micro electrodes
and their equivalent circuits. Recording problems - measurement with two electrodes

1.1 ORIGIN OF BIO POTENTIAL AND ITS PROPAGATION

Bioelectric potentials are ionic voltages produced as a result of electrochemical activity of certain
special types of cells such as nerve cell or muscle cells. Special types of cells like nerve and muscle
cells in the body are encased in semipermeable membrane that permits some substance to pass
through the membrane while others are kept out. The cells are surrounded by fluid. The fluid contains
ions such as sodium, potassium, chloride etc. The fluid outside the cell membrane is called as
Extracellular fluid (ECF) and the fluid inside the cell membrane is called as Intracellular fluid (ICF).
ICF is rich in K+, Mg++, phosphates and ECF is rich in Na+, Cl−.
In normal condition when the semi-permeable membranes are in polarized state, Sodium
(Na+) ions will be outside the membrane. Since the size of Na+ ions is more than the size of holes in
semi-permeable membrane, they cannot enter inside whereas other ions like potassium (K+) and
Chloride (Cl−) can enter the membranes and exhibits resting potential. The sodium ions can enter the
membrane when the holes of it are increased by stimulation (excitation)
After stimulation of membrane, all sodium ions can enter inside by its increased diameter of
pores or holes. It constitutes depolarization and gives action potential.

Resting Potential:
Fluids surrounding the cells of the body are conducting. These conductive solutions contain
atoms known as ions. Principal ions present are: Sodium-Na+, Potassium-K+ and Chloride-Cl−. The
membrane of excitable cells readily permits entry of K+ and Cl-, but effectively blocks Na+ Ions.
According to concentration and electric charge, various Ions seek a balance between inside and
outside of cell. Due to inability of Na+, to penetrate the membrane results two conditions:
 The Na+ ions inside the cell become much lower than in the Extracellular fluid outside.
(Sodium ions are +ve. It tends to make outside of cell more +ve than inside).
 In an attempt to balance the electric charge, additional potassium ions, which are also +ve,
enter the cell causing a higher concentration of potassium on the inside than on the outside.
But, this charge balance cannot achieve, due to imbalance concentrate of K+ ions.
Equilibrium is reached with a potential difference across the membrane, -ve on inside and +ve on the
outside. And this membrane potential is known as resting potential of cell. This potential is
1 maintained until some disturbance upsets the equilibrium. The membrane potential is made from
inside the cell w.r.to the body fluids. Therefore, the resting potential is -ve rating from -60mV to -
100mV. The figure below shows the cross section of cell with resting potential and the state is said to
be polarized state.

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Action potential:
Due to some external energy or by the flow of ionic current, a section of cell membrane
changes its characteristics and begins to allow some of sodium ions to enter. This movement of
sodium ions into cell constitutes an ionic current flow that further reduces the balance of membrane
to sodium ions. The net result is avalanche effect and tries to balance with ions outside. At the same
time, K+ ions, in higher concentration inside the cell during resting state, try to leave cell, but are
unable to move as fast as Na+ ions. The result is cell attains small +ve potential on the inside due to
imbalance of K+ ions, known as action potential. The action potential is nearly +20 mV.

When a cell is excited and displays an action potential, it is said to be "depolarized" and the
process of changing from resting state to action potential is called as depolarization. Once the
rush of sodium ions through the cell membrane has stopped (a new state of equilibrium is reached),
the ionic currents that lowered the barrier to sodium ions are no longer present and the membrane
reverts back to its original, selectively permeable condition. Now passage of sodium ions from the
outside to inside of the cell is again blocked. However, it would take a long time for a resting potential
to develop again. By an active process, called a sodium pump, the sodium ions are quickly
transported to the outside of the cell, and the cell again becomes polarized and assumes its
2
resting potential. This process is called Repolarization. The rate of pumping is directly
proportional to the sodium concentration in the cell. It is also believed that the operation of this pump

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is linked with the influx of potassium into the cell, as if a cyclic process involving an exchange of
sodium for potassium existed.
The Figure below shows a typical action-potential waveform, beginning at the resting
potential, depolarization, and returning to the resting potential after repolarization. The time scale for
the action potential depends on the type of cell producing the potential. In nerve and muscle cells,
repolarization occurs so rapidly following depolarization that the action potential appears as a spike
of as little as 1msec total duration.

Heart Muscles on the other hand, repolarizes much more slowly, with the action potential for heart
muscle usually lasting from 150 to 300msec.
Regardless of the method by which a cell is excited or the intensity of the stimulus (provided it
is sufficient to activate the cell), the action potential is always the same for any given cell. This is
known as the all-or-nothing law.
The net height of the action potential is defined as the difference between the potential of the
depolarized membrane at the peak of the action potential and the resting potential.
Following the generation of an action potential, there is a brief period of time during which the
cell cannot respond to any new stimulus. This period is called the absolute refractory period, lasts
about 1msec in nerve cells.
Following the absolute refractory period, there occurs a relative refractory period, during which
another action potential can be triggered, but a much stronger stimulation is required. In nerve cells,
the relative refractory period lasts several milliseconds.
3

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1.2 TYPES OF ELECTRODES & EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Electrodes are used to pick up the electrical signals of the body. They transfers the bioelectric event to
the amplifier. The type of electrode to be used depends upon the bioelectric generator.

Half-cell potential (or) electrode potential:

The voltage development at an electrode – electrolyte interface is designated as the Half-cell potential.
In metal solution interface, an electrode potential results from two processes.
 The passage of ions from metal into solution
 The combination of metallic ions in solution with electrons in metal to from atoms of metal.

Electrodes in which no net transfer of charge occurs across the metal electrolyte interface are called
as perfectly polarized electrodes.
Electrodes in which unhindered exchange of charge is possible across the metal electrolyte interface
are called perfectly non-polarizable electrode. The electrode potential is not a stable and its
variations constitute a source of variable noise voltage called artifact.

Purpose of Electrode paste:

The outer skin of the body is highly non- conductive and will not establish a good electrical
contact with an electrode. The skin should be washed and rubbed to remove some of the outer cells.
This area should be coated with an electrically conductive paste called electrode paste. The electrode
is then applied to prepared site and held in place with a rubber strap. The electrode paste decreases
the impedance of contact and also reduces the artifacts resulting from movement of electrode. The
electrode contact impedance varies with fat content, blood supply and electrode contact pressure.
Even after the application of electrode paste, contact impedance decreases with increase of frequency
of signal.
Electrode Material:
The electrode, electrode paste and body fluids can produce a battery like action causing ions to
accumulate on the electrodes. This polarization of electrode can affect the signal transfer. The
polarization effect can be reduced by coating the electrodes with some electrolytes. By electrolytically
coating a piece of pure silver with silver chloride, silver – silver chloride electrode is developed. Silver
– silver chloride electrode has
 Half cell potential is 2.5 mV
 Reduces the noise voltage
 Increases the stability
 Stabilizes the half-cell potential
 Reduces the low frequency electrode - electrolyte impedance. Hence these electrodes are used
4 in biomedical instrumentation extensively.

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Types of Electrodes:
These are three types of electrodes
 Micro Electrodes (Intracellular Electrodes):
These are used to increase the bioelectric potential within a single cell. It is divided into
metallic and nonmetallic. The microelectrodes should have smaller diameter and during insertion
of electrode into the cell, there will not be any damage to the cells. When the micro electrode is
used to measure the potential of the cell, it is located within the cell while the reference electrode
is situated outside the cell. The size of the electrode is determined by the size of the cell. Since the
size of the cell is about 50 microns, the diameter of the tip of the micro electrodes is ranging from
0.5 to 5 microns.
1) Metal microelectrode:
They are formed by electrolytically electing the tip of a fine tungsten or stainless steel wire
to a fine point. This technique is known as electro pointing. The metal microelectrodes are coated
almost to the micro tip with an material. To reduce the impedance, some electrolytic processing
like Chloriding the tip and then developing by the photographic developer can be performed. Since
the measurement of bio electric potentials requires two electrodes, the voltage measured is really
the difference between the instantaneous potentials of the microelectrode and the reference
electrode the sum of three potentials such that
EA – Metal electrode electrolyte potential at microelectrode tip.
EB – Reference electrode-electrolyte potential
EC – Variable cell membrane potential.

RA denotes the resistance of the connecting wire which is negligible.

RS denotes the resistance of the shaft of the microelectrode which is also negligible.
RFA, RWA,CWA constitute the impedance of the microelectrode tip intracellular fluid interface.
5 RIN is the resistance of the intracellular fluid.
RB is the resistance of wire connected to the reference electrode which is negligible.
RFB, RWB & CWB constitute the impedance of the reference electrode– extracellular fluid interface
REX is the resistance of the extracellular fluid.
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CD is the distributed capacitance b/w the insulated shaft of electrode & the extracellular fluid.

The capacitance between the top of the microelectrode and the intracellular fluid is
negligible because the potential difference across it does not change. Since the area of the
reference electrode is many times greater than the metal electrodes tip whose area of cross
section is very small, its impedance is very small.

The impedance of microelectrode tip is inversely proportional to the area of the tip and
frequency. When the electrode output is couple with an amplifier, the low frequency components
of the bioelectric potentials will be attenuated if the input impedance of the amplifier is not high.
Thus if the input impedance of the amplifier is not high enough it behaves as a high pass filter.
2) Non Metal microelectrode(Micropipette):
It consists of a glass Micropipet tips diameter is about1 micrometer. The micropipette is
filled with an electrolyte usually 3M Kcl which is compatible with the cellular fluids. A thin flexible
metal wire from chloride silver, stainless steel or tungsten is inserted into the stem of the
micropipette. The fraction between the wire and the stem of the micropipette and the fluid surface
tension hold the micropipette on the wire. The other end of the metal wire is mounted to a rigid
support and the other free end of it is resting on the cell.

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EA is the potential between metal wire and electrolyte filled in the micropipette
EB is the potential between the reference electrode and the extracellular fluid.
EC is variable membrane potential
ED potential existing at the tip due to different electrolytes present in the pipet and the cell

RA denotes the resistance of the connecting wire,

RFA, RWA and RCA constitute the impedance of the electrode- electrolyte interface in the stem of the
micropipette, and
RT is the resistance of the electrolyte filling the of the micropipette which is very large.
RIN and REX are the resistance of the electrolyte inside the cell and the electrolyte outside the cell
RFB RWB and CWB constitute reference electrode – electrolyte interface impedance and
RB is the resistance of the wire connects with reference electrode.
CD is the distributed capacitance existing between the fluid in the pipette and the extracellular
fluid. C is the equivalent of distributed capacitances.

When the micropipette is coupled with the amplifier terminals A and B, Then the membrane
potential EC is coupled with it via a high series resistance RT and a capacitance CD along with
electrode potentials. The impedance of the electrode pause limit on the response time of circuit
such that it behaves as a LPF when the input impedance of the amplifier is not enough high.

 Needle And Depth Electrodes

These are used to measure the bioelectric potentials of the highly localized extracellular regions in
brain or bioelectric potentials from specific group of muscles. When it is desired to bring an
electrode close to a bioelectric generator, it is often practical to penetrate the skin and advance the
electrode through the penetration. So the electrode should be sharp for penetration and to obtain
highly localized extracellular recording bioelectric events, these are used.

1) Depth Electrode:
7
These are used for study the electrical activity of the neutrons in superficial layers of the brain.
Normally each electrode consists of a bundle of Teflon insulated platinum (90%) iridium (10%)
alloy wires, bonded to a central supporting stainless steel wire which can act as indifferent

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electrode by an insulating varnish. The end of supporting wire is rounded for ease of insertion into
the brain. The electrode is resting on the sub cortical nerve cells. The ends of the individual wire
the bundle constitute individual electrode. The active area of depth electrode is about 0.5mm2.
Therefore the depth electrode impedance is smaller than the micro electrode impedance. In some
depth electrodes, the supporting steel wire is in the form of a capillary tube which is used to inject
medicines into the brain or to pass a microelectrode.

2) Needle Electrode:
These are used to record the peripheral nerves action potentials (Electroneurography). The
needle electrode resembles a medium dropper or hypodermic needle. A short length of the fine
insulated metal wire is bent at its one end and the bent portion is inserted through the lumen of
the needed and is advanced into the muscle. The needle is withdrawn and the bent wire is resting
inside the muscle. When the reference electrode is placed on the skin, then the needle electrode is
called polar. When we insert two insulated wires into the lumen of the needle, then the two wires
constitute bipolar electrode such that wire is reference electrode.

8
 Surface Electrodes
Generally large area surface electrodes are used to sense ECG potentials and smaller area
surface electrodes are used to sense EEG and EMG potentials.

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1) Metal Plate Electrode:

ECG measurement technique uses either rectangular or circular shaped plate electrodes
made of nickel, silver or German silver materials. It has a smaller contact area and do not seal
completely on the patient. Electrodes are pasted on the skin using electrolyte paste. The electrode
slippage and plate displacement are the two major disadvantages of this electrode type. They are
very sensitive, leading to measurement errors.

Since it is suitable for application on four limbs of the body, they called limb electrodes.
During surgical procedure since patient’s legs are immobile, limb electrodes are preferred. Chest
electrodes interfere with the surgery, so not used for ECG measurement. At the same time for a
long-term patient monitoring limb-electrodes are not used.
2) Suction Cup Electrodes Or Welsh Cup Electrodes
To measure ECG from various positions on the chest, Suction cup electrodes are used. It
suits well to attach electrodes on flat surface of the body and on soft tissue regions. They have a
good contact surface. Physically they are large but the skin contacts only the electrode rim. It has
high contact impedance. They have a plastic syringe barrel, suction tube and cables. Recently, due
to infection and cleaning procedures, these electrodes are not used.

9 3) Adhesive Type Electrodes

In the surface electrode, the pressure of surface electrode against the skin squeezes out
the electrode paste. To avoid this problem, adhesive electrodes are used. It has a lightweight
metallic screen. They have a pad at behind for placing electrode paste. This adhesive backing hold
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the electrode on place and tight. It also helps to avoid evaporation of electrolyte present in the
electrode paste.

4) Multipoint Type Electrodes

Multipoint electrodes are very practical electrode setup for ECG measurements. It has
more than 1000 active contact points. This helps to establish low resistance contact with the
human. Under any environmental condition, doctors can use multipoint electrode.

5) Floating Electrodes
In metal plate or limb electrodes, the major disadvantage is the movement errors.
Motion artifact occurs due to the motion at the interface between electrode and electrolyte. The
interface gets stabilized using Floating electrodes. The floating electrodes do not contact the
human subject directly. They contact the subject via electrolytic paste or jelly. The advantage of
this type is the mechanical stability.

6) Ear Clips and Scalp Electrodes

In the measurement of EEG, ear clip electrodes are used. Scalp electrodes provide EEG
10
signals easily when placed on bare head. Generally, in 10 – 20 electrode system EEG measurement
scalp electrodes are used. This type avoids measurement errors. During labor, fetal scalp electrode
monitors baby’s heart beat

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1.3 RECORDING PROBLEMS - MEASUREMENT WITH TWO ELECTRODES

Components of man-instrument system: It consists of following components.

Control
Stimulus
Feedback

Signal condition
Transducer Display
circuit

Patient Recording, data processing &

transmission

 Subject: subject is the human being on whom the measurements are made. It constitutes a
many biopotentials and living organisms. Some of the biopotentials are electrocardiogram,
electromyogram, electroencephalogram and electroretinogram.
 Stimulus: In many measurements, the response to some of external stimulus is required. The
stimulus may ne visual (flash of light), auditory (tone), tactile or direct electrical stimulation of
some of the nervous system.
 Transducer: it is defined as capable of converting one of energy to another. It sense the
biopotential converts to electrical signal. For example thermistor converts temperature to
electrical signal, strain gauge produces electrical signal by sensing the pressure.
 Signal conditioning circuit: biomedical signal comes from transducer transferred to signal
conditioning circuit. It amplify the given signal some extent then process the signal by
removing the noise and measure signal parameters. Finally transfer measured parameters to
either display or memory for future purpose.
 Display device: output of signal conditioning circuit must be converted into form that can be
perceived by one of man’s senses and that can be convey the information obtained by the
measurements in a meaningful way. It can be visual, audible or tactile information.
 Recording, data processing and transmission: It is often necessary to record the measured
information for possible later use or to transmit it from one location to another. It used, where
computer control is employed so that automatic storage or processing is required.
 Control feedback device: it is necessary or desirable to have automatic control of stimulus,
11
transducer or ant part of man-instrument system, a control system is incorporated. This
system usually consists of a feedback loop in which part of the output from the signal
conditioning or display equipment is used to control the operation of the system in some way.

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Problems encountered in measuring a living system:

 Inaccessibility of variable to measurement: it is greatest difficulty in attempting from a

living system is the problem in gaining to the variable being measured. For example neuro
chemical activity of brain ,it is impossible to place transducer so we need to do the indirect
measurement.in using indirect measurement, however one must be aware of the limitations.
 Variability of data: majority of physiological variables are nondeterministic, means varies
with respect to time.so these must be represented by some statistical or probability
distribution.
 Lack of knowledge of interrelationship: physiological measurements with large tolerance
are often accepted by the physician because of lack of this knowledge and the resultant in
ability to control variations. Better understanding of physiological relationship would also
permit more effective use of indirect measurements as substitutes for inaccessible measure.
 Interaction among physiological systems: large number of feedback loops involved in the
major physiological systems, a severe degree of interaction exists both within a given system
and among the major systems. The result is that stimulation of one part of a given system
generally affects all other parts of the system in some way and often affects other systems as
well.
 Effect of transducer: Transducer can be considered as a device converting one form of energy
to another form. Electrical transducers can be considered as a device meant to convert a form
of energy to equivalent electrical signals. The physical quantity to be measured can be position,
displacement, flow, temperature, strain, velocity etc. and the output is in the form of electrical
parameters like current, capacitance, voltage, inductance, change in resistance etc. Transducer
block diagram is given below.
Transducer consists of two main parts, that is,

Input Sensing Transduction Output

Element Element

o Sensor or Sensing Element: This part is responsible for generating measurable response
with respect to the change in physical quantity to be measured.
o Transduction Element: Sensor output is carried on to the transduction element which
converts the non-electrical signal to electrical signal in proportion to the input.
 Artifacts: it is component or variable is observed while doing experiment, which is not
naturally present. Thus random noise generated within the measuring instrument, electrical
interference (50/60 Hz), cross talk and all other unwanted variations in a signal are
12 considered artifacts.
 Energy limitations: many physiological measurement techniques that a certain amount of
energy be applied to the living system in order to obtain a measurement. For example,

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resistance measurements require the flow of electric current through the tissue or blood being
measured. Some transducers generate small amount of heat due to the current flow.
 Safety considerations: methods employed in measuring variables in a living human subject
must in no way endanger the life or normal functioning of the subject. Recent emphasis on
hospital safety requires that extra caution must be taken in the design of any measurement
system to protect the patient.

Measurement with two Electrodes

Measurement of the bioelectric potentials requires two electrodes . The voltage measured is
really the difference between the instantaneous potential of the two electrodes.
If two electrodes are of same type the difference is usually small and depends essentially on the
actual difference of ionic potential between the two points of the body from which measurements are
being taken.
If two electrodes are of different type they produce a significant dc voltage that can cause current
to flow through both electrodes as well as through the input circuit of the amplifier to which they are
connected

The DC voltage due to the difference in electrode potential is called offset voltage of electrode the two
Electrodes of same material may also produce small electrode offset voltage. Chemical activity takes
place within an electrode can cause voltage fluctuations to appear without any physiological input.
Such Variations may appear as noise on bioelectric signal. It may reduce by proper choice of materials
or by coating the electrodes to improve stability, the best material for this is Silver-silver chloride
The resistance capacitance networks shown in the above figure represent the impedance of
the electrodes as fixed value of resistance and capacitance unfortunately the impedance is not
constant. The impedance is frequency dependent because of the effect of capacitance. Both the
electrode potential and the impedance are varied by an effect called polarization. Polarization is the
result of direct current passing through metal electrolyte interface. Some Electrodes are designed to
13 avoid or reduce polarization. If the amplifier to which electrodes are connected has extremely high
input impedance, the effect of polarization & change in electrode impedance is minimized. Size & type
of electrode is important for impedance determining. Large electrodes tend to have lower impedance.

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