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MEE6020 - Battery and Fuel Cells 08-02-2024
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MAUE602L – Battery and Fuel Cell
Module II & III

Lead Acid Battery
&
Battery Performance
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Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics
Lead Acid Wet Cell

 Used extensively in vehicles and other applications requiring high values of

load current.
 The output is about 2.1 volts per cell.
 Cells are typically used in series combinations of 3 (6-V battery) or
6 (12-V battery).
 Low energy density, limited life cycle and heavy weight.
 Capable of delivering high current in short duration of time.

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 Longer charging period.
 High reliability.
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Lead Acid Battery Construction

 Main Components of Battery

 Plates
 Separator
 Group
 Element
 Container
 Electrolyte
 Cell connectors
 Vent plug
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Plates
 Plates are a rectangular lattice-like grid, molded from lead-antimony alloy.

 Active material is held in place by horizontal and vertical bars of the grid.
 Grids helps in distributing the current evenly over the plate
 For good conductivity, the active material must be in close contact with the
grid frame.
 Grids should be designed such a way that the active material should be held
firmly.
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Plates
 An optimum balance should be maintained between the grid metal

thickness and the active material quantity as each is subject to different
wear rate.
 Alloying elements is added to the grids to increase the plate life, reduce
corrosion and resistance to overcharge.
 Grids should be designed such a way that they withstand bumps,
vibrations and the shocks of bad roads, without shedding the active
material.
 The internal resistance offered by the grids need to be minimal
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Grid Plates
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Plates
Positive Plates
 Grid is made of lead-antimony alloy.
 Lead oxide acts as active material.
 Dark brown in color.
 Highly porous in nature.
Negative Plates
 Grid is made of lead-antimony alloy.
 Spongy lead acts as active material.
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 Gray in color.
 Highly porous in nature.
Separator
 Employed between positive and negative plates.

 Prevent the plates from touching.
 Highly porous to circulate the electrolyte between the plates.
 Allow ionic conduction without dendrite growth
 Made of micro-porous rubber, non-conducting ebonite, glassmat or wood.
 Separators are generally ribbed. The ribs face the positive plates to ensure
additional space for electrolyte to circulate around the positive plate
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Battery Group
 Plates are welded to a lead-antimony strap to form the battery plate

group.
 The strap is provided with a round post protruding through the cell cover
hole. This forms the terminal.
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Battery Element
 It consists of two groups of plates and

separators assembled together.
 Generally one negative plate will be more

than the positive plate because there is
more chemical activity at the positive
plate.
 Thus there is a negative plate on each side

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of a positive plate.
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Container
 Container is made of acid proof hard rubber, with 3 or 6 compartments for

6 V and 12 V respectively.
 Plates rest on the ribs formed on the bottom of the container.
 The space below and between the ribs stores the sediments.
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Cell connectors
 Heavy lead bar cell connector is attached to the cell terminals.

 The individual battery cells are connected in series, thus adding up their
individual voltages.
 The cell connectors may be located above or in the cell covers.
 When the cell connectors are in the cell covers, the leakage of current
across the tops of cell covers is reduced.
 In exposed cell terminals there is leakage of current, due to the presence
of moisture and dirt, which can cause the battery to run down over a long
period.
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Vent Plug
 Vent plugs are screwed into the threaded holes in the cell covers for
pouring electrolyte and water when necessary.
 A hole is provided in the plug to permit escape of water due to
evaporation and hydrogen and oxygen gases during battery action.
 Vent plugs are provided with baffle plates to avoid the loss of the
electrolyte.
 Vent plugs are also provided with floats to indicate the level of electrolyte
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Electrolyte
 A mixture of sulphuric acid (36-40 percent) and water (60-64 percent)

available in a fully charged battery.
 As the battery discharges, the electrolyte loses sulphuric acid and becomes
mostly water.
 Higher density electrolyte is used in automobile batteries because the
volume of the electrolyte is limited and batteries are frequently required to
give heavy discharge currents.
 The specific gravity of 1.220 gives the minimum electrical resistance and it
is the most suitable working specific gravity for batteries operating at
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normal rates.
 During the preparation of electrolyte it is crucial to add the acid to the water
and not the other way around, as adding water to the acid can cause a
violent reaction and generate a lot of heat.
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Principle of Operation
 Electrochemical action of Lead Acid battery

 A fully charged lead-acid battery consists
 Lead peroxide (PbO2) as the positive plates
 Spongy lead (Pb) as the negative plates
 Diluted sulphuric acid as electrolyte.
 The dilution of the electrolyte is at a relative density of 1.22 - 1.28.
 The lead, the active material, in its two forms, has different
valencies.
 PbO2 (+4), Pb (+2)
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 Different number of electrons exists in the outer shell of the pure

lead than when present as a compound with oxygen.
 Sulphuric Acid dissociates into H+ and SO42- ions
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 If electrodes are immersed into the electrolyte, different potentials

will develop at the two electrodes and therefore a potential difference
will exist between the two.
 The electrical pressure now present between the plates results in
equilibrium within the electrolyte.
 The negative charges on one plate exert an attraction on the positive
ions that have entered the solution.
 This attraction has the same magnitude as the osmotic pressure and
hence equilibrium is maintained.
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 When an external circuit is connected to the cell, the solution pressure

and osmotic pressure are disrupted
 This allows additional charged particles to be passed into and through
the electrolyte.
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Chemical Reaction during Discharge

At the positive plate: (Acts as Cathode*) – [ 1.69 V ]
At the negative plate: (Acts as Anode) – [ -0.35 V ]

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*A cathode is the electrode from which a conventional current leaves a polarized electrical device
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Chemical Reaction during Charge

At the positive plate: (Act as Anode)
At the negative plate: (Act as Cathode)
Overall Reaction:
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Discharged Charging Charged
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Gassing
 Gassing - the production of gas from one or more electrodes in a battery.

 Gassing is generally a result of local action (self-discharging) or the
electrolysis of the electrolyte during charging.
 Hydrogen gas is formed during the charging process (Over charged)
which can lead to buildup of internal pressure and can lead to explosions
if not properly vented.
 The gas buildup in the battery can cause a loss in electrolyte and
electrochemical corrosion
 This corrosion can result from the buildup of gas that forms bubbles that
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affect the protective layer of the battery.
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Chemical Reaction during Gassing - Charge

At the positive plate:
At the negative plate:

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Lead Acid Battery

 A lead acid battery can be designed as a starting battery or as a deep-cycle

battery.
 Starting Battery – Provides large burst of current in short time
 Deep Cycle Battery – Provides a steady amount of current over long
period of time
 A deep-cycle battery has thicker and fewer plates than a starting battery.
 Deep-cycle batteries can be repeatedly discharged and recharged without
causing damage or shortening their life.
 Exact chemical composition depends on the designed purpose of the
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battery.
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Battery Ratings
 It is the measure of energy stored in a battery

 The characteristics or rating of a battery is determined by how much
current it can produce and how long it can sustain this current.
 The rate at which a battery can produce current is determined by the
speed of the chemical reaction.
 The rate of chemical reaction depends on
 Surface area of the plates
 Electrolyte strength
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 Temperature of electrolyte
 Current demanded
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Battery Ratings
 Open Circuit Voltage:

Voltage measured across the battery when there is no load on the battery.
 Operating Voltage:
Voltage measured across the battery when it is under a load.
 Cut off Voltage:
Voltage measured at the end of the discharge at which most of the
capacity of the cell or battery has been delivered.
 Ampere-Hour Rating (Capacity):
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Amount of steady current that a fully charged battery can supply for 20
hours at 26.7° C (80° F) without the cell’s voltage dropping below a
predetermined level (1.75V for lead acid battery).
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Battery Ratings
 Watt-Hour Rating:
- Determined at -17.7° C (0° F).
- Rating is calculated by multiplying a battery Amp-hour rating by the
battery’s voltage.
 Cold-Cranking Amps:
- The current, a battery is able to supply for 30 secs at -17.7° C (0° F)
without its voltage dropping below a predetermined level.
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- For 12 V battery the predetermined voltage is 7.2 V

- Common method for rating automotive batteries
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Battery Ratings
 Cranking Amps:
- Similar to CCA but measured at 0° C
- CCA rating of battery is typically 20% less than CA rating.
 Reserve Capacity:
- The length of time, in minutes, that a fully charged starting battery at
80° F (26.7° C) can be discharged at 25 Amp before the battery voltage
drops below 10.5 volts.
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- Gives an indication of how long the vehicle can be driven with the
headlights on if the charging system fails.
- A battery with reserve cap of 120 m can deliver 25 Amps for 120 mins
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Battery Ratings
 Ampere-hour efficiency:
 Power Efficiency:
• Always lower than Amp-hr efficiency
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Battery Ratings
 Gassing Voltage:
The voltage at which the gassing of the electrolyte takes place in a
battery.
Gassing voltage depends on factors such as charging rate, temperature,
and battery chemistry.
VG = 1.78+(T × 0.007)+(C/4.4)
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VG – Gassing Voltage, Volts

T – Temperature, °C
C – Capacity of the Battery, Ah
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Battery Ratings
 C Rate:
• A C-rate is a measure of the rate at which a battery is discharged
relative to its maximum capacity.
• A 1C rate means that the discharge current will discharge the entire
battery in 1 hour.
• For a battery with a capacity of 100 Amp-hrs, this equates to a
discharge current of 100 Amps.
• A 5C rate for this battery would be 500 Amps, and a C/2 rate would
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be 50 Amps
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Battery Performance
 Internal Resistance:
 Lower internal resistance can deliver higher current
 Higher internal resistance results in battery heating
 The internal resistance of the battery depends on
 Material, Size of the plates and the connecting terminals
 Electrolyte composition or Sp gr of electrolyte
 Temperature of the electrolyte
 Typical value is 0.001Ω – 0.01Ω
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 Formation of sulphation and corrosion increases internal resistance
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Battery Performance
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Battery Performance
 The electromotive force is greater than the terminal voltage when the
cell is discharged
 The electromotive force is less than the applied voltage when the cell
is being charged
 During charging the terminal voltage V is
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 During discharging the terminal voltage V is
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Battery Performance
 Battery charged and discharged at 10-h rate

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Battery Performance
 Battery charged and discharged at 10-h rate

 During charging the cell voltage attains a maximum of 2.7 Volts.
 When the charging current is switched off, the cell voltage falls rapidly to
2.2 V and finally settles to about 2.05 V
 Graph characteristics depends upon rate of discharge and the final sp.
gravity of the electrolyte.
 A battery should never be discharged fully and then left for a long period
because insoluble lead sulphate is formed which might cause distortion of
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the plates.
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Battery Performance
 The lead sulphate which appears in conditions of normal discharge consists

of small crystals which are uniformly distributed and form a porous mass
that is highly conductive.
 When a cell containing such a sulphate is charged again, the sulphate is
readily converted into lead dioxide and lead.
 If the discharge of the cell is carried out too deeply, the active material of
the plates is almost completely converted into lead sulphate which, in some
cases, changes over from a small-crystal to a large-crystal structure.
 The internal electrical resistance of the active-material layer increases
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abruptly in such cases.

 The sulphate particles completely cover the conductive active material and
thus stop the passage of current through the plate.
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Battery Performance
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Porous Lead Sulphates Hard Lead Sulphates
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Battery Performance
 Effect of Discharge Rates

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Battery Performance
 Effect of Discharge rate on battery capacity

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Battery Performance
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Formatting is the process of making the battery attain its full capacity by charge,
discharge and recharge process.
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Battery Performance
 Effect of temperature on battery capacity

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Battery Performance
Three of the basic modes under which the battery may be discharged are:
 Constant Resistance: The resistance of the load remains constant

throughout the discharge (The current decreases during the discharge
proportional to the decrease in the battery voltage)
 Constant Current: The current remains constant during the discharge.
 Constant Power: The current increases during the discharge as the

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battery voltage decreases, thus discharging the battery at constant

power level (power = current x voltage).
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Battery Performance
Discharge loads are same or same current and power

at the start of discharge.
 In the case of a constant current discharge, the
current remains the same throughout the discharge.
 The discharge time or service life is lower than for
the constant resistance case because the average
current is higher.
 In the constant power mode, the current increases
with decreasing voltage
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Battery Performance
Same current and power at the end of discharge.

 In the constant-resistance discharge mode, the
battery discharges at a higher current than needed,
draining its capacity rapidly, resulting in a shorter
service life.
 In the constant-current mode, the average current
drain on the battery is lower and the discharge time
or service life to the end of the battery life is longer.
 In the constant-power mode, the current is lowest at
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the beginning of the discharge and increases as the

battery voltage drops in order to maintain a
constant-power output. hence, the longest service
time is obtained.
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Battery Performance
Type of Discharge (Continuous or Intermittent)

 When a battery stands idle after a discharge,
certain chemical and physical changes take
place which can result in a recovery of the
battery voltage.
 The voltage of a battery, which has dropped
during a heavy discharge, will rise after a rest
period.
 The improvement is generally greater after the
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higher current drains (as the battery has the

opportunity to recover from polarization effects
that are more pronounced at the heavier loads)
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Battery Performance
 Effect of Antimony (Generally used 4.5 wt%)

 Increases the internal heat which further increases gassing.
 Heat and gassing increases the water loss from the battery.
 Increases terminal corrosion due to the condensation from gassing.
 Relatively lower conductivity.
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Battery Performance
Self Discharge
 Reduction of state of charge even without external circuit.
 The rate of discharge is of the order of 0.2–1% of the Ah capacity per day.
 Caused by two factors:
 First, the chemical process inside the battery changes due to the
material of the grids.
 Grids forming short circuit voltaic couples between the antimony and
the active material.
 Using calcium as the mechanical improver for the lead grids reduces
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this.
 Impurities in the electrolyte, in particular trace metals such as iron, can
also add to self-discharge.
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Battery Performance
Self Discharge
 Caused by two factors:
 Second, a leakage current
across the top of the battery,
particularly if it is in a poor
state of cleanliness.
 The fumes from the acid
together with particles of dirt
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can form a conducting film.

 Sealed batteries reduces the
film formation.
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Battery Performance
Lagging Cells in Lead Acid Batteries

 All the cells in a battery should always remain in the same state of charge
or discharge.
 lf only one of the cells in a battery will discharge earlier than the others, the
efficiency of the battery will be determined by this cell.
 Such a cell limits the capacity of the battery because during discharge its
voltage will drop to the final value ahead of any of the other cells.
 If the discharge of a battery is continued after the voltage of such a lagging
cell has dropped to the final permissible value, this cell may rather quickly
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discharge to zero, while the other cells in the battery still have a voltage
higher than the final value and remain in a state of charge.
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Battery Performance
Lagging Cells in Lead Acid Batteries

 In this case, the discharge current of cells that retain their charge, in passing
through the lagging cell, will begin to act on the lagging cell plates like a
charging current.
 As a result, lead dioxide will be formed on the negative plates of the
lagging cell, while lead forms on the positive plates.
 The final result will be a reversal of polarity of the plates, following which
the voltage of the battery will drop considerably.
 This makes it clear why the discharge of a battery must be stopped as soon
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as the voltage of any of the cells has dropped to the limited final value.
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Battery Performance
Identifying Lagging Cells

 The density of the electrolyte in cell during discharge of the battery is
found to be lower than that of the other cells and does not remain within the
permissible limits.
 The voltage of the cell will be the lowest at the end of charge.
 The temperature of the cell may rise higher than the other cells during
charge.
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Battery Charging
 In the charging process, DC electric power is used to reform the active

chemicals of the battery system to their high-energy, charged state.
 In the case of the lead-acid battery,
 Conversion of lead sulfate in the positive electrodes to lead oxide
(PbO2)
 Conversion of lead sulfate of the negative electrode to metallic lead
(sponge lead).
 Restoration of the electrolyte from a low-concentration sulfuric acid
solution to the higher concentration of approximately 1.21 to 1.30
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specific gravity.
 Since a change of phase from solid to solution is involved with the sulfate
ion, charging lead-acid batteries has special diffusional considerations and
is temperature-sensitive.
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Battery Charging
 During charge and discharge the solid materials which go into solution as
ions are reprecipitated as a different solid compound.
 This causes a redistribution of the active material. The rearrangement will

tend to make the active material contain a crystal structure with fewer
defects, which results in less chemical and electrochemical activity.
 The lead-acid battery is not as reversible physically as it is chemically.

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 This physical degradation can be minimized by proper charging, and often

batteries discarded as dead can be restored with a long, slow recharge (3 to
4 days at 2 to 3 A for SLI batteries)
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Battery Charging
 A lead-acid battery can generally be charged at any rate that does not
produce excessive gassing, overcharging, or high temperatures.
 The battery can absorb a very high current during the early part of the
charge, but there is a limit to the safe current as the battery becomes charged.
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Battery Charging
 A fully discharged battery can absorb high

currents with the charging voltage remaining
relatively low.
 As the battery becomes charged, the voltage
increases to excessively high values if the
charge is maintained at the high rate, leading
to overcharge and gassing.
 The charge current should be reduced to
reasonable values at the battery reaches full
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charge.
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Battery Charging
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Battery Charging
Considerations during charging

 The charge current at the start of recharge can be any value that does not
produce an average cell voltage in the battery string greater than the
gassing voltage (about 2.4 V per cell).
 During the recharge and until 100% of the previous discharge capacity has
been returned, the current should be controlled to maintain a voltage lower
than the gassing voltage. To minimize charge time, this voltage can be just
below the gassing voltage.
 When 100% of the discharged capacity has been returned under this
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voltage control, the charge rate will have normally decayed to the charge
‘‘finishing’’ rate. The charge should be finished at a constant current no
higher than this rate, normally 5 A per 100 Ah of rated capacity (referred to
as the 20-h rate).
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Battery Charging
Recharging:
 Additional charge to compensate for losses.
 Charging rates
 Charge at a tenth of its ampere-hour capacity for about 10 hours or
less.
 Charge at the rate of 1/16 of the reserve capacity, for up to 10 hours.
 Charge at the rate of 1/40 of the cold cranking capacity, for up to 10
hours.
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Battery Charging
Methods of Charging:
 Constant Current
 Charge time of 10-14 hrs based on the original state
 Constant Voltage
 Can recharge any battery in 7 hours or less without any risk of
overcharging (14.4 V maximum).
 Boost Charging
 Can bring the battery to 70% of the charge in one hour
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 Charge rate can be up to 5 times the ideal charge time

 Battery temperature should not exceed 43 ° C
 Should be stopped before the gassing voltage
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Battery Charging
Methods of Charging:
 Trickle Charging
 Charging a fully charged battery under no-load at a rate equal to its
self-discharge rate, thus enabling the battery to remain at its fully
charged level.
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Battery Charging
Constant Current:
• Constant-current recharging, at one or more current rates, is not widely
used for lead-acid batteries.
• This is because of the need for current adjustment unless the charging
current is kept at a low level throughout the charge (Ampere-hour rule),
which will result in long charge times of 12 h or longer.
• Constant-current charging is used for some small lead-acid batteries.
• Constant-current charging is also used at times in the laboratory because of
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the convenience of calculating Ampere-hour input and because constant-

current charging can be done with simple, inexpensive equipment.
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Battery Charging
Constant Current:
• Constant-current charging at half the 20- h rate can be used in the field to
decrease the sulfation in batteries which have been overdischarged or
undercharged.
• Constant-current charging may diminish battery life and should be used
only with the advice of the battery manufacturer.
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Constant Current Charging
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Battery Charging
Constant Voltage:
• The constant-potential charge, with constant start and finish rates, is
common for deep-cycling batteries which are typically discharged at the
6-h rate to a depth of 80%.
• The recharge is normally completed in an 8-h period.
• The charger is set for the constant potential of 2.39 V per cell (the gassing
voltage).
• The starting current is limited to 16 to 20 A per 100 Ah of the rated 6-h
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Ampere-hour capacity by means of a series resistor in the charger circuit.

• The initial current is maintained constant until the average cell voltage in
the battery reaches 2.39 V.
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Battery Charging
Constant Voltage:
• The current decays at constant voltage to the finishing rate of 4.5 to 5 A
per 100 Ah, which is then maintained to the end of the charge.
• The time of charge is selected to ensure a recharge input capacity of
normally 110 to 120%, or 10 to 20% overcharge.
• The 8-h charging time can be reduced by increasing the initial current limit
rate.
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Constant Voltage Charging

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Battery Charging
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Battery Management Systems 69
 The battery management system (BMS) is a critical component of electric

and hybrid electric vehicles.

 The purpose of the BMS is to guarantee safe and reliable battery operation.
 Basic Functions of BMS
 Data acquisition
 Determine and predict the state of the battery
 Control battery charging and discharging
 Cell balancing
 Thermal management
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 Delivery of battery status and authentication to a user interface

 Communication with all battery components
 Prolonged battery life
 Safety protection
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BMS Topology
 Distributed Topology
 Voltage monitors and discharge balancers with digital communications
that can cut off the charger and report its status are placed on each cell.
 The advantages of this design include its simplicity and high reliability.
 The disadvantages include the requirement of a large number of mini-
slave printed circuit boards and the difficulty of mounting the boards
on certain types of cells.
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BMS Topology
 Modular Topology
 Several slave controllers are used to consolidate the data to a master
controller.
 No printed circuit boards are necessary to connect the individual cells.
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BMS Topology
 Centralised Topology
 A centralized master control unit is directly connected to each cell of
the battery pack.
 The control unit protects and balances all cells while providing various
other functions.
 Requires a single installation point and no complex inter-vehicle
communications.
 Excess heat could be generated because the controller is the only
source for cell balancing.
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Data Acquisition
 Current Measurement
 The current measurement is of great importance, especially for the
determination of the state variables of the battery system.
 A precise measurement of the total current allows for determining the
SOC by integrating the current.
 Current acquisition devices can be divided into two basic sensor
technologies: galvanically connected and isolated.
 Galvanically connected – Shunt resistor current sensing
 Isolated – utilize the electromagnetic properties of the current to
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acquire the magnetic field strength using hall sensors.
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Data Acquisition
 Shunt Resistor method

 In this measurement method, a low-resistance high-precision resistor in
combination with a high precision voltage measurement system is used
to determine the current.
 The resistor is located in the current conducting path so that a voltage
drop proportional to the current can be measured.
 When using the shunt resistor method for measuring current, it is
crucial to choose the right placement for the resistor in the current
path.
Prof. Vijayakumar T
 If the shunt resistor is located between the positive pole of the battery
and the load, it is high-side measuring.
 When the resistor is placed between the load and ground or the
negative pole of the battery, it is low-side measuring.
75

Prof. Vijayakumar T
76
Data Acquisition
 Contactless Current Sensors

 These sensors use the magnetic field that a current produces and also
known as magneto resistive sensors or Hall effect sensors.
 In contrast to the shunt-based method, the Hall sensor does not add any
further resistance to the current path, which means that no additional
conductive losses occur.
 Major drawback of this measuring method is that the output signal of a
Hall effect sensor has a large temperature drift that needs to be
compensated in the sensor module or the signal processing chain.
Prof. Vijayakumar T
77
Data Acquisition
 Voltage Measurement
 In battery packs typically each cell voltage as well as the overall pack
voltage is measured.
 While the cell voltages are just a few volts, the pack voltage can reach
very high voltages, especially in electric vehicles.
 Need to have at least one voltage acquisition channel per serially
connected cell.
 The better the voltage accuracy, the better the SOC estimation.
Prof. Vijayakumar T
78
Data Acquisition
 Voltage Measurement
 The pack voltage acquisition is done by a
separate measurement unit, typically consisting
of a voltage divider, an impedance converter, a
filter and an Analog Digital Converter (ADC).
 The divider is necessary for scaling down the
pack voltage to an adequate measuring voltage,
which is in the range of the ADC.
 Depending on the pack voltage and on the
electric strength of the resistors, it may be
Prof. Vijayakumar T
necessary to use several resistors for a safe

voltage divider.
79
Data Acquisition
 Temperature
 Knowing the most precise temperature possible is one of the most
difficult tasks when designing a BMS.
 Correct location of temperature sensors is so important.
 Simulations might be necessary to find the optimal placement for a
limited amount of sensors.
 In general, temperature is monitored for the three use cases: charging,
discharging and storage.
 Common temperature sensors for the measurement of temperatures in
Prof. Vijayakumar T
the region that is relevant for battery management applications are

 Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) (metal oxide)
 Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) (semiconductor) type.
80
 State of Charge
 The state of charge is defined as the ratio of the available capacity Q(t)
and the maximum possible charge that can be stored in a battery, i.e.,
the nominal capacity Qn.
 A fully charged battery has SOC 1 or 100% while a fully discharged
battery has an SOC of 0 or 0%.
 There are three methods of determining SOC:
 Direct measurement,
 Coulomb counting
 Combination of both the two techniques.
Prof. Vijayakumar T
81
 State of Charge
 Direct measurement methods refer to some physical battery properties

such as the terminal voltage and impedance.
 Many different direct methods have been employed:
 Open circuit voltage method
 Terminal voltage method
 Impedance measurement method (Internal resistance)
 Impedance spectroscopy method
Prof. Vijayakumar T
82
 State of Charge
 The Coulomb counting method measures the discharging current of a

battery and integrates the discharging current over time in order to
estimate SOC.
 Coulomb counting method is done to estimate the SOC(t) , which is
estimated from the discharging current, I(t), and previously estimated
SOC values, SOC(t-1).
 There are several factors that affect the accuracy of Coulomb counting
method including temperature, battery history, discharge current, and
cycle life
Prof. Vijayakumar T
83
 State of Health
 The state of health (SOH) is a measurement that reflects the general

condition of a battery and its ability to deliver the specified
performance compared with a fresh battery.
 Any parameter such as cell impedance or conductance that changes
significantly with age could be used to indicate the SOH of the cell.
 Since SOH is relative to the condition of a new battery, the BMS must
hold a record of the initial conditions or a set of standard conditions for
comparison.
 An alternative method of determining the SOH is to estimate the SOH
Prof. Vijayakumar T
value based on the usage history of the battery rather than on certain
measured parameters, such as the number of charge-discharge cycles
completed by the battery.
84
 Cell Balancing
 Cell balancing is a method of compensating weaker cells by equalizing

the charge on all cells in the chain to extend the overall battery life.
 Three cell balancing schemes are available:
 Active balancing scheme
 Passive balancing scheme
 Charge shunting scheme
 Active balancing scheme

Prof. Vijayakumar T
 Energy is drawn from the most charged cell and transferred to the
least charged cells, usually through capacitor-based, inductor-
based or DC-DC converters.
85
 Cell Balancing
 Passive balancing scheme

 Energy is drawn from the most charged cell and dissipated as heat,
usually through resistors.
 Charge Shunting
 In charge shunting, the voltage on all cells would be levelled
upward to the rated voltage of a good cell.
 Once the rated voltage of the cell is reached, the current would
bypass the fully charged cells to charge the weaker cells until they
Prof. Vijayakumar T
reach full voltage.
86
Protection
 A BMS may protect its battery by preventing it from operating outside its
safe operating area, such as:
 Over-current (may be different in charging and discharging modes)
 Over-voltage (during charging), especially important for lead–acid and
Li-ion cells
 Under-voltage (during discharging)
 Over-temperature
 Under-temperature
 Over-pressure (NiMH batteries)
Prof. Vijayakumar T
 Ground fault or leakage current detection (system monitoring that the

high voltage battery is electrically disconnected from any conductive
object touchable to use like vehicle body)
87
Protection
 The BMS may prevent operation outside the battery's safe operating area
by:
 Including an internal switch (such as a relay or solid state device)
which is opened if the battery is operated outside its safe operating
area
 Requesting the devices to which the battery is connected to reduce or
even terminate using the battery.
 Actively controlling the environment, such as through heaters, fans, air
conditioning or liquid cooling
Prof. Vijayakumar T
88
89
Battery Maintenance
 Batteries require less maintenance

 In some cases, the electrolyte level need to be checked and topped up
periodically, 3mm above the plates if not sealed.
 Battery terminal posts are prone to corrosion
 Periodic cleaning with hot water
 Application of petroleum jelly or terminal greases can reduce
corrosion.
 State of the charge should not fall below than 70% of the charge for long
Prof. Vijayakumar T
periods.
 If maintained below, the sulphates may hardened and can make the
recharge process difficult.
89
90
Battery Common Problems

Prof. Vijayakumar T
90
91
Battery Common Problems

Prof. Vijayakumar T
91
92
Battery Testing
 The state of charge for non-sealed batteries are checked using

hydrometer.
 The hydrometer comprises of :
 A syringe that draws electrolyte from a cell
 A float that will float at a particular depth in the electrolyte
according to its density.
 The density or specific gravity is then read from the graduated scale
Prof. Vijayakumar T
on the float.
 A fully charged cell should show 1.280, 1.200 when half charged
and 1.130 if discharged.
92
93
Battery Testing
Prof. Vijayakumar T
93
94
Battery Testing
Prof. Vijayakumar T
94
95
Battery Testing
 Hydrometer Testing Procedure

 Draw electrolyte into the hydrometer several times to permit the
thermometer to adjust to the electrolyte temperature and note the
reading.
 Examine the color of the electrolyte. A brown or gray coloration
indicates a problem with the battery and is a sign that the battery
is nearing the end of its life.
 Draw the minimum quantity of electrolyte into the hydrometer
Prof. Vijayakumar T
to permit the float to float freely without contacting the top or

bottom of the cylinder.
 Hold the hydrometer in a vertical position at eye level and note
the reading where the electrolyte meets the scale on the float.
95
96
Battery Testing
 Hydrometer Testing Procedure

 Add or subtract four points (.004) to the reading for every 6° C the
electrolyte temperature is above or below 27° C.
 Adjust the reading to conform with the electrolyte temperature.
 if the reading indicates a specific gravity of 1.250 and the
electrolyte temperature is 32° C, the 1.250 which gives a corrected
reading of 1.254.
 Similarly if the temperature was 21° C, subtract reading of 1.246
four points (.004) from the 1.250 to give a corrected
Prof. Vijayakumar T
 Test each cell and note the readings (corrected to 27° C).
 A variation of fifty points between any two cell readings (example
1.250 - 1.200) indicates a problem with the low reading cell(s).
96
97
Battery Testing
 Hydrometer Testing Precautions

 Never insert a metal thermometer inside the battery cell as it
may lead to battery explosion. Use hydrometer with built-in
thermometer.
 Do not perform a hydrometer test on a battery that has just been
watered. The battery must go through at least one charge and
discharge cycle in order to permit the water to adequately mix
with the electrolyte.
Prof. Vijayakumar T
97
98
Battery Testing
 State of the charge for maintenance free batteries are determined

from the voltage of the battery.
Prof. Vijayakumar T
98
99
Battery Testing
 A heavy-duty (HD) discharge tester is an instrument consisting of a

low-value resistor and a voltmeter connected to a pair of heavy test
prods.
 The test prods are firmly pressed on to the battery terminals.
 The voltmeter reads the voltage of the battery on heavy discharge of
200–300 A.
 A serviceable battery, in fully charged condition, should read about
10V for a period of about 10 s.
Prof. Vijayakumar T
 A sharply falling battery voltage to below 3 V indicates an

unserviceable cell.
99
10
0
Battery Testing
Prof. Vijayakumar T
100
10
1
Battery Testing
 Gassing in any cell during testing indicates short circuit inside the
cell.
 Zero or extremely low voltage indicates open circuit cell.
 Following precautions should be followed while performing the HD
test:
 Blow gently across the top of the battery to remove flammable
gases.
Prof. Vijayakumar T
 The test prods must be positively and firmly pressed into the
lead terminals of the battery to minimize sparking.
 It should not be used while a battery is on charge.
101

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MEE6020 - Battery and Fuel Cells 08-02-2024

Module II & III

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

Lead Acid Wet Cell

 Used extensively in vehicles and other applications requiring high values of

 Capable of delivering high current in short duration of time.

 Longer charging period.

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

Lead Acid Battery Construction

 Main Components of Battery

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

 Plates are a rectangular lattice-like grid, molded from lead-antimony alloy.

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

 An optimum balance should be maintained between the grid metal

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

 Employed between positive and negative plates.

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

 Plates are welded to a lead-antimony strap to form the battery plate

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

 It consists of two groups of plates and

 Generally one negative plate will be more

 Thus there is a negative plate on each side

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

 Container is made of acid proof hard rubber, with 3 or 6 compartments for

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

 Heavy lead bar cell connector is attached to the cell terminals.

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

 A mixture of sulphuric acid (36-40 percent) and water (60-64 percent)

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

 Electrochemical action of Lead Acid battery

 Different number of electrons exists in the outer shell of the pure

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

 If electrodes are immersed into the electrolyte, different potentials

 When an external circuit is connected to the cell, the solution pressure

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

Chemical Reaction during Discharge

At the negative plate: (Acts as Anode) – [ -0.35 V ]

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

Chemical Reaction during Charge

At the negative plate: (Act as Cathode)

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

Discharged Charging Charged

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

 Gassing - the production of gas from one or more electrodes in a battery.

affect the protective layer of the battery.

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

Chemical Reaction during Gassing - Charge

At the negative plate:

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

Lead Acid Battery

 A lead acid battery can be designed as a starting battery or as a deep-cycle

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

 It is the measure of energy stored in a battery

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

 Open Circuit Voltage:

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

- For 12 V battery the predetermined voltage is 7.2 V

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics

Module II and III – Lead Acid Battery – Battery Characteristics