Fluid Mechanics1

UGANDA TECHNICAL COLLEGE
DTWE 121: HYDRAULICS AND FLUID MECHANICS

LECTURE NOTES
1 HYDRAULICS AND FLUID MECHANICS

1.1 Introduction usually ignored and the liquid is assumed to be
Fluid mechanics: This is that branch of science which incompressible
deals with the behavior of the fluids (liquids or gases) at
A liquid will withstand a slight amount of tension due
rest as well as in motion. Thus this branch of science
to molecular action between the particles which will
deals with the statics, kinematics and dynamic aspects
cause an apparent shear resistance between two
of fluids. The study of fluids at rest is called fluid
adjacent layers. This phenomenon is known as
statics. The study of fluids in motion, where pressure
viscosity.
forces are not considered, is called fluid kinematics and
if the pressure forces are also considered for the fluids All known liquids vapourize at narrow pressure above
in motion, that branch of science is called fluid zero, depending on the temperature
dynamics.
Gas
Hydraulics: This is the study of the problems of flow
and storage of water but is often applied to other liquids It poses no definite volume and it is compressible
as for example in case of hydraulic control gear usually
Vapor
using oil as the operational fluid.
It is a gas whose temperature and pressure are such that
1.1.1 Fluids
it is very near the liquid state (e.g. steam)
A fluid may be defined as follows:
1.1.2 The distinction between a fluid and a
A fluid is a substance which is capable of flowing or a
solid are:
fluid is a substance which deforms continuously when
Up to the limit of elasticity, the deformation of the solid
subjected to external shearing force
is that the strain is proportional to the applied stress, for
A fluid has the following characteristics the fluid, the rate of strain is proportional to stress.
It has no definite shape of its own, but conforms to the The strain of the solid is independent of the time of
shape of the containing vessel. application of force and if the elastic limit is not
exceeded, the deformation disappears when the stress is
Even a small amount of shear force exerted on the removed but a fluid continues to flow as long as the
liquid / fluid will cause it to undergo a deformation stress is applied and does not recover its original form
which continues as long as the force continues to be when the stress is removed.
applied
1.2 Units and dimensions
A fluid may be classified as liquid, gas or vapor.
The United Kingdom has now adopted the system of
Liquids metric units known as the System International d’Units
abbreviated to SI replacing the old British units such as
A liquid is a fluid which possesses a definite volume the pound, poundal and foot as the only legal system of
(which varies only slightly with temperature) measurement.
Liquids have bulk elastic modulus when under 1.2.1 The SI unit has six basic units which are
compression and will store up energy in the same arbitrarily defined
manner as a solid. As the contraction of volume of a These are
liquid under compression is extremely small, it is
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Quantity SI Unit Dimension 𝑀𝐿
=
Length Meter, m L 𝑇2
Mass Kilogram, kg M
Time Seconds. s T Dimensional equation
Temperature Kelvin, K θ
Current Ampere, A I Every term must have the same dimensions so that like
Luminosity candela Cd is compared with like
All other units are derived from these fundamental Derived units
units, since the SI is a coherent system in which the
product or quotient of any two unit quantities within the
system is the unit of the resultant quantity, e.g. Force =
mass X acceleration
The unit of force will be the unit of mass (kg) and the
unit of acceleration (m/s) which is the kilogram meter
per second known as newton.
Larger or smaller units are formed by adding a prefix to

the basic unit. The following prefixes are in use
currently:
Multiples Sub Multiples

Deca da = x10 Deci d = x10-1
Hecto h = x102 Centi c = x10-2
Kilo k = x103 Milli m = x10-3
Mega M = x106 Micro µ = x10-6
Giga G = x109 Nano n = x10-9
Tera T = x1012 Pico p = x10-12
Example1.1: The equation 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 gives the
Fento f = x10-15
final velocity of a body which started with an initial
Atto a = x10-18
velocity 𝑢 and received an acceleration 𝑎 for distance,
𝒔. When dimensions are substituted for the quantities,
1.2.2 Dimensions
each term must have the same dimensions if the
It is sometimes convenient not to use any particular
equation is true.
system but to think in terms of mass, length, time,
force, temperature etc. The dimensions of the quantities are
In machines, all quantities can be expressed in terms of 𝑣 = 𝐿𝑇 −1, 𝑢 = 𝐿𝑇 −1, 𝑎 = 𝐿𝑇 −2 , 𝑠=𝐿
fundamental dimensions of mass M, length L and time
T Dimensions of v2 are (𝐿𝑇 −1 )2 = 𝐿2 𝑇 −2
Thus 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 Dimensions of u2 are (𝐿𝑇 −1 )2 = 𝐿2 𝑇 −2
(𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)2
Dimensions of 2as are (𝐿𝑇 −2 ) × 𝐿 = 𝐿2 𝑇 −2
So that 𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐿
= 𝑇2 All three terms have the same dimensions and the
(𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)2
equation is dimensionally correct and could represent a
Similarly 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 real event.
So that 𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 1.3 Properties of fluids

𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 Liquids can be easily distinguished from a solid or a gas
 A solid has a definite shape
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 A liquid takes the shape of the vessel into which it 𝑆(𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑠)
is poured 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
=
 A gas completely fills the vessel which contains it 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦)𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
The properties of water are of much importance 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦) 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠

𝑆(𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠) =
because the subject of hydraulics is mainly concerned 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦)𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
with it. Some important properties of water which will
be considered are: If the specific density of a fluid is known, then the
density of the fluid will be equal to specific gravity of
Density, Specific Gravity, Viscosity, Vapor pressure, fluid multiplied by the density of water.
Cohesion, Adhesion, Surface tension, Capillarity and
compressibility Example: calculate the specific weight, specific mass,
specific volume and specific gravity of a liquid having
Density or mass density: this is defined as the ratio of a volume of 6 m3 and weight of 44kN
the mass of the fluid to its volume. It is denoted by the
symbol ρ (rho). The SI unit is kg/m3. The density of a Solution
liquid is considered constant while that of gases
 Volume of the liquid = 6m3
changes with the variation of pressure and temperature.
 Weight of the liquid = 44kN
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑀
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =𝜌= Specific weight, w
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑉
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 44
Specific weight or weight density (w): This is the ratio 𝑤= = = 7.333 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 6
between the weight of a fluid to its volume.
Specific mass or mass density, ρ
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑤=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑤 7.333 × 1000
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌= = = 747.5 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑔 9.81
=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
= 𝜌𝑔 Specific volume, v
The value of specific weight of water is 9.81x1000 1 1

𝑣= = = 0.00134𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔
N/m3 in SI units 𝜌 747.5
Specific volume: This is defined as the volume of fluid Specific gravity, S

occupied by a unit mass or volume per unit mass. 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 7.333
𝑆= = = 0.747
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 9.81
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
Example: a reservoir of glycerine (glyc) has a mass of
1 1
= = 1200kg and a volume of 0.952m3. Find the weight of
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝜌
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 glycerine W, mass density ρ, specific weight w and
specific gravity S.
The specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density. It
is expressed as m3/kg. It’s commonly applied in gases. Solution
Specific gravity (relative density): This is defined as  Mass of glycerine = 1200kg

the weight density (or density) of a fluid to the weight  Volume of glycerine = 0.952m3.
density (or density) of an equal volume a standard fluid.
Weight of glycerine W
For liquids, the standard fluid is taken as water and for
gases, the standard fluid is taken as air. It is a 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 = 1200 × 9.81 = 11.77𝑘𝑁
dimensionless quantity and is denoted by the symbol S.
Mass density ρ

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 1200 The SI unit of viscosity = Ns/m2 = Pas
𝜌= = = 1260.1𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 0.952
The coefficient of dynamic viscosity (µ) is defined as
Specific weight γ, shear force per unit area required to drag one layer of
fluid with unit velocity past another layer a unit
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 11.772
𝛾= = = 12.366𝑘𝑛/𝑚3 distance away from it in a fluid. The SI unit N-s/m2 or
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 0.952
Kg/m-s.
Specific gravity, S
Kinematic viscosity (𝒗)is the ratio between the
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 12.366 dynamic viscosity and mass density of the fluid. It is
𝑆= = = 1.26
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 9.81 denoted by the Greek symbol (𝑣)
1.3.1 Viscosity 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜇

𝑣= =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌
Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which
offers resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid The SI unit is m2/s
over another adjacent layer of the fluid. When two
1.3.2 Newton’s law of viscosity
layers of a fluid, a distance 𝑑𝑦 apart, move one over the
other at different velocities, say 𝑢 and 𝑢 + 𝑑𝑢 as shown It states that the shear stress (𝜏) on a fluid element layer
in the figure 1.1, the viscosity together with relative is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain. The
velocity causes a shear stress acting between the fluid constant of proportionality is called the coefficient of
layers. viscosity. Mathematically, it is expressed as
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
Fluids which obey the above relation are known as

Newtonian fluids and the fluids which do not obey the
above relation are called non-Newtonian fluids.
Fig. 1.1
1.3.3 Variation of viscosity with temperature
The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent
lower layer while the lower layer causes a shear stress The viscosity (𝜇) of liquids decreases with increase in
on the adjacent top layer. This shear stress is temperature, but the viscosity of gases increase with
proportional to the rate of change of velocity with increase in temperature. This is due to the reason that
respect to y. it is denoted by the symbol 𝝉 called Tau. the viscous force in a fluid are due to cohesive forces
𝑑𝑢 and molecular momentum transfer. In liquids the
Mathematically 𝜏 ∝ 𝑑𝑦 cohesive forces dominate the molecular momentum
transfer due to closely packed molecule and with the
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇 increase in temperature, the cohesive forces decrease
𝑑𝑦 which decreases viscosity.
Where 𝜇 (called mu) is the constant of proportionality But in case of gases, the cohesive forces are small and
and is known as the coefficient of dynamic viscosity or molecular momentum transfer increases and hence
𝑑𝑢
viscosity. Represent the rate of shear strain or rate of viscosity increase
𝑑𝑦
shear deformation or velocity gradient. 1
Poiseuille showed that 𝜇 = 𝜇𝑜 (1+𝑎𝑡+𝑏𝑡 2 )
𝜏
Therefore 𝜇= 𝑑𝑢
( )
𝑑𝑦 Where 𝝁 = coefficient of viscosity at toc
𝝁𝟎 = Coefficient of viscosity at 0oc
Thus viscosity is also defined as the shear stress
a & b = constants
required to produce unit rate of shear strain.
For water,

𝜇𝑜 = 0.0179 poise = 0.00179 kg/m-s Examples 1.2: A plate of 0.025 mm distant from a
a = 0.33368 and b = 0.000221 fixed plate, moves at 60cm/s and requires a force of 2N
per unit area to maintain this speed. Determine the
For a gas, µ = µ𝒐 + 𝜶𝒕 − 𝜷𝒕𝟐 (this equation shows fluid viscosity between the plates
that with the increase in temperature, the viscosity
increases)
Where for air µo = 0.000017, α = 0.000000056, β =
0.1189 x 10-9
1.4 Types of fluids Fig 1.3

The fluids may be classified into the following five
types: Solution
 Ideal fluid Distance between plates, dy = 0.025mm = 0.025 x 10-

3
 Newtonian fluid m
 Ideal plastic fluid Velocity of upper plate, u = 60cm/s = 0.6 m/s
𝑁
 Real fluid Force on upper plate 𝐹 = 2.0 𝑚2, This is the value of
 Non-Newtonian fluid shear stress, 𝜏
Let the fluid viscosity between the plates be µ
Ideal fluid: A fluid which is incompressible and is
having no viscosity is ideal fluid. Ideal fluid is only 𝑑𝑢
imaginary fluid as all the fluids, which exist, have some 𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
viscosity.
Where du = change of velocity = u – 0 = u = 0.60m/s
Real fluid: This is a fluid which possesses viscosity. dy = change of distance = 0.025 x 10-3m
All fluids in actual practice are real fluids. 𝝉 = force per unit area = 2.0 N/m2
Newtonian fluid: This is a real fluid in which the shear 0.60
stress is proportional to the rate of shear strain (or ∴ 2.0 = 𝜇
0.025 × 10−3
velocity gradient) examples are water, kerosene, air etc.
2.0 × 0.025 × 10−3
Non-Newtonian fluid: This is a real fluid in which the ∴ 𝜇= = 8.33 × 10−5 𝑁𝑠/𝑚2
0.60
shear stress is not proportional to the rate of shear strain
(or velocity gradient) examples are solutions or Example 1.3: Calculate the dynamic viscosity of an oil,
suspensions (slurries), mud flows, polymer solutions, which is used for lubrication between a square plate of
blood. size 0.8m x 0.8m and an inclined plane with angle of
inclination 30o as shown in the figure1.4. The weight of
Ideal plastic fluid: This is a fluid in which shear stress the square plate is 300 N and it slides down the inclined
is more than the yield value and shear stress is plane with a uniform velocity of 0.3 m/s. the thickness
proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity of oil film is 1.5mm
gradient) eg sewage sludge, drilling muds etc.
Fig 1.4
Fig 1.2
Solution

Area of plate, A = 0.8 x 0.8 = 0.64m2 F2 = shear force on the lower side of the plate
Angle of plane, θ = 30o F = total force required to drag the plate
Weight of plate, W = 300N
Velocity of plate, u = 0.3m/s Then 𝐹 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2
𝑑𝑢
Thickness of the oil film, t = dy = 1.5mm = 1.5x10-3 m Shear force is given by 𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑦
Where du = relative velocity between thin plate and
Let the viscosity of fluid between plate and inclined
upper large plane surface = 0.6m/s
plane be µ
dy = distance between thin plate and upper large plane
Component of weight W, along the plane =
surface = 1.2cm = 0.012m (plate is thin therefore
𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠600 = 300 cos 60𝑜 = 150𝑁
thickness is neglected)
Thus the shear force F on the bottom surface of the 0.6
plate = 150N ∴ 𝜏1 = 8.10 × 10−1 × (0.012) = 40.5N/m2
Now shear force 𝐹1 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐹 150
And shear stress, 𝜏 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 0.64 N/m2 = 𝜏1 × 𝐴 = 40.5 × 0.5 = 20.25 N
Similarly shear stress τ2 on the lower side of the thin
𝑑𝑢
But 𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑦 plate is given by:
0.6
𝜏2 = 8.10 × 10−1 × (0.012) = 40.5 N/m2
Where 𝑑𝑢 = change of velocity = u – 0 = u = 0.3m/s
Now shear force 𝐹2 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑡 = 1.5 × 10 −3
m = 𝜏2 × 𝐴 = 40.5 × 0.5 = 20.25 N
∴Total force 𝐹 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 = 20.25 + 20.25 = 40.5 N
150 0.3
∴ 0.64
= 𝜇 1.5×10−3
Answer case two
150 × 1.5 × 10−3
𝜇= = 1.17 × 10 = 11.7 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 Revision questions
0.64 × 0.3
Example: Two large plane surfaces are 2.4 cm apart. Question 1.1: A plate having an area of 0.6m2 is sliding
The space between the surfaces is filled with glycerin. down the inclined plane at 300 to the horizontal with a
What force is required to drag a very thin plate of velocity of 0.36m/s. there is a cushion of fluid 1.8mm
surface area 0.5 square meter between the two large thick between the plane and the plate. Find the viscosity
plane surfaces at a speed of 0.6m/s if: of the fluid if the weight of the plate is 280N (11.66
poise)
(i) the thin plate is in the middle of two plane surfaces
(ii) The thin plate is at a distance of 0.8 cm from one of 1.5 Thermodynamic properties
the plane surfaces? (Take dynamic viscosity of Fluids consist of liquids or gases; but gases are
glycerin= 8.10 × 10−1 Ns/m2) compressible fluids and hence thermodynamic
properties play an important role. With the change of
Solution: Given temperature and pressure, the gases undergo large
variation in density. The relationship between pressure
Distance between two large surfaces = 2.4 cm
(absolute), specific volume and temperature (absolute)
Area of thin plate A= 0.5 m2
of a gas is given by the equation of state as
Velocity of thin plate u = 0.6 m/s
Viscosity of glycerin µ = = 8.10 × 10−1 Ns/m2) 𝑝
𝑝𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇 𝑜𝑟 = 𝑅𝑇
𝜌
Case 1. When the thin plate is in the middle of the two
plane surfaces Where p = Absolute pressure of a gas in N/m2
1
v = Specific volume = 𝜌
R = gas constant
T = Absolute temperature on oK
ρ = Density of gas
Let F1 = shear force on the upper side of the thin plate

1.5.1 Compressibility and bulk modulus −𝑣𝑑𝑝
𝑝𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑝 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑑𝑣 = −𝑣𝑑𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑝 =
𝑑𝑣
Compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of
elasticity, K which is defined as the ratio of Therefore 𝐾=𝑝
compressive stress to volumetric strain.
For adiabatic process
Consider a cylinder fitted with a piston as shown in the 𝑝
figure1.5 below: = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑣 𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌𝑘
Differentiating, we get 𝑝𝑑(𝑣 𝑘 ) + 𝑣 𝑘 (𝑑𝑝) = 0
Or 𝑝 × 𝑘 × 𝑣 𝑘−1 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣 𝑘 𝑑𝑝 = 0
Or 𝑝𝑘𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑝 = 0
𝑣𝑑𝑝
Fig. 1.5 𝑝𝑘𝑑𝑣 = −𝑣𝑑𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑘 = −
𝑑𝑣
Let v = volume of the gas enclosed in the cylinder Hence we have 𝐾 = 𝑝𝑘
P = pressure of gas when volume is v
Where K is the bulk modulus and k is the ratio of the
Let pressure be increased to 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑝, the volume of gas specific heats
decreases from v to 𝑣 − 𝑑𝑣
Example 1.4: Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity
The increase in pressure = 𝑑𝑝 kgf/m2 of a liquid, if the pressure of the liquid is increased
Decrease in volume = 𝑑𝑣 from 70N/cm2 to 130N/cm2. The volume of liquid
𝑑𝑣
Therefore, volumetric strain =− decreases by 0.15 percent.
𝑣
Negative sign means the volume decreases with Solution

increase of pressure
Initial pressure = 70N/cm2
Bulk modulus
Final pressure = 130N/cm2
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑝 −𝑑𝑝
𝐾= = −𝑑𝑣 = 𝑣 dp = increase in pressure = 130 – 70 = 60N/cm2
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑣
𝑣
1 Decrease in volume = 0.15%

Compressibility is given by =𝐾
𝑑𝑣 0.15
1.5.2 Relationship between bulk modulus (K) − =+
𝑣 100
and pressure (p) for a gas
Bulk modulus
The relationship between bulk modulus of elasticity (K) 𝑑𝑝 60 60×100
and pressure for a gas for two different processes of 𝐾= 𝑑𝑣 = 0.15 = 0.15
= 4 × 104N/cm2
− 100
𝑣
compression are as:
Surface tension and capillarity
For isothermal process, the relationship between
pressure (p) and density (ρ) of a gas is 1.6 Surface tension
𝑝 Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 the surface of a liquid in contact with a gas or on a
𝜌
surface between two immiscible liquids such that the
𝑝𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 contact surface behaves like a membrane under tension.
The magnitude of this force per unit length of the free
Differentiating this equation, we get (both p and v are surface will have the same value as the surface energy
variables)

per unit area. It is denoted by the Greek letter sigma (σ)
and expressed in N/m.
Consider three molecules A, B, and C of liquid in a

mass of liquid. The molecule A is attracted in all
directions equally by the surrounding molecules of the
liquid. Thus the resultant force acting on the molecule
A is zero. But the molecule B which is situated near the
free surface, is acted upon by upward and downward Fig. 1.7
forces which are unbalanced. Thus a net resultant force
on molecule B is acting in the downward direction.
𝜋 2
The molecule C situated on the free surface of liquid, 𝑝× 𝑑 = 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑
4
does experience a resultant downward force. All the
molecules on the free surface experience a downward 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 4𝜎
𝑝= 𝜋 =
force. Thus the free surface of the liquid acts like a very 𝑑2 𝑑
4
thin film under tension of the surface of the liquid and
acts as though it is an elastic membrane under tension. From the above equation, the decrease in diameter of
the droplet increases the pressure intensity inside the
droplet.
1.6.2 Surface tension on the hollow bubble.
A hollow bubble like a soap bubble in air has two

surfaces in contact with air, one inside and other
outside. Thus two surfaces are subject to surface
Fig. 1.6 tension. In such a case, we have:
1.6.1 1.6.1 Surface tension on liquid droplet 𝜋 2
𝑝× 𝑑 = 2 × (𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑)
4
Consider a small spherical droplet of a liquid of radius
2𝜎𝜋𝑑 8𝜎
𝑟. On the entire surface of the droplet, the tensile force Therefore, 𝑝= 𝜋 2 =
𝑑 𝑑
4
due to surface tension will be acting.
1.6.3 Surface tension on a liquid jet:
Let σ = surface tension of the liquid
P = pressure intensity inside the droplet (in
Consider a liquid jet of diameter d and length L as in
excess of the outside pressure intensity)
the figure 1.8 below
d = diameter of the droplet
Let the droplet be cut into two halves, the forces acting
on one half will be:
Tensile force due to surface tension acting around the

circumference of the cut portion is equal to:
= 𝜎 × 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
Fig. 1.8
= 𝜎𝜋𝑑
𝜋 2 𝜋 2 Let p = pressure intensity inside the liquid jet above
Pressure force on the area 𝑑 and = 𝑝 × 𝑑 as
4 4 the outside pressure
shown σ = surface tension of the liquid
In the figure 1.7 below, these two forces will be equal Considering the equilibrium of the semi jet, we have
and opposite under equilibrium condition

Force due to pressure = 𝑝 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖 𝑗𝑒𝑡 Pressure inside the droplet =𝑝+
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡
=𝑝×𝐿×𝑑
= 0.725 + 10.32 = 11.045 𝑁⁄𝑐𝑚2
Force due to surface tension
1.7 Capillarity
= 𝜎 × 2𝐿
Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of
Equating the force, we have 𝑝 × 𝐿 × 𝑑 = 𝜎 × 2𝐿 liquid surface in small tube relative to adjacent general
level of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the
𝜎 × 2𝐿 liquid. The phenomenon is due to the combined effect
𝑝=
𝐿×𝑑 of cohesion and adhesion of liquid particles
Example 1.5: the surface tension of water in contact The rise of liquid surface is known as capillary rise
with air at 20oc is 0.0725 N/m. the pressure inside the while the fall of the liquid surface is known as capillary
droplet of water is to be 0.02 N/cm2 greater than the depression. It is expressed in terms of mm or cm of
outside pressure. Calculate the diameter of the droplet liquid. Its value depends on the specific weight of the
of water. liquid, diameter of the tube and surface tension of the
liquid.
Solution
Surface tension, = σ = 0.0725 N/m 1.7.1 Expression for capillary rise
Pressure intensity, p in excess of outside pressure is Consider a glass tube of small diameter d opened at
P = 0.02 N/cm2 = 0.02 x 104 N/m2 both ends and is inserted in a liquid, say water. The
d = diameter of the droplet liquid will rise above the level of the liquid in the
container.
4𝜎 4×0.0725
𝑝= = 0.02 × 104 =
𝑑 𝑑
4 × 0.0725
𝑑= = 0.00145 𝑚 = 0.00145 × 1000
0.02 × 104
= 1.45𝑚𝑚
Example 1.6: The pressure outside the droplet of water

of diameter 0.04 mm is 10.32 N/cm2 (atmospheric
pressure). Calculate the pressure within the droplet if
Fig 1.9 Fig 1.10
surface tension is given as 0.0725 N/m of water.
Let h = height of liquid in the tube. Under a station of
Solution equilibrium, the weight of the liquid of height h is
Diameter of droplet, d = 0.04 mm = 0.4 x 103 balanced by the force at the surface of the liquid in the
m tube. But the force at the surface of the liquid in the
tube is due to surface tension.
Pressure outside the droplet = 10.32 N/cm2 = 10.32
x 104 N/m2 Let σ = surface tension of the liquid
θ = angle of contact between liquid and glass
Surface tension, σ = 0.0725 N/m tube
The pressure inside the droplet, in excess of outside The weight of liquid of height h in the tube
pressure is given by
𝜋
= (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 × ℎ) × 𝜌 × 𝑔 = 𝑑2 × ℎ × 𝜌 × 𝑔
4
4𝜎 4 × 0.0725 7250
𝑝= = −3
= 7250 𝑁⁄𝑚2 =
𝑑 0.4 × 10 104 Where ρ = the density of the liquid
2
= 0.725 𝑁⁄𝑐𝑚
Vertical component of the vertical tensile force

= (𝜎 × 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒) × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 Surface tension of mercury = 0.52N/m
Specific gravity of mercury = 13.6
𝜋 2
Therefore, 4
𝑑 × ℎ × 𝜎 × 𝑔 = 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 Therefore density of mercury = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m3
𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 4𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (a) Capillary rise for water (θ=0)

ℎ= 𝜋 =
2 𝜌×𝑔×𝑑
4𝑑 ×𝜌×𝑔 4σ 4×0.0725
From ℎ = 𝜌×𝑔×𝑑 = 1000×9.81×2.5×10−3 = 0.0118m
The value of θ between water and clean glass tube is = 1.18cm
approximately equal to zero and hence cosθ is equal to
unity. Then rise of water is given by (b) For mercury
4𝜎 Angle of constant between mercury and glass tube,

ℎ= θ = 130o
𝜌×𝑔×𝑑
1.7.2 Expression for capillary fall. 4σ cos 𝜃

ℎ=
𝜌×𝑔×𝑑
If the glass tube is dipped in mercury, the level of 4 × 0.52 × cos 1300
= = −0.004𝑚
mercury in the tube will be lower than the general level 13.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × 2.5 × 10−3
of the outside liquid as shown in figure 1.10 = −0.4𝑐𝑚
Let h = height of depression in tube The negative sign indicate the capillary depression
Then in equilibrium, two forces are acting on the 1.8 Vapor pressure and cavitation
mercury inside the tube. First one is due to surface A change from the liquid state to the gaseous state is
tension acting in the downward direction and is equal to known as vaporization. The vaporization (which
depends up on the prevailing pressure and temperature
condition) occurs because of the continuous escaping of
𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃.
the molecules through the free liquid surface.
Second force is due to hydrostatic force acting upward
Consider a liquid say water which is confined in a
and is equal to intensity of pressure at a depth ℎ ×
closed vessel. Let the temperature of the liquid be 20oC
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 and pressure be atmospheric. The liquid will vaporize at
𝜋 𝜋 100oC. when vaporization takes place, the liquid
= 𝑝 × 𝑑2 = 𝜌𝑔 × ℎ × 𝑑 2 {∴ 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔} molecules escape from the free surface of the liquid.
4 4
These vapour molecules get accumulated in the space
Equating the two, we get between the free liquid surface and top of the vessel.
𝜋 2 These accumulated vapours exert a pressure on the
𝜌 × 𝜋𝑑 × cos 𝜃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 𝑑 liquid surface known as vapour pressure of the liquid.
4
4𝜎 cos 𝜃 Again consider the same liquid at 20oC at atmospheric
∴ ℎ=
𝜌𝑔𝑑 pressure in a closed vessel. If the pressure above the
liquid surface is reduced by some means, the boiling
The value of θ for mercury and glass tube is 128o temperature will also reduce. If the pressure is reduced
to such an extent that it becomes equal to or less than
Example 1.7: Calculate the capillary rise in a glass
the vapour pressure, the boiling of the liquid will start,
tube of 2.5 mm diameter when immersed vertically in
though the temperature of the liquid is 20oC. Thus the
(a) water and (b) mercury. Take surface tension σ =
liquid may boil at ordinary temperature, if the pressure
0.0725N/m for water and 0.52N/m for mercury in
above the liquid surface is reduced so as to be equal or
contact with air. The specific gravity for mercury is
less than the vapour pressure of the liquid at that
given as 13.6 and angle of contact is 130o
temperature.
Diameter of the tube = d = 2.5mm = 2.5 x 10-3m
Now consider a flowing liquid in a system. If the
Surface tension of water = σ = 0.0725N/m
pressure at any point in this flowing liquid becomes

equal to or less than the vapour pressure, the Hence the cavitation is the phenomenon of formation of
vaporization of the liquid starts. The bubbles of these vapour bubbles of a flowing liquid in a region of higher
vapours are carried by the flowing liquid into the region pressure. When the vapour bubbles collapse, a very
of high pressure where they collapse, giving rise to high high pressure is created. The metallic surface, above
impact pressure. The pressure developed by the which the liquid is flowing, is subjected to these high
collapsing bubbles is so high that the materials from the pressures which cause pitting action on the surface.
adjoining get eroded and cavities are formed on them.
This phenomenon is known as cavitation.
2 PRESSURE AND ITS MEASUREMENT

2.1 Static pressure and head 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
Pressure is the force per unit area exerted on any surface. = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
A force or pressure is exerted by the fluid on the surface × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
with which it is in contact.
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑤𝐴ℎ
The intensity of pressure at any point is the force exerted
𝑃 = 𝑤ℎ = 𝜌𝑔ℎ Since 𝑤 = 𝜌𝑔
on a unit area at a point and is measured in Newton per
square meter (Pascals) or in bars which is 105 N/m2 2.1.2 Pressure at a point
𝐹
𝑃 = 𝐴 N/m2 The intensity of pressure at appoint in a fluid at rest is the
same in all direction; Consider a very small prism ABC
2.1.1 Pressure and depth of width S surrounding a given point.
Consider a column of liquid of cross-sectional area, A,

extending vertically from the free surface to the depth h,
in equilibrium in a surrounding liquid of specific weight,
𝑤 = 𝜌𝑔, under the action of its weight acting downwards.
Fig 2.2
If p1 is the intensity of pressure on face AB, p2 the

Fig. 2.1 intensity of pressure on face BC and p3 the intensity of
pressure on face AC inclined at an angle θ to the
The pressure force on the bottom of the column acting
horizontal.
upwards and the force on the sides due to the surrounding
liquid which must act horizontally since there can be no 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑝1 × 𝐴𝐵 × 𝑆
tangential force in a liquid at rest.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑝2 × 𝐵𝐶 × 𝑆
If the pressure at the free surface is zero (atmospheric
pressure / zero gauge pressure) 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑝3 × 𝐴𝐶 × 𝑆
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 If the fluid is at rest, the forces are in equilibrium and are
= 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 perpendicular to the faces on which they act.
Resolving vertically,
𝑝1 × 𝐴𝐵 × 𝑆 = 𝑝3 × 𝐴𝐶 × 𝑆. cos 𝜃

And by trigonometry, 𝐴𝐶. cos 𝜃 = 𝐴𝐵 If two pistons are at the same level, the pressure P2 acting
on a larger piston must equal to P1 acting on a small
∴ 𝑝1 = 𝑝3 piston.
Resolving horizontally, 𝑃 𝑊
Now 𝑃1 = 𝑎 and 𝑃2 = 𝐴
𝑝2 × 𝐵𝐶 × 𝑆 = 𝑝3 × 𝐴𝐶 × 𝑆. sin 𝜃
𝑃 𝑊
If 𝑃1 = 𝑃2 then 𝑎
= 𝐴
And by trigonometry, 𝐴𝐶. sin 𝜃 = 𝐵𝐶
𝑎
∴ 𝑃 = 𝑊𝐴
∴ 𝑝2 = 𝑝3
Therefore, p1, p2, and p3 are equal since AC is at any If a larger piston is a distance h below the smaller, the
angle θ to AB, p3 is the intensity of pressure in any pressure P2 will be greater than P1, due to the head h by
direction; thus the intensity of pressure at a point is the an amount ρg, where ρ is the mass density of the liquid.
same in all directions in a fluid at rest.
Example 2.1: An open tank contains water up to a depth
2.1.3 Pascal’s principle of 2 m and above it, an oil of specific gravity 0.9 for a
depth of 1 m. Find the pressure intensity
Pascal’s law or principle or the principle of transmission
i) At the interface of the liquid
of fluid pressure is a principle in fluid mechanics which
ii) At the bottom of the tank
states that a change in pressure at a point in an enclosed
fluid at rest is transmitted undiminished to all points in a
fluid. Height of water = 2 m
If a U-tube is filled with water and pistons are placed at Height of oil = 1 m
each end, pressure exerted against the right piston will be Sp. gr. Of oil = 0.9
exactly equal to the pressure exerted against the left Density of water = 1000 kg/m3
piston. Density of oil = 0.9 × 1000 =
900 kg/m3
Pascal’s principle applies to all fluids, whether gases or
liquids. A typical application of Pascal’s principle is the
automobile lift (hydraulic jack). It can also be applied in Fig. 2.3
artesian wells, water tower and dams.
Solution
2.1.4 2.1.4 The hydraulic jack
Pressure intensity at any point
=𝑝 =𝜌×𝑔×ℎ
i) At the interface
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑜 × 𝑔 × 1
= 900 × 9.81 × 1 = 8829 𝑁/𝑚2
ii) At the bottom
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑜 × 𝑔 × ℎ𝑜 + 𝜌𝑤 × 𝑔 × ℎ𝑤
= 900 × 9.81 × 1 + 1000 × 9.81 × 2
Fig 2.3 = 28449 𝑁⁄𝑚2
Consider the figures above, a force P is applied to the Example 2.2: the diameters of a small piston and a large
piston of small cylinder and forces the fluid out into the piston of a hydraulic jack are 3 cm and 10 cm
larger cylinder thus raising the piston supporting the load respectively. A force of 80 N is applied on a small piston.
W. the force P acting on area a produces a pressure P1 Find the load lifted by the large piston when:
which is transmitted equally in all directions through the
liquid. a) The pistons are at the same level
b) Small piston is 40cm above the large piston

The density of the liquid in the jack is 1000kg/m3 2.2 Absolute, gauge, atmospheric and
vacuum pressure
The pressure on a fluid is measured in two different
systems. In one system, it is measured above the
absolute zero or complete vacuum and it is called the
absolute pressure and in other system, pressure is
measured above atmospheric pressure and it is called
gauge pressure. Thus:
Fig. 2.4 (a) (b) Atmospheric pressure at sea level is about 101.325
KN/m2, equivalent to a head of 10.35 m of water and
Solution
760 mm of mercury and decreases with altitude
Diameter of small piston = d = 3cm
Absolute pressure is defined as the pressure which is
𝜋 2 𝜋 measured above absolute zero pressure which is a
∴ Area of small piston, 𝑎 = 𝑑 = × (3)2 =
4 4
perfect vacuum. A perfect vacuum is completely
7.068 𝑐𝑚2
empty space in which therefore the pressure is zero.
Diameter of large piston = D = 10cm
Gauge pressure is defined as the pressure which is
∴ Area of large piston, measured above atmospheric pressure. The
atmospheric pressure on the scale is marked as zero.
𝜋
𝐴 = 4 × (10)2 = 78.54 𝑐𝑚2
Vacuum pressure is defined as the pressure below
Force on a small piston = F = 80 N the atmospheric pressure.
Let the load lifted =W
a) When the pistons are at the same level
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛

= 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝐹 𝑊
=
𝑎 𝐴 Fig. 2.5
𝐴
.∴ 𝑊=𝐹 Mathematically,
𝑎
78.54 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑊 = 80 × = 888.96 𝑁
7.068 = 𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
+ 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
b) When the small piston is 40cm above the large
piston 𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
= 𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛
− 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
= 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛
+ 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 40𝑐𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 Example 2.3: What are the gauge pressure and
𝑊 𝐹
absolute pressure at a point 3 m below the free
= + 𝜌𝑔ℎ surface of a liquid having a density of 1.53 x 103
𝐴 𝑎
kg/m3 if the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to
𝐹
.∴ 𝑊 = 𝐴 (𝑎 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ) 750mm of mercury? The specific gravity of mercury
is 13.6 and density of water = 1000kg/m3.
80 1000 × 9.81 × 40
𝑊 = 78.54 ( + ) Solution
7.068 104
= 919.7 𝑁

Depth of liquid h1 = 3m Fig 2.6 (b)
Density of liquid ρ1 = 1.53 x 103 kg/m3
Density of mercury ρo = 13.6 x 1000 = 13600kg/m3 (b) The aneroid barometer
750
Atm. Pressure head ho = 750mm of Hg = = The corrugated box is evacuated but it is prevented from
1000
0.75 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑔 collapsing by a strong spring, variation of pressure cause
the front of the box to move in and out so that the pull of
∴ Atmospheric pressure 𝑃𝐴𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌0 × 𝑔 × ℎ𝑜 the spring will just balance the force due to atmospheric
pressure. These small movements are amplified and move
𝑃𝐴𝑡𝑚 = 13600 × 9.81 × 0.75 = 100062 𝑁/𝑚2
a pointer over a calibrated scale.
Pressure at a point which is at a depth 3 m from the
Considering the mercury barometer:
free surface of the liquid is given by
If A is a point in a tube at the same level as the free
𝑃 = 𝜌1 × 𝑔 × ℎ1 = (1.53 × 1000) × 9.81 × 3
surface outside, the pressure PA at A is equal to the
= 45028 𝑁⁄𝑚2
atmospheric pressure P at the surface because in a fluid
∴ Gauge pressure P = 45028 N/m2 at rest, the pressure at all points is the same.
Now absolute pressure = 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 + The column of mercury in a tube is in equilibrium under
𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 the action of the force due to PA acting upwards and its
weight acting downwards. There is no pressure on top of
= 45028 + 100062 = 145090 𝑁⁄𝑚2 the column as it is a vacuum at the top of the tube.
2.2.1 Measurement of atmospheric pressure 𝑃𝐴 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑎

= 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦
Atmospheric pressure is measured using barometers. × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
There are two types of barometers: Mercury barometers
and Aneroid barometer 𝑃𝐴 × 𝑎 = 𝑤𝑚 × 𝑎 × ℎ
(a) Mercury barometer Putting h = 760mm = 0.76m
This consists of a tube about 1 m long and closed at one 𝑤𝑚 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦
end which is completely filled with mercury and inverted × 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
in a bowl of mercury. A vacuum forms at the top of the
tube and atmospheric pressure acting on the top of = 13.6 × 1000 × 9.81 𝑁⁄𝑚3
mercury in the bowl supports the column of mercury in
𝑃𝐴 = 13.6 × 9.81 × 1000 × 0.76 = 101.3𝐾 𝑁⁄𝑚2
the tube at height h.
2.2.2 Fluid pressure measurement
The instruments used for measuring fluid pressures

include:
a) The piezometer / pressure tube

b) The Bourdon gauge
c) Mercury U-tube manometer
(a)
The piezometer tube
This is a vertical open ended tube inserted into a pipe or a

vessel. As the top of the tube is open to the atmosphere,
the pressure measured is gauge pressure.

If the liquid is moving in the pipe, the bottom of the tube b) Mercury U-Tube manometer
must be flush with the inside of the pipe otherwise the
reading will be affected by the velocity of the fluid. It is used to measure the pressure above atmospheric of
water in a pipe. The water being in contact with mercury
in the left hand limb.
(a)
Fig. 2.8
If B is the level of the surface of mercury in the left hand

limb, and C is the point at the same level in the right hand
limb;
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝐵 𝑎𝑡 𝐵 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑐 𝑎𝑡 𝐶
For the left hand limb,
𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐷 + 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 ℎ2
But PD is atmospheric = zero gauge pressure

Fig. 2.7 (b)
∴ 𝑃𝐶 = 0 + 𝑤𝑚 ℎ2 = 𝑆𝑤ℎ2
𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐴
= 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑞𝑑 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑡. ℎ1 Where S – the specific gravity of mercury
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑤ℎ1 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 Since PB = PC
Similarly, 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑤ℎ1 = 𝑆𝑤ℎ2
𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐵 = 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑤ℎ2 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑆𝑤ℎ2 − 𝑤ℎ1

a) The bourdon gauge Putting h2 = h1+h 𝑃𝐴 = (𝑆 − 1)𝑤ℎ1 + 𝑆𝑤ℎ
The fluid pressure acts on the interior of a curved tube of Example 2.4: A U-tube manometer shown in figure 2.9
oval cross-section, tending to straighten it and so causing measures the pressure difference between two points A
the free end to move in proportion to the pressure and B in liquid of specific weight w2. Calculate the
difference in pressure if: a is 1.5m, b is 0.75m and h is
The movement is amplified and used to rotate a pointer
0.5 m.
over a scale from which the pressure can be read.
If the liquid at A and B is water (w1 = 9.81 x 103 N/m3)
The pressure difference between two points can be
and the specific weight of mercury is 13.6 so that w2 =
measured either
13.6w1
i) By measuring the pressure at each point separately
and subtracting or
ii) By using a different pressure gauge or a manometer
which measures directly the difference in pressure.

Specific gravity of mercury, S2 = 13.6
Specific gravity of water, S1 = 1.0
Density of mercury, ρ2 = 13.6 x 1000
Density of water, ρ1 = 1000
Equating pressure above datum line X –X, we have:
𝜌2 × ℎ2 × 𝑔 = 𝜌1 × 𝑔 × ℎ1
13.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.2 = 1000 × 9.81 × ℎ1

Fig. 2.9
ℎ1 = 2.72 m of water
For the left hand limb, 𝑃𝑝 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑤1 𝑎
(b) Vessel is full of water.
For the right hand limb,
When vessel is full of water, the pressure in the right
𝑃𝑄 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝑤1 (𝑏 − ℎ) + 𝑤2 ℎ limb will increase and mercury level in the right limb will
go down. Let the distance through which mercury goes
Since Pp = PQ, down in the right limb be, y cm, as shown in the figure.
The mercury will rise in the left by a distance of y cm.
𝑃𝐴 + 𝑤1 𝑎 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝑤1 (𝑏 − ℎ) + 𝑤2 ℎ now the datum line is Z-Z. equating the pressure above
Pressure difference, the datum line Z-Z
𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑤1 (𝑏 − 𝑎) + ℎ(𝑤2 − 𝑤1 ) 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏
= 9.81 × 103 (0.75 − 1.5) 13.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × (0.2 + 2𝑦⁄100)

+ 0.5(13.6 × 9.81 × 103 − 9.81 × 103 ) = 1000 × 9.81 × (3 + ℎ1 + 𝑦⁄100)
= 54.4 × 103 𝑁⁄𝑚2 13.6 × (0.2 + 2𝑦⁄100) = (3 + 2.72 + 𝑦⁄100)
300
Example 2.5: Figure 2.10 shows a conical vessel having 𝑦= = 11.45 𝑐𝑚
its outlet at A to which a U-tube manometer is connected. 26.2
The reading of the manometer given in the figure shows The difference of mercury level in two limbs =
when the vessel is empty. Find the reading of the (20 + 2𝑦)𝑐𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦
manometer when the vessel is completely filled with
water = 20 + 2 × 11.45 = 20 + 22.90
= 42.90 cm of mercury
2.3 Single column manometer

A single column manometer is a modified form of U-tube
manometer in which the reservoir, having a large cross-
sectional area (about 100 times) as compared to the area
of the tube is connected to one of the limbs (say left limb)
of the manometer as shown in figure 2.11. Due to large
cross-sectional area of the reservoir, for any variation in
pressure, the change in liquid level in the reservoir will be
very small which may be neglected and hence the
Fig. 2.10 (a) (b) pressure is given by the height of the liquid in the other
Solution limb. The other limb may be vertical or inclined. Thus
there are two types of single column manometer as:
(a) When vessel is empty
(a) Vertical single column manometer
Difference in mercury level h2 = 20cm (b) Inclined single column manometer
Let h1 = height of water above X – X

(a) Vertical single column manometer 𝑎×ℎ2
Substituting for Δh, 𝑃𝐴 = 𝐴
[𝜌2 𝑔 − 𝜌1 𝑔] +
Figure 2.11 shows the vertical single column manometer. ℎ2 𝜌2 𝑔 − ℎ1 𝜌1 𝑔
Let X-X be the datum line in the reservoir and in the right 𝑎
As the area A is very large as compared to a, hence ratio 𝐴
limb of the manometer when it is not connected to the
pipe. When the manometer is connected to the pipe, due becomes very small and can be neglected
to high pressure at A, the heavy liquid in the reservoir
Then 𝑃𝐴 = ℎ2 𝜌2 𝑔 − ℎ1 𝜌1 𝑔 ……………… x
will be pushed downward and will rise in the right limb.
(b) Inclined single column manometer
Figure 2.12 shows the inclined single column manometer,

this manometer is more sensitive. Due to the inclination,
the distance moved by the heavy liquid in the right limb
will be more.
Fig 2.11
Let Δh – Fall of heavy liquid in the reservoir

h2 – rise of heavy liquid in the right limb
h1 – height of center of pipe above X-X
PA – pressure at A which is to be measured
Fig. 2.12
A – cross-sectional area of reservoir
a – cross-sectional area of the right limb Let L – length of heavy liquid moved in right limb
S1 – specific gravity of liquid in pipe from X-X
S2 specific gravity of heavy liquid in reservoir and right θ – inclination of right limb with horizontal
limb h2 – vertical rise of heavy liquid in right limb
ρ1 – density of liquid in pipe from X-X = 𝐿 × sin 𝜃
ρ2 – density of liquid in reservoir
Fall of heavy liquid in reservoir will cause a rise of heavy Substituting the value of h2 in equation x, we get
liquid level in the right limb
𝑃𝐴 = sin 𝜃 × 𝜌2 𝑔 − ℎ1 𝜌1 𝑔
𝐴 × ∆ℎ = 𝑎 × ℎ2
𝑎 × ℎ2
∆ℎ =
𝐴
Now consider the datum of line Y-Y as shown in figure.
The pressure in the right limb above Y-Y
= 𝜌2 × 𝑔 × (∆ℎ + ℎ2 )
Pressure in the left limb above Y-Y = 𝜌1 × 𝑔 ×

(∆ℎ + ℎ1 ) + 𝑃𝐴
Equating these pressures, we have
𝜌2 × 𝑔 × (∆ℎ + ℎ2 ) = 𝜌1 × 𝑔 × (∆ℎ + ℎ1 ) + 𝑃𝐴
𝑃𝐴 = 𝜌2 𝑔(∆ℎ + ℎ2 ) − 𝜌1 𝑔(∆ℎ + ℎ1 )

3 HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SURFACES
3.1 Introduction
With the fluid at rest, there will be no relative motion
between adjacent or neighboring fluid layers. The
velocity gradient which is equal to the change of velocity
between two adjacent fluid layers divided by the distance
𝑑𝑢
between the layers, will be zero or = 0. The shear
𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦
stress which is equal to 𝜇 𝜕𝑥 will also be zero. Then the
forces acting on the fluid particles will be: Fig. 3.1
 Due to pressure of fluid normal to the surface Pressure intensity on the strip 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
 Due to gravity (or self-weight of fluid particles)
Area of the strip, 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑏 × 𝑑ℎ
4 Total pressure and center of pressure
The total pressure is defined as the force exerted by a Pressure force on the strip,
static fluid on a surface either plane or curved when the
𝑑𝐹 = 𝑝 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 𝑏 × 𝑑ℎ
fluid comes in contact with the surfaces. This force
always acts normal to the surface. ∴ Total pressure force on the whole surface.
Center of pressure: is defined as the point of application

𝐹 = ∫ 𝑑𝐹 = ∫ 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 𝑏 × 𝑑ℎ = 𝜌𝑔 ∫ 𝑏 × ℎ × 𝑑ℎ
of the total pressure on the surface. There are four cases
of submerged surfaces on which the total pressure force
and center of pressure is to be determined. Submerged But ∫ 𝑏 × ℎ × 𝑑ℎ = ∫ ℎ × 𝑑𝐴 = Moment of surface
surfaces may be: area about the free surface of liquid
 Vertical plane surfaces = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

 Horizontal plane surfaces × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶. 𝐺 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
 Inclined plane surfaces
= 𝐴 × ℎ̅
 Curved surfaces
∴ 𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅
4.1 Vertical plane surfaces
Let A – total area of surface (b) Center of pressure(𝑯 ̅ ). The center of pressure is
ℎ̅ = distance of C.G of the area from free surface calculated by using the principle of moments which
of liquid states that the moment of the resultant force about an
G – Center of gravity of plane surface axis is equal to the sum of all the moments of the
P – Center of pressure components about the same axis.
𝐻̅ - Distance of center of pressure from free
̅ from
The resultant force F is acting at P, at a distance 𝐻
surface of liquid.
free surface of the liquid as shown in figure 3.1. Hence
(a) Total pressure (F). The total pressure on the surface moment of the force F about the free surface of the liquid
may be determined by dividing the surface into a =𝐹×𝐻 ̅
number of small parallel strips. The force on small
strip is then calculated and the total pressure force on Moment of force 𝑑𝐹. Acting on the strip about free
the whole area is calculated by integrating the force surface of the liquid
on the small strip.
= 𝑑𝐹 × ℎ = 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 𝑏 × 𝑑ℎ × ℎ
Consider a strip of thickness 𝒅𝒉 and width b at a depth of
Sum of moments of all such forces about free surface of
h from free surface of liquid as shown in figure 3.1.
liquid

By the theorem of parallel axis, we have:
= ∫ 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 𝑏 × 𝑑ℎ × ℎ = 𝜌𝑔 ∫ 𝑏 × ℎ × ℎ𝑑ℎ
̅̅̅2
𝐼0 = 𝐼𝐺 + 𝐴 × ℎ
= 𝜌𝑔 ∫ 𝑏ℎ2 𝑑ℎ = 𝜌𝑔 ∫ ℎ2 𝑑𝐴
Where 𝑰𝑮 is the moment of inertia of area about an axis
passing through the center of gravity of the area and
But ∫ ℎ2 𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝑏ℎ2 𝑑ℎ = moment of inertia of the parallel to the free surface of the liquid.
surface about free surface of liquid = 𝐼0
̅̅̅̅
2
Therefore ̅ = 𝐼𝐺 +𝐴ℎ = 𝐼𝐺 + ℎ̅
𝐻
∴ Sum of moments about free surface = 𝜌𝑔𝐼𝑜 ̅
𝐴ℎ ̅
𝐴ℎ
Then ̅ = 𝜌𝑔𝐼𝑜
𝐹×𝐻 Where ℎ̅ is the distance of center of gracvity of the area of
vertical surface from free surface of the liquid. Hence
But 𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅ from the above equation, it is clear that
∴ 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅ × 𝐻
̅ = 𝜌𝑔𝐼𝑜 The center of pressure (𝐻̅ ) lies below the center of gravity
of the vertical surface.
𝜌𝑔𝐼𝑜 𝐼𝑜
̅=
𝐻 =
𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ 𝐴ℎ̅
̅̅̅̅ The distance of center of pressure from free surface of
liquid is independent of the density of the liquid.
The second moment of area of some common shapes
Example3.1: A rectangular plane surface is 2m wide and

3 m deep. It lies in a vertical plane in water. Determine
the total pressure and position of the center of pressure
on the plane surface when its upper edge is horizontal
and (a) coincide with the water surface, (b) 2.5m below
the free water surface.
Fig 3.2 (a) (b)

Solution
Width of the plane surface, b = 2m

Depth of plane surface, d = 3m
(a) Upper edge coincides with the water surface.
Total pressure is given by 𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅
Where ρ = 1000kg/m3, g = 9.81m/s2
1 Fig 3.3
𝐴 = 3 × 2 = 6𝑚2 , ℎ̅ = . 3 = 1.5 𝑚
2
Solution:
𝐹 = 1000 × 9.81 × 6 × 1.15 = 88290 𝑁
Given: width of the gate b = 2m
Depth of center of pressure is given by Depth of gate d = 1.2 m
𝐼𝐺 Area of gate 𝐴 = 𝑏 × 𝑑 = 2 × 1.2 = 2.4 m2
̅=
𝐻 + ℎ̅
𝐴ℎ̅
Specific gravity of liquid = 1.45
Where IG = moment of inertia about C.G of the area of
the surface Density of liquid
𝑏𝑑3 2 × 33 ρ1 = 1.45 x 1000 = 1450 kg/m3

= = = 4.5 𝑚4
12 12
Let F1 = force exerted by the fluid of sp. gr. 1.45
4.5 F2 = force exerted by water on the gate
̅=
𝐻 + 1.5 = 0.5 + 1.5 = 2.0 𝑚
6 × 1.5 ̅̅̅
ℎ1 = depth of C.G of gate from the free surface
1.2
(b) Upper edge is 2.5m below water surface as of liquid = 1.5 + 2
= 2.1𝑚
shown in figure 3.2 (b)
Therefore, F1 is given by 𝐹1 = 𝜌1 𝑔 × 𝐴 × ̅̅̅
ℎ1
3
ℎ̅ = 2.5 + = 4.0 𝑚 = 1450 × 9.81 × 2.4 × 2.1 = 71691 N
2
𝐹 = 1000 × 9.81 × 6 × 4.0 = 235440 𝑁 Similarly, 𝐹2 = 𝜌2 𝑔 × 𝐴 × ̅̅̅

ℎ2
Center of pressure, ̅ = 𝐼𝐺 + ℎ̅
𝐻 = 1000 × 9.81 × 2.4 × 0.6 = 14126 N
̅
𝐴ℎ
Where ρ2 = 1,000kg/m3, ̅𝒉̅̅𝟐̅ = depth of center of gravity
Where IG = 4.5, A = 6.0 and ℎ̅ = 4.0 1.2
from free surface of water = 2
= 0.6 m
4.5
̅=
𝐻 + 4.0 = 4.1875 𝑚
6.0 × 4.0 i) Resultant force on the gate
= 𝐹1 − 𝐹2 = 71691 − 14126 = 57565 N
Example 3.2: A vertical sluice gate is used to cover an
ii) Position of center of pressure of resultant force. The
opening in a dam. The opening is 2 m wide and 1.2 m
force F1 will be acting at a depth H1 from free
high. On the upstream of the gate, the liquid of specific
surface of the liquid, given by the relation:
gravity 1.45, lies up to the height of 1.5 m above the top 𝐼 0.288
of the gate, whereas on the downstream side the water is ̅𝐻̅̅1̅ = 𝐺 + ̅̅̅
ℎ1 = + 2.1 = 2.1571 𝑚
̅̅̅
𝐴ℎ1 2.4 × 2.1
available up to the high touching the top of the gate.
Find the resultant force acting on the gate and position of 𝑏𝑑 3 2×1.23
Where 𝐼𝐺 = = = 0.288 m4
center of pressure. Find also the force acting horizontally 12 12
at the top of the gate which is capable of opening it. ∴ Distance of F1 from hinge
Assume that the gate is hinged at the bottom.
= (1.5 + 1.2) − ̅𝐻̅̅1̅ = 2.7 − 2.1571 = 0.5429 m

Therefore, F2 will be acting at a depth ̅𝐻̅̅2̅ from free
surface of water and is given by:
𝐼𝐺 0.288
̅̅̅
𝐻2̅ = + ̅̅̅
ℎ2 = + 0.6 = 0.8 𝑚
̅̅̅
𝐴ℎ2 2.4 × 0.6
Distance of F2 from the hinge
= 1.2 – 0.8 = 0.4 m Fig. 3.5
The resultant force 57565 N will be acting at a distance Let A – total area of inclined surface
given by ̅
ℎ - Depth of center of gravity of incline area from free
surface
71691 × 0.5429 − 14126 × 0.4
= 0.578 𝑚 𝒉∗ - Depth of center of pressure from free surface of
57565
liquid
Force at top of the gate which is capable of opening the θ – Angle made by the plane of the surface with the free
gate. Let F be the force required on the top of the gate to surface of liquid
open it. Taking moment of F, F1 and F2 about the hinge
we get: Let the plane of the surface, if produced meet the free
liquid surface at O. then O-O is the axis perpendicular to
𝐹 × 1.2 × 𝐹2 × 0.4 = 𝐹1 × 0.5429 the plane of the surface.
𝐹1 × 0.5429 − 𝐹2 × 0.4 Let 𝑦̅ – distance of the C.G of the inclined surface
𝐹=
1.2 from O-O
71691×0.5429−14126×0.4 𝑦 ∗ - Distance of the center of pressure from O-O
= 1.2
= 27725.5 N
Consider a small strip of area dA at a depth h from the
4.1.1 Horizontal plane surface submerged in a free surface and at a distance y from the axis O-O as in
liquid the figure:
Consider a plane horizontal surface immersed in a static
fluid. As every point of the surface is at the same depth Pressure intensity on the strip, 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
from the free surface of the liquid, the pressure intensity
will be equal on the entire surface and equal to 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ, ∴ Pressure force, dF, on the strip,
where h is depth if surface.
𝑑𝐹 = 𝑝 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 𝑑𝐴
Let A = Total area of surface
Total pressure force on the whole area,
Total force, F on the surface
𝐹 = ∫ 𝑑𝐹 = ∫ 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑑𝐴
= 𝑝 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝜌𝑔 × ℎ × 𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅
From the figure,
Where
ℎ ℎ̅ ℎ∗
ℎ̅ - depth of C.G from free surface of liquid = h = = = sin 𝜃
𝑦 𝑦̅ 𝑦 ∗
ℎ∗ - Depth of center of pressure from free surface = h
∴ ℎ = 𝑦 sin 𝜃
4.1.2 Inclines plane surface submerged in a
liquid ∴ 𝐹 = ∫ 𝜌𝑔 × 𝑦 × sin 𝜃 × 𝑑𝐴 =
Consider a plane surface of arbitrary shape immersed in 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
a liquid in such a way that the plane of the surface makes
an angle θ which the free surface of the liquid as shown But ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐴 = 𝐴𝑦̅
in figure 3.5.
Where 𝑦̅ = distance of C.G from axis O-O
𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑦̅ × 𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅
∴ ℎ̅ = 𝑦̅ sin 𝜃

Center of pressure (𝒉∗ )
Pressure force, 𝑑𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑑𝐴 = [ℎ = 𝑦 sin 𝜃]

𝜌𝑔𝑦 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝐴
Moment of force; dF, about axis O-O = 𝑑𝐹 × 𝑦 =

𝜌𝑔𝑦 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 × 𝑦 = 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴
Sum of moments of all such forces about O-O =

∫ 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴
Fig 3.6
But ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 =
𝑀. 𝑂. 𝐼. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑂 − 𝑂 = 𝐼𝑜 i) Total pressure force is given by 𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅
∴ Sum of moments about O – O 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐼𝑜 Where ρ = 1000 kg/m3,
Moment of the total force, F, about O – O is also given 𝐴 = 𝑏 × 𝑑 = 3 × 4 = 12 m2,
by: = 𝐹 × 𝑦 ∗
And ℎ̅ = Depth of center of pressure from
Where 𝑦 ∗ = Distance of center of pressure from O – O free water surface
𝐹 × 𝑦 ∗ = 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐼𝑜 = 2 + 𝐵𝐸 = 2 + 𝐵𝐶 sin 𝜃
𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃𝐼𝑜
Or 𝑦∗ = 𝐹 = 2 + 2 sin 300 = 2 + 2 × 2 = 3 m
1
ℎ∗
Now 𝑦 ∗ = sin 𝜃, 𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅ 𝐹 = 1000 × 9.81 × 12 × 3 = 353167 𝑁
= 353.167 𝐾𝑁
̅̅̅2
And IO by the system of parallel axis = 𝐼𝐺 + 𝐴𝑦
ii) Center of pressure
Therefore
𝐼𝐺 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
∗ From ℎ∗ = 𝐴ℎ̅ + ℎ̅
ℎ 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃
= [𝐼𝑔 + 𝐴𝑦 −2 ]
sin 𝜃 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅ 𝑏𝑑 3 3×43
Where 𝐼𝐺 = = = 16 m4
12 12
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
∴ ℎ∗ = ̅ [𝐼𝑔 + 𝐴𝑦 −2 ] 1
𝐴ℎ 16×
∴ ℎ∗ = 4
+ 3 = 3.111m
̅ ̅ 36
ℎ ℎ
But 𝑦̅
= sin 𝜃, or 𝑦̅ = sin 𝜃
Example 3.4: A circular plate 3 m diameter, having a
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 ̅2
ℎ concentric circular hole of diameter 1.5 m is immersed
∴ ℎ∗ = ̅
𝐴ℎ
[𝐼𝐺 + 𝐴 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃] in water in such a way that its greatest and least depths
below the free surface are 4 m and 1.5 m respectively.
𝐼𝐺 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
Or ℎ∗ = 𝐴ℎ̅ + ℎ̅ Determine the total pressure and the position of the
center of pressure on one face of the plate.
Example 3.3: A rectangular plane surface 3 m wide and
4 m deep lies in water in such a way that its plane makes
an angle of 300 with the free surface of water. Determine
the total pressure force and position of center of
pressure, when the upper edge is 2 m below the free
surface.
Solution
Given b = 3 m, d = 4 m, θ = 300
Fig 3.7
Distance of upper edge from free surface of water = 2 m

Solution
Given: Diameter of the plate d = 3 m
Area of a solid plate

𝜋 𝜋
= 4 𝑑2 = 4 (3)2 = 7.0685 𝑚2
Diameter of the hole in the plate, do = 1.5 m

Fig 3.8
Area of the hole
𝜋 𝜋 Given
= 4 𝑑02 = 4 (1.5)2 = 1.7671 𝑚2
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 1.2 × 5.0 = 6.0 𝑚2
Area of the given plate 𝐴
Depth of C.G of the gate from free surface of the water
= 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 − 𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒
= ℎ̅
2
= 7.0685 − 1.7671 = 5.3014 𝑚
= 𝐷𝐺 = 𝐵𝐶 − 𝐵𝐸 = 5.0 − 𝐵𝐺 sin 450
Distance CD = 1.5, BE = 4 m
1
Distance of C.G. from the free surface, = 5.0 − 0.6 × = 4.576 𝑚
√2
ℎ̅ = 𝐶𝐷 + 𝐺𝐶 sin 𝜃 = 1.5 + 1.5 sin 𝜃 The total pressure force (F) acting on the gate
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐸−𝐴𝐸 4−1.5 2.5
But sin 𝜃 = 𝐵𝐶 = = = 𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅
𝐵𝐶 3 3
2.5 = 1000 × 9.81 × 6.0 × 4.576 = 269343 N

∴ ℎ̅ = 1.5 + 1.5 × 3 = 1.5 + 1.25 = 2.75 m
This force is acting at H, where the depth H from free
(i) Total pressure force (F) surface is given by
𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅ 𝐼𝐺 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
ℎ∗ = + ℎ̅
= 1000 × 9.81 × 5.3014 × 2.5 = 143.018 KN 𝐴ℎ̅
Where 𝐼𝐺 = 𝑀. 𝑂. 𝐼 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒
(ii) Position of the center of pressure
𝑏𝑑 3 5.0×1.23
𝐼𝐺 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = = = 0.72 m
ℎ∗ = + ℎ̅ 12 12
𝐴ℎ̅
0.72×𝑠𝑖𝑛2 45𝑜
𝜋 𝜋 Depth of center of pressure ℎ∗ = +
Where 𝐼𝐺 = [𝑑4 − 𝑑𝑜4 ] = [34 − 1.54 ] m4 6×4.576
64 64 4.576 = 0.13 + 4.576 = 4.589 m
𝜋 𝜋
𝐴 = 4 [𝑑2 − 𝑑𝑜4 ] = 4 [32 − 1.52 ] m2 ℎ∗
From figure 3.8 (a), 𝑂𝐻
= sin 45𝑜
2.5
sin 𝜃 = 3
and ℎ̅ = 2.75 ∴Distance,
𝜋 4 2.5 2 ℎ∗ 4.589
[3 −1.54 ] ×( ) 𝑂𝐻 = sin 45𝑜 = = 4.589 × √2 = 6.489 m
∗ 64 3 1
∴ℎ = 𝜋 2
[3 −1.52 ]×2.75
+ 2.75 = 2.927 m
√2
4
5
Example 3.5: An inclined rectangular sluice gate AB 1.2 Distance, 𝐵𝑂 = sin 45𝑜 = 5 × √2 = 7.071m
m by 5 m size is installed to control the discharge of
water. The end A is hinged, determine the force normal Distance, 𝐵𝐻
to the gate applied at B to open it.
= 𝐵𝑂 − 𝑂𝐻 = 7.071 − 6.489 = 0.582 M
∴Distance 𝐴𝐻
= 𝐴𝐵 − 𝐵𝐻 = 1.2 − 0.582 = 0.618 m 𝑏𝑑 3 1×23 2
= 12
= 12
= 3 m4
Taking moments about the hinge A, 2
1
ℎ∗ = 3
2×2.5
+ 2.5 = 7.5 + 2.5 = 2.633m from
𝑃 × 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐹 × (𝐴𝐻)
free surface
Where P is the force normal to the gate applied at B
Vertical force, Fy exerted by water is given by;
𝐹×𝐴𝐻 269343×0.618
∴ 𝑃= = = 138708 N
𝐴𝐵 1.2 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐴𝐵
Example 3.6: compute the horizontal and vertical = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐷𝐴𝐵𝑂𝐶
components of the total force acting on a curved surface
AB, which is in the form of a quadrant of a circle of = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝐴𝑂𝐶 + 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝑂𝐵
radius 2 m as shown in the figure. Take the width of the
gate as unity. = 𝜌𝑔[𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝐴𝑂𝐶 + 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑂𝐵]
𝜋
= 1000 × 9.81 [𝐴𝐷 × 𝐴𝑂 × 1 + (𝐴𝑂)2 × 1]
4
𝜋
= 1000 × 9.81 [1.5 × 2.0 × 1 + × 22 × 1]
4
= 60249.1 N
Example 3.7: Find the magnitude and direction of the

resultant force due to water acting on a roller gate of
Fig 3.9
cylindrical form of 4.0 m diameter, when the gate is
Solution placed on the dam in such a way that water is just going
to spill. Take the length of the gate as 8 m.
Given Width of gate = 1.0 m, radius of gate = 2.0 m
∴ Distance AO = OB = 2 m
Horizontal force Fx exerted by the water on the gate is

given by:
Fx = total pressure force on the projected area of

curved surface AB on vertical plane
= 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑂𝐵 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅ Fig 3.10
2 Solution
= 1000 × 9.81 × 2 × 1 × (1.5 + 2)
Given Diameter of the gate = 4 m, Length of the gate l,
Where {𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑂𝐵 = 𝐴 = 𝐵𝑂 × 1 = 2 × 1 = 2} = 8m
ℎ̅ - Depth of C.G of OB from the surface Horizontal force, Fx acting on the gate is;
2
= (1.5 + 2) 𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅
𝐹𝑥 = 9.81 × 2000 × 2.5 = 49050 𝑁 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝐶𝐵
The point of application of Fx is given by = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝑂𝐵
𝐼𝐺 Where 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑂𝐵 = 4.0 × 8.0 = 32.0 m2

ℎ∗ = ̅ + ℎ̅
𝐴ℎ
ℎ̅ = 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐶. 𝐺 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑂𝐵 = 4⁄2 = 2.0 m
Where IG – Moment of inertia of OB about its C.G
∴ 𝐹𝑥 = 1000 × 9.81 × 32.0 × 2.0 = 627840 N
Vertical force, Fy is given by Let the force P and F meet at O. then the reaction R must
pass through O as the gate AB is in equilibrium under
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝐶𝐵 the action of the three forces. Let θ be the inclination of
the lock gate with the normal to the side of the lock.
= 𝜌𝑔 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝐶𝐵
In angle ABO, 𝑂𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵𝑂 = 𝜃
= 𝜌𝑔 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐶𝐵 = 𝜌𝑔 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐶𝐵 × 𝑙
𝜋 Resolving all forces along the gate AB and putting equal
= 1000 × 9.81 × 2 (2)2 × 8.0 = 493104 N to zero, we get
It will be acting in upward direction. 𝑅 cos 𝜃 − 𝑃 cos 𝜃 = 0 or 𝑅 = 𝑃
∴ Resultant force, Resolving forces normal to AB
𝐹 = √𝐹𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑦2 𝑅 sin 𝜃 + 𝑃 sin 𝜃 − 𝐹 = 0
Or 𝐹 = 𝑅 sin 𝜃 + 𝑃 sin 𝜃 = 2𝑃 sin 𝜃

= √627840 + 493104 = 798328 N
𝐹
∴ 𝑃 = 2 sin 𝜃
Direction of resultant force is given by
𝐹𝑦 493104
To calculate P and R
tan 𝜃 = 𝐹 = 627840 = 07853
𝑥
P can be calculated if F and θ are known. The value of θ
𝑜 ′ is calculated from the angle between the lock gates. The
∴ 𝜃 = 31 8
angle between two lock gate is equal to 180 – 2θ. Hence
θ can be calculated. The value of F is calculated as:
4.2 Total pressure and center of Let H1 – Height of water on upstream side
pressure on lock gates H2 – height of water on downstream side
Lock gates are the devices used for changing the water F1 – water pressure on the gate on upstream side
level in a canal or river for navigation. The figure shows F2 – water pressure on the gate on downstream
a plan and elevation of a pair of lock gates. Let AB and side
BC be the two lock gates. Each gate is supported on two L – Width of the gate
hinges fixed on their top and bottom at the ends A and
𝐻1 𝐻12
C. in the closed position, the gates meet at B. Now 𝐴1 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴1 ̅̅̅
ℎ1 = 𝜌𝑔𝐻1 × 𝑙 × 2
= 𝜌𝑔𝑙 2
𝐻
∴ 𝐴 = 𝐻1 × 𝑙1 ̅̅̅
ℎ1 = 21
Similarly,
𝐻2 𝜌𝑔𝑙𝐻22
𝐹2 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴2 ̅̅̅
ℎ2 = 𝜌𝑔 × (𝐻2 × 𝑙) × =
2 2
𝜌𝑔𝑙𝐻12 𝜌𝑔𝑙𝐻22
∴ Resultant force 𝐹 = 𝐹1 − 𝐹2 = 2
− 2
Reaction at the top and bottom hinges
Fig 3.11 Let Rt – reaction at the top

Rb – reaction at the bottom
Let F – resultant force due to water on the gate AB
or BC acting at right angles to the gate. Then 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑡 + 𝑅𝑏
R – Reaction at the lower and upper hinge
P – Reaction at the common contact surface of The resultant water pressure F acts normal to the gate.
the two gates and acting perpendicular to the Half of the value of F is resisted by the hinges of one
contact surface. lock gates and other half will be resisted by the hinges of

𝐻1 Force F1 will be acting at a distance of
other lock gate. Also F1 acts at a distance 3
from the
𝐻2 𝐻1 4
bottom while F2 acts at a distance of from the = 3 = 1.33 m from the bottom
3 3
bottom.
Similarly, total water pressure on the downstream side
Taking moments about the lower hinge
𝐹2 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴2 ̅̅̅
ℎ2 Where 𝐴2 = 𝐻2 × 𝑙 = 2 × 2.887 m2
𝐹1 𝐻1 𝐹2 𝐻2
𝑅𝑡 × sin 𝜃 × 𝐻 = × − ×
2 3 2 3 = 1000 × 9.81 × 2 × 2.887 × 1.0 = 56643 N
Where H = Distance between two hinges 𝐻2 2
Force F2 will be acting at a distance of 3
= 3 = 0.67 m
Resolving forces horizontally, from the bottom
𝐹1 𝐹2 Resultant water pressure on each gate
𝑅𝑡 sin 𝜃 + 𝑅𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 2
− 2
𝐹 = 𝐹1 − 𝐹2 = 226571 − 56643 = 169928 N
Example 3.8: Each gate of the lock is 6 m high and is
supported by two hinges placed on the top and the Let x be the height of F from the bottom, then taking
bottom of the gate. When the gates are closed, they make moments of F1, F2 and F from the bottom, we have
an angle of 1200. The width of lock is 5 m. if the water
levels are 4 m and 2 m on the upstream and downstream 𝐹 × 𝑥 = 𝐹1 × 1.33 − 𝐹2 × 0.67
sides respectively, determine the magnitudes of the
forces on the hinges due to the water pressure. Or 169928 × 𝑥
= 226571 × 1.33 − 56643 × 0.67

226571×1.33−56643×0.67
∴ 𝑥= 169928
= 1.55 m
𝐹 169928
And 𝑃 = 2 sin 𝜃 = 2 sin 30 = 169928 N
169928×1.55
∴ 𝑅𝑇 = = 43898 N
6.0
∴ 𝑅𝐵 = 𝑅 − 𝑅𝑇 = 169928 − 42898
Fig 3.12 = 126030 N
Given: Height of lock = 6 m, Width of lock = 5 m, But also 𝑅 = 𝑃 = 169928 N

angle between gates = 1200, Height of water on upstream
If RT and RB are the reaction at the top and bottom
H1, = 4m and height of water on downstream H2, = 2m
hinges, then 𝑅𝑇 + 𝑅𝐵 = 𝑅 = 169928 N
Width of each lock gate
Taking movements of hinge reactions RT, RB and R
𝐴𝐷 2.5 about the bottom hinges, we have
= 𝐴𝐵 or 𝑙 = cos 300 = cos 300
𝑅𝑇 × 6.0 + 𝑅𝐵 × 0 = 𝑅 × 1.55
180 − 120
𝜃= = 300
2 ∴ 𝑅𝑇 =
169928×1.55
= 43898 N
6.0
∴ Total water pressure on upstream side
∴ 𝑅𝐵 = 𝑅 − 𝑅𝑇 = 169928 − 43898 = 126030 N
𝐹1 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴1 ̅̅̅
ℎ1
Where 𝐴1 = 𝐻1 × 𝑙 = 4.0 × 2.887 m2
= 1000 × 9.81 × 4 × 2.887 × 2.0 = 226571N
̅̅̅1 = 𝐻1 = 4 = 2.0 𝑚}
{ℎ 2 2

5 DYNAMICS OF FLUID FLOW
5.1 Liquids in motion manner and retain the same relative position in
There is no shear force in a liquid at rest but when it is successive cross-sections.
in motion, shear force can be set up due to turbulence
Uniform flow: this is the type of flow in which the cross-
and viscosity which opposes motion producing a
sectional area and the velocity of the stream of fluid are
frictional effect.
the same at each successive cross-section.
A fluid consists of large number of individual particles
Steady flow: the cross-sectional area and the velocity of
moving in a general direction of flow but usually not
the stream may vary from cross-section to cross-section
parallel to each other. The velocity of any particle is a
but for each cross-section, they do not vary with time
vector quantity having magnitude and direction which
e.g. flow through a tapering pipe.
vary from moment to moment; the path flowed by a
particle is called a path line. Unsteady flow: The cross-sectional area and the velocity
of the stream at any cross-section vary with time. E.g. a
wave travelling along the channel
Mean velocity: This is the velocity of flow when a unit

discharge passes a certain cross-section
(a) Discharge: Is the volume of liquid passing a given

cross-section in a unit time, it is measured in m3/s and is
denoted by Q.
Mass flow rate: Is the mass of liquid passing a given

cross-section in a unit time.
(b)
5.2 Reynold’s number
Fig 4.1 Forms of fluid flow Osborne Reynolds found out that the type of flow is
determined by the velocity of the fluid and the size of
At any given instant of time, the position of successive the conduit and depends on the value of;
particles can be joined up by a curve which is tangential
to the direction of motion of the particle at that instant, 𝜌𝑉𝑑
𝑅=
this curve is called a streamline and it is ordinarily a 𝜇
curve in three dimensions.
Where v – mean velocity, ρ – mass density and µ -
If streamline are drawn through every point on the viscosity of the fluid while d – is the pipe diameter.
circumference of small area as in the figure 4.1 (b)
above, they form a stream tube. Since there is no flow In terms of kinematic viscosity 𝑣,
across the streamline, the fluid inside the a stream tube
𝜇 = 𝜌𝑣
cannot escape and can be treated conveniently.
𝑉𝑑
Types of flow ∴ 𝑅=
𝑣
There are various types of flows that occur in pipelines Where 𝑣 is kinematic viscosity which should not be
and these may be defined as follows: confused with 𝑉, for flow in pipes, if the Reynolds
number is less than 2100, flow is always laminar and
Turbulent flow: this is the type of flow in which the above 2100, the flow is turbulent.
particles of a fluid move in a disorderly manner,
occupying different relative positions in successive 5.2.1 Continuity of flow
cross-sections. For continuity of flow in any system of fluid flow, the
total amount of fluid entering the system must be equal
Viscous flow also known as streamline or laminar flow to the amount leaving the system. This occurs in the
is one in which the particles of fluid move in an orderly

case of uniform and steady flow. In the figure 4.2 below, = 0.143 m3/s
if QA is the discharge at A and QB the discharge at B,
For continuity of flow, 𝑄𝐴 = 𝑄𝐶 + 𝑄𝐷
𝑄𝐴 = 𝑄𝐵 or 𝑎𝐴 𝑣𝐴 = 𝑎𝐵 𝑣𝐵
𝑄𝐶 = 𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄𝐷 = 0.287 − 0.143 = 0.144 m3/s
Where aA and aB are cross-sectional areas at A and B
respectively and vA & vB the respective fluid velocities Also for continuity of flow,
If Qc and Qd are the discharges at C and D, then 1 1

𝑄𝐴 = 𝑄𝐵 = 𝜋𝐷𝐴2 𝑣𝐴 = 𝜋𝐷𝐵2 𝑣𝐵
4 4
𝑄𝐴 = 𝑄𝐵 = 𝑄𝐶 + 𝑄𝐷 𝐷 0.45
𝑣𝐵 = 𝑣𝐴 (𝐷𝐴 ) = 1.8 ( 0.3 ) = 4.05 m/s
𝐵
𝑎𝐴 𝑣𝐴 = 𝑎𝐵 𝑣𝐵 = 𝑎𝐶 𝑣𝐶 + 𝑎𝐷 𝑣𝐷
Since QC = 0.144 m3/s,
𝑄𝐶 0.144
𝑣𝐶 = 1 =1 = 8.1 m/s
𝜋𝐷𝐶2 𝜋(0.15)2
2 4
5.3 Energy of a fluid

A liquid may possess three forms of energy:
Potential energy – because of its elevation above datum

Fig 4.2
level. If a weight W of a liquid is at height Z above
If the continuity of flow relation did not apply, fluid datum, potential energy = 𝑊𝑍
would have to be created or destroyed within the system
Potential energy per unit weight = 𝑍
otherwise the pipe would collapse. For compressible
fluids, there is continuity of flow when the mass passing Pressure energy – when the fluid flows in a continuous
each section or entering and leaving the system is the stream under pressure, it can do work; if the area of
same. cross-section of the stream of fluid is ‘a’, then the force
due to pressure ‘p’ on the cross section 𝒑𝒂
Example 4.1: Considering figure 4.2, oil flows through
a pipeline which contracts from 450 mm diameter to 300 If the weight W of liquid passes the cross-section,
mm diameter at B and then forks one branch being 150
mm diameter discharging at C and the other branch 225 𝑊
Volume passing the cross-section =
𝑤
mm diameter discharging at D. if the velocity at A is 1.8
m/s and velocity at D is #.^ m/s; what will be the 𝑊
Distance moved by the liquid = 𝑤𝑎
discharge at C and D and the velocities at B and C
𝑊 𝑝
Solution Work done = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑝𝑎 × 𝑤𝑎 = 𝑊 𝑤
𝑝 𝑝
Discharge at A Pressure energy per unit weight = =
𝑤 𝜌𝑔
1 1
= 𝑄𝐴 = 𝜋𝐷𝐴2 𝑣𝐴 = 𝜋 × (0.45)2 × 1.8 = 0.287 m3/s Pressure energy is the energy of a fluid flowing under
4 4
pressure
Discharge at C
Kinetic energy – if the weight W of a liquid has velocity
1 1
= 𝑄𝐶 = 4
𝜋𝐷𝐶2 𝑣𝐶 = 4
𝜋 × (0.15)2 × 𝑣𝐶 V,
1𝑊
= 0.0177𝑉𝐶 m3/s Kinetic energy = 2 𝑔 𝑉2
Discharge at D 𝑉2
Kinetic energy per unit weight = 2𝑔
1 1
= 𝑄𝐷 = 4 𝜋𝐷𝐷2 𝑣𝐷 = 4 𝜋 × (0.225)2 × 3.6
The total energy of the liquid is the sum of the three
forms of energy

𝑝 𝑉2 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝐴
∴ Total energy per unit weight = 𝑍 + 𝜌𝑔 + 2𝑔
= 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝐶
The total energy can also be referred to as total the head
𝑃𝑜 𝑉 2 𝑃𝑐
𝑏+0+ =0+ +
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔
= 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 + 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝑉2
+ 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏 = 3.6
2𝑔
𝑝 𝑉2
𝐻=𝑍+ + 𝑉 = √2𝑔 × 3.6 = 8.4 m/s
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
Discharge
5.4 Bernoulli’s theorem
Bernoulli’s theorem states that the total energy of each 1
= 𝑎𝑉 = 4 𝜋 × (0.075)2 × 8.4 = 0.0371 m3/s
particle of a body of fluid is the same provided that no
energy enters or leaves the system at any point. Applying Bernoulli’s equation to A and to the crest B
where the absolute pressure PB and velocity is V,
𝑝 𝑉2
𝐻=𝑍+ + = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝐴
= 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝐵
Assumptions
𝑃𝑜 𝑉 2 𝑃𝐵
 The flow must be steady. (Velocity, pressure and 𝑏+0+ = (𝑎 + 𝑏) + +
density cannot change at any point). 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔
 The flow must be incompressible – even when the 𝑃
Putting 𝜌𝑔𝑜 = 10 m of water, V = 8.4 m/s
pressure varies, the density must remain constant
along the streamline.
8.42 𝑃𝐵
 Friction by viscous forces must be minimal. 3.6 + 10 = 5.4 + +
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔
Example 4.2 A siphon has a uniform circular bore of 75
𝑃𝐵
mm diameter and consists of a bent pipe with its crest = 13.6 − 9.0 = 4.6 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
1.8 m above water level discharging into the atmosphere 𝜌𝑔
at a level 3.6 m below water level. Find the velocity of Absolute pressure at B
flow, the discharge and the absolute pressure at crest
level if atmospheric pressure is equivalent to 10m of = 4.6 × 9.81 × 103 = 45.1 × 103 N/m2
water. Neglect losses due to friction.
Example 4.3: The water is flowing through a tapper
pipe of length 100m having diameter 600mm at the
upper end and 300mm at the lower end, at the rate of 50
liters per second. The pipe has a slope of 1 in 30; find
the pressure at the lower end if the pressure at the higher
level is 19.62 N/cm
Fig 4.3
Solution
Applying Bernoulli’s theorem to points A and C, taking

C as the datum level, atmospheric pressure as Po and
velocity at A as zero, Fig. 4.4
Solution

Given Length of pipe L = 100m, Dia. Of the upper end Fig. 4.5
D1 = 600mm = 0.6 m
Suppose that in a small time t the fluid contained
∴ Area, 𝐴1 =
𝜋
𝐷 = ×
𝜋
(0.6)2 = 0.2827m 2 between AB and CD moves to A’B’ and C’D’,
4 1 4
Change of momentum of this fluid in time t:
Pressure at upper end
= p1 = 19.62 N/cm2 = 19.62 x 104 N/m2

= 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐶𝐶’𝐷𝐷’ – 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢
Dia. At lower end D2 = 300mm = 0.3 m
Distance CC’ = 𝑣2 𝑡
𝜋 𝜋
∴ Area 𝐴2 = 𝐷 = × (0.3)2 = 0.07068m 2
4 2 4 Mass of fluid CC’D’D = 𝜌𝑎2 𝑣2 𝑡
Q = rate of flow = 50 liters/s = 50/100 = 0.05 m3/s Where ρ is the mass density of the fluid
Let the datum line pass through the center of the lower Momentum of CC’D’D
end
= 𝜌𝑎2 𝑣2 𝑡 × 𝑣2 = 𝜌𝑎2 𝑣2 2 𝑡
Then Z2 = 0
1 10
Similarly, momentum of fluid AA’B’B = 𝜌𝑎1 𝑣1 2 𝑡
As the slope is 1 in 30 means 𝑍1 = 30
× 100 = 3
m
Change in momentum of fluid between AB and CD in
Also 𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 time t
𝑉1 =
𝑄
=
0.05
= 0.17071 m/s = 𝜌𝑎2 𝑣2 2 𝑡 − 𝜌𝑎1 𝑣1 2 𝑡
𝐴1 0.2827
𝑄 0.5
Rate of change of momentum of fluid between AB and
𝑉2 = = = 0.7074 m/s CD
𝐴2 0.07068
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at sections (1) and (2), = 𝜌(𝑎2 𝑣2 2 − 𝑎1 𝑣1 2 )

we get
For continuity of flow, 𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 𝑣2 = 𝑄 where Q is the
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22 discharge
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
Rate of change of momentum of fluid between AB and
4 (0.177)2 (0.707)2 CD
19.62 × 10 10 𝑝2
+ + = + +0
1000 × 9.81 2 × 9.81 3 𝜌𝑔 2 × 9.81 𝑤𝑄
= 𝜌𝑄(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ) = (𝑣2 − 𝑣1 )
From which; 𝑃2 = 22.85 N/cm2 𝑔
= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 × 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Power of a jet
5.5 Rate of change of momentum
Consider a fluid flowing in a tapering pipe (figure 4.5). 𝑉2
Kinetic energy per unit weight of a jet = 2𝑔
At section AB, the area of cross-section is a1 and
velocity v1 and at section CD the corresponding values
If W is the weight issuing per second,
are a2 and v2.
𝑉2
Power of a jet = 𝑊 2𝑔
𝑊 = 𝑤𝑄 = 𝑤𝑎𝑉
𝑤𝑎𝑉 3 1
Power of jet = 2𝑔
= 2 𝜌𝑎𝑉 3

6 FLOW MEASUREMENT
6.1 Venture meter and Pitot tube. total energy at the two sections is the same, the pressure
Both venture meter and pitot tube are examples of the energy at the throat will be less than at entrance.
practical application of Bernoulli’s equation to the
The pressure difference thus created is dependent on the
measurement of flow.
rate of flow through the meter. Applying Bernoulli’s
In any practical hydraulic system, loss of energy will equation for section 1 and 2 ignoring losses gives
occur but it is convenient to ignore this loss in deriving
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
equation for the instruments and then to correct the + + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
theoretical results obtained by multiplying it by an 𝑤 2𝑔 𝑤 2𝑔
exponential determined coefficient to allow for the For horizontal meter, 𝑍1 = 𝑍2
effect of the loss of energy.
𝑉2 2 − 𝑉1 2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
6.1.1 Venturi meter = … … … … … … … … … … … … . (𝑖)
2𝑔 𝑤
The instrument consists of a short converging conical
tube leading to a cylindrical portion called the throat 𝑎1
For continuity of flow, 𝑎1 𝑉1 = 𝑎2 𝑉2 giving 𝑉2 = 𝑉
𝑎2 1
which is followed by a diverging section.
Substituting in (i)
The entrance and exit diameter is the same as that of the
pipeline into which it is inserted. The angle of 𝑎1 2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
convergence cone is usually 210, the length of the throat 𝑉1 2 ( 2
− 1) = 2𝑔 ( )
𝑎2 𝑤
is equal to the throat diameter and the angle of divergent
cone is 50 to 70 to ensure a minimum loss of energy but
where this is unimportant, the angle may be as large as 𝑎2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
𝑉1 = √2𝑔 ( )
140. √(𝑎1 2 − 𝑎2 2 ) 𝑤
Discharge 𝑄 = 𝑎1 𝑉1 =
𝑎1 𝑎2
√2𝑔𝐻 … … … … … … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
√(𝑎1 2 −𝑎2 2 )
𝑃1 −𝑃2
Where, 𝐻 = 𝑤
= pressure difference expressed as
head of liquid flowing in the meter
𝑎1
If the area ratio ⁄𝑎2 = 𝑚, equation (ii) becomes:
2𝑔𝐻
𝑄 = 𝑎1 √[ ]
Fig 4.6 Venturi meter 𝑚2 − 1
Pressure tapings are taken at the entrance and at the
The theoretical discharge Q can be converted into actual
throat either from angle holes or by using a number of
discharge by multiplying by the coefficient of discharge
holes around the circumference connecting to an annular
Cd founded experimentally.
chamber or piezometer ring and the pressure difference
is measured by suitable gauges. 2𝑔𝐻
Actual discharge 𝐶𝑑 × 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑎1 √[𝑚2 −1]
For continuity of flow, the velocity V1 at entry section 1
will be less than the velocity V2 at the throat section 2. If the heads of the U-tube are filled with water,
Since 𝑎1 𝑉1 = 𝑎2 𝑉2 and a1 is greater than a2 𝑤ℎ𝑔

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝑥 ( − 1)
𝑤
The kinetic energy in the throat will be greater than that
at the entrance and since by Bernoulli’s theorem the 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 𝑤ℎ𝑔
𝐻= = 𝑥( − 1)
𝑤 𝑤

Where 𝑤 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝜌𝑔 For the right hand limb, 𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃2 + 𝑤(𝑧2 − 𝑦 − 𝑥) +
𝑤𝑔 𝑥
𝑤ℎ𝑔 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 = 𝜌ℎ𝑔 𝑔
Thus, 𝑃1 + 𝑤𝑧1 − 𝑤𝑦 = 𝑃2 + 𝑤𝑧2 − 𝑤𝑦 − 𝑤𝑥 + 𝑤𝑔 𝑥
𝜌ℎ𝑔 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 𝑤𝑔
Inclined venturi meter + 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 𝑥 ( − 1)
𝑤 𝑤
Therefore, Q becomes;
𝐶𝑑 𝑎1 𝑤𝑔
𝑄= √[2𝑔𝑥 ( − 1)]
√(𝑚2 − 1) 𝑤
This is independent of z1 and z2 so that the gauge

readings x for a given flow rate of Q does not depend on
the inclination of the meter.
Example 4.4: A venturi tube tapers from 300 mm in

diameter at the entrance to 100 mm in diameter at the
throat, and the discharge coefficient is 0.98. A
differential mercury U-tube gauge is connected between
pressure tapings at the entrance and throat. If the meter
Fig. 4.7 Inclined venturi meter
is used to measure the flow of water and the water fills
From figure 4.7 at the entrance to the meter the area, the leads of the U-tube and is in contact with the
velocity, pressure and elevation are a1, v1, p1 and z1 and mercury, calculate the discharge when the difference of
at the throat the corresponding values are a2, v2, p2 and level in the U-tube is 55 mm.
z2. Fromm Bernoulli’s equation,
Considering figure 4.6,
𝑃1 𝑉12𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2 x = 55 mm = 0.055m and for water and mercury,
𝑤 2𝑔 𝑤 2𝑔
𝑤𝑔 ⁄𝑤 = 13.6
𝑃1 − 𝑃2
𝑣2 2 − 𝑣1 2 = 2𝑔 {( ) + (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )} 𝐻 = 0.055 × 12.6 = 0.693 m of water, Cd = 0.98,
𝑤
1 𝜋
For continuity of flow, 𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 𝑣2 or 𝑣2 = 𝑎1 = 𝜋𝑑1 2 = × (0.3)2 = 0.0706m2
4 4
𝑎
𝑚𝑣1 where m is the area ratio 1⁄𝑎2
𝑎1 𝑑1 2 12 2
𝑚= = 2=( )
Therefore 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 𝑑2 4
1 𝑃1 −𝑃2
√[2𝑔 {( )+ (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )}] 2𝑔𝐻
√(𝑚2 −1) 𝑤
Using equation 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑎1 √[𝑚2 −1]
Discharge 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑎1 𝑣1 . Where Cd is the coefficient of
discharge Actual discharge
2×9.81×0.693
𝐶𝑑 𝑎1 𝑃 − 𝑃2 = 0.98 × 0.0706 × √ = 0.0285 m3/s
𝑄= √[2𝑔 {( 1 ) + (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )}]
81−1
√(𝑚2 − 1) 𝑤
Practice question 4.1: Considering figure 4.7, a venturi
Considering the U-tube gauge and assuming the meter measures flow of oil of specific gravity 0.82 and
connections are filled with the liquid in the pipe line, has an entrance of 125 mm diameter and a throat of 50
pressures at X-X are the same in both limbs. mm diam. There are pressure gauges at entrance and at
throat, which is 300 mm above the entrance. If the
For the left hand limb, 𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃1 + 𝑤(𝑧1 − 𝑦) coefficient for the meter is 0.97, find the flow in m3/s

when the pressure difference is 27.5 kN/m2. (Answer difference of pressure head h is measured by
0.01535 m3/s) knowing the difference of levels of the
manometer liquid say x. Then
6.1.2 The Pitot tube 𝑆𝑔
Figure 4.8 below shows a simple pitot tube; if the ℎ = 𝑥 [ − 1]
𝑆𝑜
velocity of the stream at A is V, a particle moving from
A to the mouth of the tube B will be brought to rest so
that V0 at B is zero.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 4.9 Arrangements of the Pitot tube

Fig 4.8 Pitot tube
Example 4.5: A pitot-static tube placed in the center of
By Bernoulli’s theorem,
300 mm pipeline has one orifice pointing upstream and
𝑉 2 𝑃 𝑉0 2 𝑃0 𝑃0 the other perpendicular to it. The mean velocity in the
+ = + = … … … … … … … … … … . . (𝑖) pipe is 0.80 of central velocity. Find the discharge
2𝑔 𝑤 2𝑔 𝑤 𝑤
through the pipe if the pressure difference between the
𝑃 two orifices is 60 mm of water. Take the coefficient of
Now = 𝑑 and the increased pressure at B will cause
𝑤
the pitot-tube as Cv = 0.98
the liquid in the vertical limb of the piptot tube to rise to
𝑃0
the height h above the free surface so that 𝑤
= Solution
ℎ+𝑑
Given Dia. Of pipe d = 300 mm = 0.3 m, Diff. of
From equation (i), pressure head h = 60 mm of water = 0.06 m of water, Cv
= 0.98 and mean velocity 𝑉̅ = 0.80 × 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑉2 𝑃0 −𝑃
= = ℎ or 𝑉 = √2𝑔ℎ
2𝑔 𝑤 Central velocity is given by:
This is theoretical velocity; actual velocity is given by 𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒕 = 𝑪𝒗 √𝟐𝒈𝒉

𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒕 = 𝑪𝒗 √𝟐𝒈𝒉 where Cv is the coefficient of the pitot
tube. = 0.98 × √2 × 9.81 × 0.06 = 1.063 m/s
Velocity of flow in a pipe by pitot tube ∴ 𝑉̅ = 0.80 × 1.063 = 0.8504m/s
For finding the velocity at any point in a pitot tube, the Discharge 𝑄
following arrangements are adopted.
𝜋 2
= 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 × 𝑉̅ = 𝑑 × 𝑉̅
a) Pitot-tube along the vertical piezometer tube 4
figure 4.9 (a) 𝜋
= 4 × (0.3)2 × 0.8504 = 0.06 m3/s
b) Pitot-tube connected with piezometer tube
figure 4.9 (b)
Example 4.6: A pitot-static tube is used to measure the
c) Pitot-tube and vertical piezometer tube
velocity of water in a pipe. The stagnation pressure head
connected with the differential U-tube
is 6m and static pressure head is 5m. Calculate the
manometer figure 4.9 (c)
velocity of flow assuming the coefficient of tube equal
d) Pitot-static tube, which consists of two circular
to 0.98.
concentric tubes one inside the other with some
annular space in between as shown in figure 4.9 Solution
(d). The outlet of these two tubes are connected
to the differential manometer where the

Stagnation pressure head hs = 6m, static pressure head ht the orifice, the velocity of the jet VB = V; the pressure
= 5m PB is atmospheric so that PB = PA
∴ ℎ =6−5=1m Taking the datum level for potential energy at the center
of the orifice and applying Bernoulli’s equation to A and
Velocity of flow B,
𝑉 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔ℎ = 0.98 × √2 × 9.81 × 1 = 4.34 m/s 𝑃𝐴 𝑉𝐴2 𝑃𝐵 𝑉𝐵2

+ + 𝑍𝐴 = + + 𝑍𝐵
Example 4.7: Find the velocity of flow of an oil through
the pipe, when the difference of mercury level in a Putting 𝑍𝐴 − 𝑍𝐵 = ℎ, 𝑉𝐴 = 0, 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑
differential U-tube manometer connected to two tapings
of the pitot-tube is 100mm. Take coefficient of pitot- 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵
tube as 0.98 and specific gravity of oil as 0.8.
Velocity of a jet
Solution
𝑉 = √2𝑔ℎ. This is the statement of Torricelli’s theorem
Given diff. of mercury level x = 100mm = 0.1 m, sp. …………………(i)
gr. of oil So = 0.8, sp. gr. of mercury Sg = 13.6, and Cv =
0.98 Theoretical discharge through the orifice
Diff. of pressure head, = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑆𝑔 13.6 If A = area of jet at C, then

ℎ = 𝑥 [𝑆 − 1] = 0.1 [ 0.8 ] = 1.6 m of oil
𝑜
𝑄 = 𝐴√2𝑔ℎ ……………………….. (ii)

∴ Velocity of flow
In practical, the actual discharge is considerably less
𝑉 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔ℎ = 0.98 × √2 × 9.81 × 1.6 = 5.49 m/s than the theoretical value given in equation (ii) for two
reasons:
6.2 Small and large orifices
An orifice is an opening in the side or base of the tank or The velocity of a jet is less than that given in equation
reservoir. It is completely below the surface, usually (i) because of frictional resistance
circular and the rate of flow or discharge depends upon
the head of the liquid above the orifice. Actual velocity 𝑉 ′ = 𝐶𝑣 × 𝑉 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔ℎ
An orifice is called small orifice when it has a diameter Where Cv is the coefficient of velocity
that is small compared with the head producing flow so
that the velocity through the orifice does not vary As shown in figure 4.10 (b) above, the path of the
appreciably from top to bottom of the opening. particle of a liquid converge on the orifice so that the
area of the issuing jet is less than the area of the orifice.
6.2.1 Small orifice
In the plane of the orifice, the particles have a
component of velocity towards the center so that at C,
the pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure; it is
only at B a little outside where the pressure is
atmospheric.
Coefficients
Fig. 4.10
Coefficient of velocity
Figure 4.10 above shows a small orifice in the side of a
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎
large reservoir. At a point A on a free surface, the 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
pressure PA is atmospheric and if the tank is large, the
velocity VA will be negligible. At point B just outside Coefficient of contraction

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑉𝑒𝑛𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝐶𝑐 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒
𝐶𝑑 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
Coefficient of discharge Types of orifices with their coefficients
Fig 4.11 Types of orifices
Profile of a jet 6.2.2 Large orifice

The gate forms a large orifice and velocity of flow will
be greater at the bottom than at the top of the opening.
Consider a horizontal strip across the opening of
thickness 𝛿ℎ at a depth h below the free surface.
Fig 4.12 Jet profile
The jet issues as shown in figure 4.12 above; if t = time

for a particle to travel from a vena contracta A to a point
1 Fig 4.13 Large orifice
B, 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑡 and 𝑦 = 2 𝑔𝑡 2
𝑥
Area of the strip = 𝐵𝛿ℎ
𝑣= but 𝑡 = √2𝑦⁄𝑔
𝑡
Velocity through the strip = √2𝑔ℎ
𝑔𝑥 2
𝑣=√ ⁄2𝑦 Discharge through the strip
Theoretical velocity 𝑉 = √2𝑔ℎ = 𝐵√2𝑔ℎ. 𝛿ℎ = 𝐵√2𝑔. ℎ1⁄2 𝛿ℎ
Coefficient of velocity 𝐶𝑣 = For the whole opening,

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 Discharge
𝑣 2 𝐻
𝑄 = 𝐵√2𝑔 ∫𝐻 2 ℎ
1⁄
= = √𝑥 ⁄4𝑦ℎ 1
2 𝑑ℎ
√2𝑔ℎ
2 3 3
As the particles of liquid leave the orifice, they acquire 𝑄 = 𝐵√2𝑔 (𝐻2 ⁄2 − 𝐻1 ⁄2 )
3
momentum and therefore exert reaction equal to their
rate of change of momentum. 6.3 Force exerted by a jet
Newton’s laws of motion can be stated as follows:
𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
= 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 1. A body will remain in the same condition of rest or
of motion with uniform velocity in a straight line
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
= × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑑 until acted upon by an external force
𝑠𝑒𝑐
2. The rate of change of momentum of a body is
𝑔𝑥 2⁄ proportional to the force acting upon it and takes
= 𝜌𝑄√ 2𝑦 place in the line of action of the force

3. To every action, there is an equal and opposite In the unit time, the plate moves a distance u increasing
reaction. the volume in the jet by = 𝑎𝑢
Thus whenever a stream of fluid strikes the surface, or is
deflected from its path, e.g. by a curved vane or has its Mass of fluid used to extend the jet per second = 𝜌𝑎𝑢
velocity changed, both in magnitude or direction, there
Mass of fluid striking the plate per second = 𝜌𝑎(𝑣 − 𝑢)
must be an external force acting and the fluid will exert
an equal and opposite force. Initial velocity of the jet = 𝑢
The magnitude of the force will be equal to the rate of Final velocity of the jet =
change of momentum of the stream if proper 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑢
consideration is given to the correct use of units.
Change in velocity = (𝑣 − 𝑢)
6.3.1 Normal impact on stationary plane and
moving plane Force on the plate
Considering figure 4.14 below, velocity of the jet = V,
= 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑗𝑒𝑡
the cross-sectional area = a and the mass density = ρ;
= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑣 − 𝑢) × (𝑣 − 𝑢) = 𝜌𝑎(𝑣 − 𝑢)2
6.3.2 Inclined plate

When the jet strikes the inclined plate, it does not
(a) (b) rebound but flows out over the plate in all directions. If
the plate is smooth and frictionless, the flow divides
Fig 4.14 Normal impact
such that the momentum parallel to the plate is
The jet strikes the plate and does not rebound but unaltered. The momentum normal to the plate is
spreads sideways over the surface of the plate. The destroyed on impact.
momentum normal to the plate is destroyed.
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
Volume of the liquid striking the plate per second = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
= 𝑎𝑣
= 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
Mass of fluid striking the plate per second = 𝜌𝑎𝑣 × 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
Initial velocity normal to the plate =𝑣 Mass striking the stationary plate per second
= 𝜌𝑎𝑣
Final velocity on impact =0
Initial component of velocity of jet normal to the plate
Change of velocity =𝑣 = 𝑣 cos 𝜃
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 Final velocity after impact =0
= 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
Change of velocity = 𝑣 cos 𝜃
= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 × 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Force exerted normal to the plate =
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑎𝑣 × 𝑣 = 𝜌𝑎𝑣 2 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 × 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
In figure 4.14 (b) it can be seen that the length of the jet = 𝜌𝑎𝑣 2 cos 𝜃
is continuously increasing, part of the fluid leaving the
nozzle is required to extend the length of jet, thus
reducing the amount that strikes the plate.
Mass of fluid leaving the nozzle per second = 𝜌𝑎𝑣

Final velocity normal to the plate = 𝑢 cos 𝜃
Change of velocity normal to a plate = (𝑣 − 𝑢) cos 𝜃
Force exerted normal to the plate =

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 × 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
= 𝜌𝑎(𝑣 − 𝑢)2 cos 𝜃

Fig 4.15 Inclined plates
For figure 4.15 (b)
Mass striking the plate per second = 𝜌𝑎(𝑣 − 𝑢)
Initial component of velocity normal to the plate =

𝑣 cos 𝜃
7 LOSSES OF ENERGY IN A PIPELINE

A pipe is defined as a closed conduit of circular section
through which the fluid flows filling the complete
section. The fluid in the pipe has no free surface. It will
be at a pressure above or below atmospheric and the
pressure may vary along the pipe.
Losses of energy in a pipeline are due to:
 Shock from the disturbance of the normal flow due Fig.4.16 Sudden enlargement
to bends or sudden changes in section
𝑤𝑄
 Frictional resistance to flow. Mass per second flowing =
𝑔
These losses are conveniently expressed as energy lost
in N-m/N i.e. The head lost in terms of fluid in the pipe Where 𝑤 = 𝜌𝑔 and Q = discharge
and related to the velocity head.
Change in velocity = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
Shock or local losses
Therefore,
These losses may be due to sudden expansion or sudden
𝑤𝑄
contraction; 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )
𝑔
7.1 Sudden enlargement / expansion Force due to P2 opposing motion = 𝑃2 𝑎2

Consider the figure below, showing the region of dead
water occurring as shown in figure 4. In which the Force due to P1 opposing motion = 𝑃1 𝑎1
pressure is Po. At section (1), the pressure is P1, velocity
Force due to Po opposing motion = −𝑃𝑜 (𝑎2 − 𝑎1 )
V1 and area a1. At section (2), the corresponding values
are P2, V2 and a2. Total force opposing motion
There is a change in momentum per second between = 𝑃2 𝑎2 − 𝑃1 𝑎1 − 𝑃𝑜 (𝑎2 − 𝑎1 )
sections (1) and (2) which is produced by the forces due
to the pressure Po, P1 and P2 which have a resultant The value of Po is found exponentially to be equal to P1
opposing motion. thus;
Force opposing motion
= 𝑎2 (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚

𝑤𝑄 If the exit is rounded, this loss is greatly reduced and is
𝑎2 (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) = (𝑉 − 𝑉2 )
𝑔 1 usually neglected
But 𝑄 = 𝑉2 𝑎2 7.2 Sudden contraction

In sudden contraction, flow converges to form a vena
𝑤𝑉2 𝑎2
𝑎2 (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) = (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) contracta at section (3) of figure 4.18 below in the small
𝑔
pipe; the loss of energy in the convergence from section
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 𝑉2 𝑉1 𝑉22 2(𝑉2 𝑉1 − 𝑉22 ) (1) to (3) is small and the main loss occurs in the
= − = enlargement from section (3) to section (2).
𝑤 𝑔 𝑔 2𝑔
If hl is head lost at enlargement, then by the Bernoulli’s It is usual to ignore the loss from section (1) to (3) and
theorem; treat the loss from section (3) to (2) as if it were that due
to sudden enlargement from the area of the vena
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22 contracta ac, to the area, a2 of the smaller pipe.
+ = + + ℎ𝑙
𝑤 2𝑔 𝑤 2𝑔
(𝑉12 − 𝑉22 ) (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )

ℎ𝑙 = −
2𝑔 𝑤
𝑃2 −𝑃1
Substituting for 𝑤
(𝑉12 − 𝑉22 ) 2𝑉2 𝑉1 − 2𝑉22 𝑉12 − 2𝑉2 𝑉1 + 𝑉22 Fig 4.18 Sudden contraction
ℎ𝑙 = − =
2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔 (𝑉1 −𝑉2 )2
Loss of head due to enlargement = ℎ𝑙 =
2𝑔
(𝑉1 −𝑉2 )2
Head lost at enlargement = ℎ𝑙 =
2𝑔
For continuity of flow, 𝑎2 𝑉2 = 𝑎𝑐 𝑉𝑐
Since for continuity of flow, 𝑎1 𝑉1 = 𝑎2 𝑉2 𝑎1
If the coefficient of contraction = 𝐶𝑐 = ⁄𝑎2
𝑎1 2 𝑉12 𝑉12
So that ℎ𝑙 = (1 − ) =𝐾 𝑎2 𝑉2 1
𝑎2 2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑉𝑐 = = 𝑉2
𝑎𝑐 𝐶𝑐
Thus the head lost is a function of the velocity head
Substituting inn equation (1)
7.1.1 Special case
When a pipe discharges into a large reservoir through a Loss of head at sudden contraction
sharp exit, conditions are equivalent to a sudden 2 𝑉2
1 2
enlargement = (𝐶 − 1) 2𝑔
𝑐
7.2.1 Special case

If the entrance to the pipeline is sharp (not rounded or
bell mouth) it is equivalent to the sudden contraction
from a pipe of infinite size to that of a pipeline.
The loss of head at sharp entrance is

Fig. 4.17
1 2
= 2 (𝑉 ⁄2𝑔)
V1 – pipe velocity = V
V2 – reservoir velocity = 0 Where V is the velocity in the pipe
For the formula of the sudden enlargement, loss of head 7.3 Friction loss
𝑉2 There are three formulae that are used to determine the
at the sharp exit into the reservoir = 2𝑔
frictional losses in pipeline:

 Darcy formula So that ℎ𝑓 =
𝑓𝐿 𝑉 2
𝑚 2𝑔
 Chezy formula
 Manning and Hazen William formula 1
𝜋𝑑 2
𝐴 1
If d is the pipe diameter, 𝑚= =4 = 𝑑
𝑃 𝜋𝑑 4
7.3.1 Darcy formula
Consider a cylinder of fluid of length L completely 4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
filling the pipe of cross-sectional area A and moving ℎ𝑓 =
𝑑2𝑔
with a mean velocity V
An alternative form of the Darcy formula is sometimes
𝑄 4𝑄
useful if Q is the discharge, 𝑉 = =
𝐴 𝜋𝑑 2
4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2 64𝑓𝐿𝑄 2 𝑓𝐿𝑄 2

ℎ𝑓 = = =
𝑑2𝑔 2𝑔𝜋 2 𝑑5 3.03𝑑5
𝑓𝐿𝑄 2
=
Fig 4.19 3𝑑 5
Forces acting on a cylinder are the force due to pressure 7.3.2 Chezy formula
difference and the force due to frictional resistance. The Chezy and Darcy formula are derived in the same
Since velocity is constant and there is no acceleration, way and they are alternatives.
the resultant of these two forces in the direction of 𝑞 𝑃
From equation (i) ℎ𝑓 = 𝑤 𝑉 2 𝐴 𝐿
motion must be zero.
Force due to pressure difference = (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )𝐴 𝑤 𝐴 ℎ𝑓

𝑉2 =
𝑞𝑃 𝐿
If q is the frictional resistance per unit area at unit
ℎ𝑓 𝐴
velocity and the frictional resistance varies as V2, Loss of head per unit length = 𝑖 = , and 𝑚=
𝐿 𝑃
Frictional resistance per unit area at velocity 𝑤 𝑤

∴ 𝑉2 = 𝑚𝑖 and 𝑉 = √ √𝑚𝑖
𝑞 𝑞
V = 𝑞𝑉 2
Force due to friction on surface of the pipe This is written as 𝑉 = 𝐶 √𝑚𝑖 where C is the Chezy
coefficient.
= 𝑞𝑉 2 × 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
The relation between the Darcy coefficient f which is
= 𝑞𝑉 2 × 𝑃𝐿 pure number and Chezy coefficient is that
Where P is the perimeter of the cross-section 𝐶 = √(2𝑔⁄𝑓 ) and it has units of 𝑚1⁄2⁄𝑠 in SI units
If hf is the head lost in friction in length L, Since 𝑣 = 𝐶 √𝑚𝑖

𝑃1 −𝑃2 𝑞 𝑃
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑤
= 𝑤 𝑉 2 𝐴 𝐿 ……………………………(i) 𝑣2
𝑖=
𝐶2𝑚
Multiplying top and bottom by 2g
𝑣2𝐿
Loss of head ℎ𝑓 = 𝑖𝐿 =
2𝑔𝑞 𝑃 𝑉 2 𝐶 2𝑚
ℎ𝑓 = 𝐿
𝑤 𝐴 2𝑔 7.3.3 Manning formula
𝐴 The Darcy and Chezy formulae are based on the same
Now 𝑃
= ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 = 𝑚, reasoning and therefore have the same defects. It was
2𝑔𝑞
and = assumed that the frictional resistance varied as the
𝑤
𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 and is square of the mean velocity for turbulent flow and thus:
denoted by f.

4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2 To overcome these defects, the following formulae have
ℎ𝑓 = been devised which are modifications of the Chezy
𝑑2𝑔
formula 𝑉 = 𝐶 √𝑚𝑖
Since both hf and v2/2g are heads and L/d is a ratio, f
will be a pure number. 1 2⁄ 1⁄
Manning formula 𝑉 = 𝑛𝑚 3𝑖 2 in SI units
In practice, loss of head with turbulent flow does not
Where n is roughness coefficient increasing with the
vary as the square of the velocity, but as some power
roughness of the pipe from 0.009 for glass to 0.022 for
varying from 1.7 to 2 or more. Thus f must vary as some
dirty cast iron pipe.
power of the velocity and will not be a constant for a
given pipe for all rates of flow. Hazen William formula 𝑉 = 0.82𝐶1 𝑚0.6 𝑖 0.54 in SI
units
Also, the value of f is dependent on the roughness of the
pipe surface and may vary from steep slopes compared Where C1 is a coefficient varying from 140 for very
with the flat slopes. smooth pipes to 80 or less for old iron pipes in bad
condition
8 PIPELINE PROBLEMS
All pipeline problems should be solved by applying represent energy per unit weight, as do the expression
Bernoulli’s theorem between points for which the total for shock loss and frictional loss.
energy is known and including expressions for any loss
of energy due to shock or to friction. Thus When pipes are in series, the frictional losses are
additive. For pipes in parallel or for branching pipelines,
𝑃1 𝑉12 the energy equation can be written down for each branch
+ + 𝑍1 or route since the terms are energy per unit weight and
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
therefore unaffected by divisions of the flow.
𝑃2 𝑉22
= + + 𝑍2 + 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 8.1 Single pipe problems
Example 7.1: A pipeline connecting two reservoirs
The standard shock loss at entry and exit occur only having a difference of level of 6 m is 720 m long and
when the entry or exit is sharp and flow is out or into the rises to a height of 3 m above the upper reservoir at a
reservoir so that conditions are those of sudden distance of 240 m from the entrance before falling to a
contraction or enlargement. lower reservoir. If the pipe is 1.2 m in diameter and the
frictional coefficient f = 0.01, what will be the discharge
Shock losses include
and the pressure at the highest point of the pipeline?
1 𝑣2
Loss due to sharp entrance= 2 (2𝑔), Solution
(𝑉1 −𝑉2 )2 Figure 7.1 below shows the lay out, since no
Sudden enlargement= 2𝑔
,
information is given that exit or entry to the pipe is
2 𝑉2 sharp, no shock loss need to be considered.
1 2
Sudden contraction= (𝐶 − 1) 2𝑔
,
𝑐
𝑉2
Sharp exit = and
2𝑔
4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2 𝑓𝐿𝑄 2
Frictional loss ℎ𝑓 = 𝑑2𝑔
= 3𝑑 5
Fig 7.1
4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
The Darcy formula ℎ𝑓 = 𝑑2𝑔
is most convenient for
frictional loss. All the terms in the Bernoulli’s equation

Applying Bernoulli’s equation to A and B on the free
surface of the reservoir where the velocities are zero and
the pressure atmospheric; take B as the datum level.
Total energy per unit weight at A = Total energy per unit

weight at B + Frictional loss
𝑃𝐴 𝑉𝐴2 𝑃𝐵 𝑉𝐵2 4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2 Fig. 7.2

+ + 𝑍𝐴 = + + 𝑍𝐵 +
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝑑2𝑔
If Q is the discharge,
But 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵 = 𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 1 1
𝑄 = 𝜋𝑑12 𝑉1 = 𝜋𝑑22 𝑉2
4 4
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵 = 0
4𝑄 4 × 2.8 × 10−3
4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2 𝑉1 = = = 1.426 𝑚/𝑠
So that 𝑍𝐴 = 𝜋𝑑12 𝜋(0.05)2
𝑑2𝑔
4𝑄 4 × 2.8 × 10−3
4 × 0.01 × 720 × 𝑉 2 𝑉2 = = = 0.634 𝑚/𝑠
6= 𝜋𝑑22 𝜋(0.75)2
1.2 × 2 × 9.81
Form which 𝑉 = 2.22 m/s Applying Bernoulli’s theorem to A and D at which PA =

PD = atmospheric pressure and VA = 0 for unit weight;
1
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝜋(1.2)2 × 2.22 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝐴
4
= 2.51 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝐷
+ 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝐵
To find the pressure Pc at C, apply Bernoulli’s theorem + 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐵𝐶
to A and C; taking datum level at A and VA = 0 + 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝐶
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝑐 𝑉 2 4𝑓𝐿1 𝑉 2 + 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝐷
= +ℎ+ +
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝑑2𝑔 𝑉2 2 1 𝑉1 2 4𝑓1 𝐿1 𝑉12 (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2 4𝑓2 𝐿2 𝑉22
𝑍𝐴 = + + + +
𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝐴 𝑉2 4𝑓𝐿1 2𝑔 2 2𝑔 𝑑1 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝑑2 2𝑔
= −ℎ− (1 + )
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝑑 𝑉1 2 1 4𝑓1 𝐿1 𝑉2 2 4𝑓2 𝐿2 (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2
𝑍𝐴 = ( + )+ (1 + )+
𝑃𝑐 (2.22)2 4 × 0.01 × 240 2𝑔 2 𝑑1 2𝑔 𝑑2 2𝑔
=0−3− (1 + )
𝜌𝑔 2 × 9.81 1.2 (1.426)2 1 4 × 0.0048 × 15
= −5.26 𝑚 𝑜𝑓𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑍𝐴 = ( + )
2𝑔 2 0.05
𝑃𝑐 = −9.81 × 1000 × 5.26 = −51.6 KN/m2 (0.634)2 4 × 0.0058 × 24
+ (1 + )
2𝑔 0.075
Example 7.2: Water is discharged from a reservoir into (0.792)2
atmosphere through a pipe 39 m long. There is a sharp +
2𝑔
entrance to the pipe and the diameter is 50mm for 15 m
from the entrance, the pipe then enlarges suddenly to 𝑍𝐴 = 0.852 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
75m in diameter for the remainder of its length. Taking
into account the losses of head at entry and the 8.2 Parallel pipes
enlargement, calculate the difference of level between Since the pressure at entry and exist of each pipe are
the surface of the reservoir and the pipe exit which will unaffected by the flow in the other pipes, each pipe can
maintain the flow of 2.8 dm3/s. take f as 0.0048 for 50 be treated separately using the whole available
mm pipe and 0.0058 for the 75 mm pipe. difference of head in each case.

Fig. 7.3 𝑄 0.4
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑎 = 0.07 = 5.7 m/s
𝐴
In analyzing parallel pipe system, it is assumed that the 𝑄 0.4

minor losses are added into the length of each pipe as 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑎 = 0.28 = 1.42 m/s
𝐵
equivalent lengths. From the figure above, the conditions
satisfied are: (5.7)2 𝑃𝐵 (1.42)2
7+ + 10 = + + 15
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
ℎ𝑓1 = ℎ𝑓2 = ℎ𝑓3 and 𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3
𝑃𝐵
From which 𝜌𝑔
= 3.53 m of water
𝑓𝐿𝑄1 2 𝑓𝐿𝑄2 2 𝑓𝐿𝑄3 2
ℎ𝑓 = = =
3𝑑1 5 3𝑑2 5 3𝑑3 5 Velocity head at A
(5.7)2
= 2×9.81 = 1.6 m
8.3 Energy grade line (1.42)2
Energy line is a graphical representation of energy at Velocity head at B = 2×9.81
= 0.1 m
each section with respect to the chosen datum. The total
energy can be plotted at each representative section.
8.3.1 Hydraulic grade line

The hydraulic grade line (gradient) lies below the total
energy line by an amount equal to the velocity head of
the section. Two lines are parallel for all sections of
equal cross-sectional area. The ordinate between the
center of the stream and hydraulic grade line is pressure
head at the section.
Fig. 7.5
Example 7.3: In the figure 7.4 below, water flows from
Example 7.4: The reservoirs are connected by a pipeline
A to B at a rate of 0.4 m3/s and pressure head at A is 7 m,
which is 150 mm in diameter for the first 6 m and 225
considering no loss of energy from A to B, find the
mm for the remaining 15m. The entrance and exit are
pressure head at B
sharp and the change of section is sudden. The water
Draw the energy grade line surface in the upper reservoir is 6m above that in the
lower. Tabulate the losses of head which occur and
calculate the rate of flow in m3/s. friction coefficient f is
0.01 for both pipes.
Draw also the hydraulic gradient and the total energy

gradient
Solution
Fig.7.4 The arrangement is shown in figure 7.6. The velocities v1

and v2 are related by the continuity of flow equation.
Solution
1 1
Given Q = 0.4 m3/s, ZA = 10 m, ZB = 15 m 𝜋𝑑1 2 𝑣1 = 𝜋𝑑2 2 𝑣2
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐵
4 4
𝜌𝑔
= 7 m, 𝜌𝑔
=?
Since d1 = 150mm and d2 = 225 mm
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝑎𝐴 = 𝐷 = (0.3)2 = 0.07 𝑚2 225 2 9
4 𝐴 4 𝑣1 = ( ) 𝑣2 = ( ) 𝑣2
150 4
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝑎𝐵 = 𝐷 = (0.6)2 = 0.2829 𝑚2
4 𝐵 4 The losses are:
Applying Bernoulli’s equation, 1𝑣 2

1 1 9 2 𝑣2 2 𝑣 2
2
Loss at entry = 2 2𝑔 = 2 (4) 2𝑔
= 2.53 2𝑔
𝑃𝐴 𝑉𝐴2 𝑃𝐵 𝑉𝐵2
+ + 𝑍𝐴 = + + 𝑍𝐵 Friction in a 6m pipe
4𝑓𝐿1 𝑣1 2 4 × 0.1 × 6 𝑣1 2 𝑣1 2 1 1
= 4 𝜋𝑑2 2 𝑣2 = 4 × 𝜋 × (0.225)2 × 2.72 = 0.185 m3/s
= = = 1.6
𝑑1 2𝑔 0.15 2𝑔 2𝑔
9 2 𝑣2 2 𝑣2 2
= 1.6 ( ) = 8.10
4 2𝑔 2𝑔
Shock at enlargement
2
(𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )2 𝑣2 2 9 𝑣2 2
= = ( − 1) = 1.56
2𝑔 2𝑔 4 2𝑔
Fig. 7.6
Friction in 15m pipe The total energy at any point can be represented
graphically, as shown in figure 7.6. At the entry to the
4𝑓𝐿2 𝑣2 2 4×0.01×15 𝑣2 2 𝑣 2
2
= 𝑑2 2𝑔 0.225 2𝑔
= 2.67 2𝑔 pipeline there will be an entry loss ab; next follows a
friction loss in the first pipe, which give the sloping
𝑣2 2 𝑣 2
2 straight line bc. The loss at the sudden enlargement is
Shock at exit = 2𝑔
= 1.00 2𝑔
shown as cd. From d to e the frictional loss in the larger
2 𝑣 2 pipe causes the total energy to fall slowly and the shock
Total loss = 15.86 2𝑔 loss at exit ef brings the total energy gradient to the level
of the surface in the lower reservoir.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to A and B for unit The hydraulic gradient is obtained by plotting the sum of
weight the potential and pressure energy and will therefore will
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝐴 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝐵 + 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 be a distance equal to the velocity head in the pipe below
Pressure at A and B are equal and if the reservoirs are the total energy gradient. The hydraulic gradient shows
large the velocities will be zero. Taking datum level at B the level to which the liquid in the pipe will rise if a
𝐻 = 0 + 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 vertical stand pipe was inserted in the pipeline at the
point under consideration
𝑣2 2
6 = 15.86
2𝑔
6×2𝑔
𝑣2 = √ = 2.72 m/s
15.86
Discharge
9 UNIFORM FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS
9.1 Useful definitions 9.1.3 Wetted perimeter
Taking a cross-section normal to the length of the
9.1.1 An open channel channel, the wetted perimeter is the length of the line of
This is a duct through which a liquid flows with a free contact between the liquid and the sides and base of the
surface. At all points along its length, the pressure on the channel. For rectangular channel of width B in which the
free surface will be the same; usually atmospheric. depth of liquid is D,
A channel may be covered, provided it is not flowing 𝑃 = 𝐵 + 2𝐷

full; a partially filled pipe is treated as an open channel.
Since the pressure at the surface of the liquid is constant, Hydraulic mean depth
flow is not due to pressure difference along the channel
If the area of cross-section of liquid is A
but is caused by difference in potential energy head due
to the slope of the channel. 𝑚 = 𝐴⁄𝑃
9.1.2 Uniform flow 𝐵𝐷
Under this condition, the cross-section of flow is the For rectangular channel, 𝐴 = 𝐵𝐷 and 𝑚 = 𝐵+2𝐷
same at all sections along the channel. The amount
passing every cross-section is the same and the mean 9.2 Chezy formula
velocity is constant, the frictional resistance to the flow Consider figure 8.1 below which shows an element of
is then equal to the head due to the gradient of the bed of fluid of length L and cross-sectional area A in the
the channel. channel
9.3 Conditions for the most economical
section
Maximum velocity
Assuming C and i to be constant in 𝑣 = 𝐶 √𝑚𝑖

1⁄ 1⁄
𝑣 = 𝐶√𝑖. 𝑚 2 = 𝐾𝑚 2
Fig. 8.1
Hence for v to be maximum, m must be maximum
Assuming that the frictional resistance to flow in an
open channel is proportional to the square of mean 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝐴
𝑚= =
velocity; 𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑃
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 Both A and P varies with the depth of the channel D
= 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑑 𝐴
Hence ( ) =0
𝑑𝐷 𝑃
= 𝑤𝐴𝐿 sin 𝑖 = 𝑤𝐴𝐿𝑖 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑠
1 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑃
∴ 𝑃 𝑑𝐷
− 𝐴 𝑑𝐷 = 0
If q is the frictional resistance per unit area at unit
velocity, this is the condition for maximum velocity
Resistance per unit area at unit velocity v = 𝑞𝑣 2 2
If manning formula is used, 𝑣 = 𝐾𝑚 ⁄3 and so as
Frictional drag on element = before, m must be maximum for maximum velocity
𝑞𝑣 2 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙
9.3.1 Maximum discharge
2 3⁄
= 𝑞𝑣 𝑃𝐿 𝐴√𝐴 𝐴 2
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴𝐶√(𝑚𝑖) = 𝐶√𝑖. 𝐴√𝑚 = 𝐾 =𝐾 1⁄
√𝑃 𝑃 2
Also the element is not accelerating
𝐴3
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 Hence for maximum discharge, must be a
𝑃
maximum hence
𝑤𝐴𝐿𝑖 = 𝑞𝑣 2 𝑃𝐿
𝑑 𝐴3
𝑤𝐴 𝑤 ( )=0
𝑣2 = 𝑖 = 𝑚𝑖 𝑑𝐷 𝑃
𝑞𝑃 𝑞
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑃
∴ 3𝐴2 𝑃 𝑑𝐷 − 𝐴3 𝑑𝐷 = 0
𝑤
𝑣 = √ √𝑚𝑖 = 𝐶√𝑚𝑖
𝑞 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑃
3𝑃 −𝐴 =0
𝑑𝐷 𝑑𝐷
Where i = bed slope / hydraulic gradient
C = resistance coefficient / Chezy constant depending This is the condition for maximum discharge using
upon the shape and surface conditions of the channel Chezy formula
m = hydraulic mean depth If the manning formula is used’
v = mean velocity of flow
5
𝐴 ⁄3
Manning found that C was not a constant for all the 𝑄=𝐾 2 hence for maximum discharge
𝑃 ⁄3
1
depths of flow but depends up on 𝑚 ⁄6 hence manning
formula is 𝑑 𝐴5
( )=0
𝑑𝐷 𝑃2
2⁄ 1⁄
𝑣 = 𝑀𝑚 3𝑖 2
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑃
1
5𝐴4 𝑃2 − 2𝐴5 𝑃 =0
Where 𝑀 = 𝑛 and n is a constant depending on surface 𝑑𝐷 𝑑𝐷
roughness only 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑃
5𝑃 − 2𝐴 =0
𝑑𝐷 𝑑𝐷
Which is the condition for maximum discharge Integrating from top to the bottom of the notch
9.4 Specific energy Total discharge = 𝑄 = 𝐵√2𝑔 ∫0 ℎ

𝐻 1⁄
2 𝑑ℎ
This is the energy of the fluid flowing in a channel when
the base of the channel is taken as datum. The datum is 2 3
𝑄 = 𝐵√2𝑔. 𝐻 ⁄2 … … … … … … (𝑖)
therefore not horizontal. The specific energy is then 3
merely the sum of the depth and kinetic energies at any This is the theoretical discharge through a rectangular
section.
notch.
𝑣2
Hence 𝐸 = 𝑑 + 2𝑔 The value of Q given by the equation (i) above is too
high because no account has been taken of energy lost
Where E is a minimum, the depth and velocity are said and also because as shown in the figure 8.4 below, there
to be critical will be a substantial reduction in the width and depth of
the notch cross-section because of the curved path lines
𝑣𝑐 2 𝑄2
Then 𝑑𝑐 = 𝑔
= 𝑏2 𝑔 of the liquid.
9.5 Notches and weirs

A notch is an opening in the measuring tank or reservoir
extending above the free surface and of any suitable
geometric form. It is in effect a large orifice which has
no upper edge so that it has a variable area depending on
the level of free surface. Fig. 8.3
A weir is a notch on a large scale, used for example to The actual discharge will be the theoretical discharge
measure the flow of a river and may be sharp edged or multiplied by the coefficient of discharge Cd so that
have a substantial width in the direction of flow.
2 3
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐵√2𝑔. 𝐻 ⁄2
9.5.1 Rectangular notch 3
Consider the figure below where the flow is over a 9.5.2 V-notch
rectangular notch with its width B and height of water Consider a quantity of liquid flowing over a sharp edged
level H. V-notch of total angle 2θ, with the height / head H above
the bottom of the notch.
Fig. 8.2
Fig. 8.4
By Toricelli’s theorem, the velocity of the particle
discharged at any head h is √2𝑔ℎ and will therefore Since the velocity of flow through the notch varies from
vary from top to bottom of the notch. top to bottom, consider a strip of thickness δh at a depth
h below the surface. If the velocity of approach is small,
Considering a horizontal strip in the figure above at the
depth h and of thickness 𝛿ℎ, Head producing flow =ℎ
Velocity through the strip = √2𝑔ℎ Velocity through the strip = 𝑣 = √2𝑔ℎ
Area of the strip = 𝐵𝛿ℎ If the width of the strip = 𝑏,
Discharge through the strip = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = area of the strip = 𝑏𝛿ℎ
𝐵√2𝑔ℎ𝛿ℎ
Discharge through the strip = 𝛿𝑄 = 𝑣𝑏𝛿ℎ

The width b depends on h and is given by From the figure above, the notch can be considered as
consisting of a rectangular notch ABDE of width L and
𝑏 = 2(𝐻 − ℎ) tan 𝜃 two triangular areas AEF and BDC which together form
1⁄ a V-notch of angle 2θ
Thus 𝛿𝑄 = √2𝑔. ℎ 2 × 2(𝐻 − ℎ) tan 𝜃 × 𝛿ℎ
Theoretical discharge through a rectangular notch
1 3
= 2√2𝑔. tan 𝜃 (𝐻ℎ ⁄2 − ℎ ⁄2 ) 𝛿ℎ
2 3⁄
= 3 𝐿√2𝑔. 𝐻 2
Integrating between the limits h = 0 and h = H
Theoretical discharge through a triangular portion
𝐻
1 3
𝑄 = 2√2𝑔. tan 𝜃 ∫ (𝐻ℎ ⁄2 − ℎ ⁄2 ) 𝑑ℎ 8 5⁄
0 = 15 √2𝑔 tan 𝜃 𝐻 2
2 3⁄ 2 5⁄ 𝐻 Total discharge
= 2√2𝑔. tan 𝜃 [ 𝐻ℎ − ℎ 2 ]
2
3 5 0
2 3 8 5
8 = 𝐿√2𝑔. 𝐻 ⁄2 + √2𝑔 tan 𝜃 𝐻 ⁄2
5 3 15
𝑄= √2𝑔 tan 𝜃 𝐻 ⁄2
15
2 3 4
= √2𝑔𝐻 ⁄2 (𝐿 + tan 𝜃 𝐻)
This is theoretical discharge 3 3
Actual discharge Actual discharge

2 3 4
8 5 = 𝐶𝑑 √2𝑔𝐻 ⁄2 (𝐿 + tan 𝜃 𝐻)
= 𝐶𝑑 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 √2𝑔 tan 𝜃 𝐻 ⁄2 3 3
15
9.5.3 Trapezoidal notch

Consider a trapezoidal notch with a base width L and
each side marks an angle θ to the vertical
Fig. 8.6
10 BUOYANCY AND STABILITY OF FLOATING BODIES

ost problems concerned with totally or partially thrust will act through the center of gravity of the
immersed bodies are problems of equilibrium between displaced fluid which is called the center of buoyancy.
forces due to the weight of the body and to the resultant
pressure of the fluid on the surface of the body.
For floating bodies, the further problem of stability will

usually arise; it is not efficient that the ship should be in
equilibrium, it must also be in stable equilibrium so that
when it roles or pitches, a restoring moment will be
produced which will tend to return the ship to its
equilibrium position.
Fig. 9.1
10.1 Archimedes principle
The principle of Archimedes states that the up thrust A floating body will be in equilibrium under the weight
(upward force due to the fluid) on a body immersed in a W acting vertically at its center of gravity G and up
fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. The up
thrust R acting vertically upwards through the center of
buoyancy B for equilibrium.
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑊 = 𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑅
= 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
And R and W, must act in the same vertical straight line
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 and 𝑅 = 𝜌𝑔𝑉 (weight of water displaced) Fig 9.3
𝑉 = 𝑚⁄𝜌 In figure 9.3 (a), the displaced fluid is rectangular while

in figure 9.3(b), it is triangular and the center of
10.2 Stability and metacenter buoyancy moves to B1 as a result, R and W are no longer
There are three conditions in which a solid body can be in the same straight line but are equal and opposite
in equilibrium; these are: parallel forces producing a turning moment Wx which is
a righting moment in figure (a) and an overturning
Stable equilibrium – A small displacement from moment in figure (b).
equilibrium position produce a righting moment tending
to restore the body to equilibrium position. The metacenter M is the point at which the line of action
of R for the displaced position cuts the original vertical
Unstable equilibrium – A small displacement produces through the center of gravity of the body G (distance
an overturning moment tending to displace the body GM).
further from its equilibrium position.
For a small angle of tilt, θ, righting moment = 𝑊𝑥 =
Neutral equilibrium – the body remains at rest in any
𝑊𝐺𝑀𝜃 (since for small angle of tilt, tan 𝜃 = sin 𝜃 = 𝜃
position to which it may be displaced.
radians)
Fig. 9.2
10.3 Stability of floating bodies

Considering the figure, figure 9.3 (a) shows a solid body
floating in equilibrium; the weight W acts through the
Fig 9.4
center of gravity G and the up thrust R acts through the
center of buoyancy B, which is the center of gravity of Comparing figure 9.3 and 9.4, it can be seen that:
the displaced fluid, both R and W acting in the same
straight line. If M lies above G, a righting moment is produced, GM is
regarded as positive and equilibrium is stable.
When the body is displaced from its equilibrium, W,
continues to act at G. the volume of liquid displaced If M lies below G, an overturning moment is produced,
remains constant (since R = W) but the shape of this GM is regarded as negative and equilibrium is unstable.
volume will change and the position of its center of
If M & G coincide, the body is in neutral equilibrium.
buoyancy B will move relative to the body.
Example 9.1: a vessel has a displacement of 2500000kg
of fresh water. A mass of 20000kg moved 9m across the
deck causes the lower end of the pendulum 3 m long to
move 233 cm horizontally. Calculate the transverse
metacentric height.

Solution: 𝑈𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
= 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑃𝑆𝑅𝑁𝑀
When a mass of 20000kg is moved across a deck − 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑁𝑀
Overturning moment applied = [(20000 × 9.81) × = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆
9]N/m In general, the buoyancy is the resultant upward force
Righting moment = 𝑊𝑥 = 𝑊𝑀𝐺𝜃 exerted by the fluid in the body and is equal inn
magnitude to 𝜌𝑔𝑣 where v is the immersed volume of
And since the body.
𝑊 = 2500000 × 9.81 and 𝜃 = 0.23⁄3 Example 9.2: A rectangular pontoon has a width of 6 m,
length = 12m and a draught of 1.5 m in fresh water;
Righting moment calculate:
= 2500000 × 9.81 × 0.23⁄3 × 𝐺𝑀 (a) Weight of the pontoon

(b) Its draught in sea water
Since the vessel is in equilibrium in the tilted position, (c) The load that can be supported by the pontoon
Solution
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑛𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
(a) When the pontoon is floating in unloaded
20000 × 9.81 × 9 condition;
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
= 2500000 × 9.81 × 0.23⁄3 × 𝐺𝑀
= 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑛
Metacentric height = 𝐺𝑀 = 0.94 m 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
10.4 Buoyancy and up thrust 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑛

Buoyancy is a vertical force exerted by a fluid on which = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
on an immersed body (totally submerged object). It is
equal to the difference between the resultant force and 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑛 = 𝜌𝑔𝑉
the upper and lower parts of the surface of the body. = 1000 × 9.81 × 6 × 12 × 1.5
= 1.0594 × 106 𝑁
(b) Sea water ρ = 1025 kg/m3

Draught in sea water
𝑤 1059.5
= 𝜌𝑔𝐿𝑊 = [1025×9.81×6×12] × 1000 = 1.46 m
(c) Up thrust
= 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 𝜌𝑔𝑣
Fig. 9.6
= 1000 × 9.81 × 6 × 12 × 2 = 1412.6 𝐾𝑁
Consider the body PQRS, the upward thrust on the lower
surface PSR corresponds to the weight of the fluid 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑
vertically above that surface i.e. that corresponding to = 𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 − 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑛
volume PRSMN. = 1412.6 − 1059.5 = 353.1 𝐾𝑁
The downward thrust on the upper surface PQR =

weight of the fluid PQRNM
The resultant upward force exerted by the fluid on the

body is therefore:

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UGANDA TECHNICAL COLLEGE

DTWE 121: HYDRAULICS AND FLUID MECHANICS

1 HYDRAULICS AND FLUID MECHANICS

(magenimoris@gmail.com) [UGANDA TECHNICAL COLLEGE]. 1

Larger or smaller units are formed by adding a prefix to

Multiples Sub Multiples

So that 𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 1.3 Properties of fluids

 A solid has a definite shape

(magenimoris@gmail.com) [UGANDA TECHNICAL COLLEGE] 2

The properties of water are of much importance 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦) 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠

The value of specific weight of water is 9.81x1000 1 1

Specific volume: This is defined as the volume of fluid Specific gravity, S

Specific gravity (relative density): This is defined as  Mass of glycerine = 1200kg

(magenimoris@gmail.com) [UGANDA TECHNICAL COLLEGE] 3

1.3.1 Viscosity 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜇

Fluids which obey the above relation are known as

(magenimoris@gmail.com) [UGANDA TECHNICAL COLLEGE] 4

1.4 Types of fluids Fig 1.3

 Ideal fluid Distance between plates, dy = 0.025mm = 0.025 x 10-

(magenimoris@gmail.com) [UGANDA TECHNICAL COLLEGE] 5

Let F1 = shear force on the upper side of the thin plate

(magenimoris@gmail.com) [UGANDA TECHNICAL COLLEGE] 6

Differentiating, we get 𝑝𝑑(𝑣 𝑘 ) + 𝑣 𝑘 (𝑑𝑝) = 0

Negative sign means the volume decreases with Solution

1 Decrease in volume = 0.15%

(magenimoris@gmail.com) [UGANDA TECHNICAL COLLEGE] 7

Consider three molecules A, B, and C of liquid in a

1.6.2 Surface tension on the hollow bubble.

A hollow bubble like a soap bubble in air has two

Tensile force due to surface tension acting around the

(magenimoris@gmail.com) [UGANDA TECHNICAL COLLEGE] 8

Surface tension, = σ = 0.0725 N/m 1.7.1 Expression for capillary rise

Example 1.6: The pressure outside the droplet of water

(magenimoris@gmail.com) [UGANDA TECHNICAL COLLEGE] 9

𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 4𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (a) Capillary rise for water (θ=0)

4𝜎 Angle of constant between mercury and glass tube,

1.7.2 Expression for capillary fall. 4σ cos 𝜃

(magenimoris@gmail.com) [UGANDA TECHNICAL COLLEGE] 10

2 PRESSURE AND ITS MEASUREMENT

Consider a column of liquid of cross-sectional area, A,

If p1 is the intensity of pressure on face AB, p2 the

(magenimoris@gmail.com) [UGANDA TECHNICAL COLLEGE] 11

(magenimoris@gmail.com) [UGANDA TECHNICAL COLLEGE] 12

Let the load lifted =W

a) When the pistons are at the same level

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛

78.54 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

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2.2.1 Measurement of atmospheric pressure 𝑃𝐴 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑎

(a) Mercury barometer Putting h = 760mm = 0.76m

The instruments used for measuring fluid pressures

a) The piezometer / pressure tube

This is a vertical open ended tube inserted into a pipe or a

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If B is the level of the surface of mercury in the left hand

For the left hand limb,

𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐷 + 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 ℎ2

But PD is atmospheric = zero gauge pressure

𝑃𝐴 = 𝑤ℎ1 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 Since PB = PC