Steel Design

1. Plastic and Buckling analysis

a) Stress strain curve
• Stress strain curve is drawn by conducting a strain-controlled tension test on mild bars.
• Yielding zone: zone where increase in strain without increase in stress.
• Strain hardening: after material has yielded it becomes stronger and harder
• Necking: it is a local reduction in the area of cross section. It takes place after ultimate stress point
is crossed.
• Nominal stress: if initial cross-sectional area is used in calculating the stress, then it is called
nominal stress or engineering stress.
• In Plastic Analysis and design the affect of strain hardening is neglected. (large deformations are
not acceptable in any structural design), plastic analysis is based on idealized stress strain curve.
b) Assumptions in plastic analysis
• Plane section remains plane after bending (Bernoulli’s assumption). Strain varies linearly over the
depth of the beam. It is valid up to collapse load.
¨ Design of RCC structures is a strain-controlled approach (strain decides load carrying
capacity of members), but in plastic design of steel structures stress-controlled approach is
used. Stress distribution diagram decides load carrying capacity of members.
• The cross-section must be symmetrical w.r.t. plane of loading, otherwise if the c/s is not
symmetrical, twisting moments are developed in the beam and flexure formula cannot be applied
directly.
"#$%& "(&$))
¨ Shear flow = *+,( -,.(#
• The effect of axial force and shear force are neglected in plastic analysis of beams.
• The stress strain relationship is assumed to be Bi-linear (two straight lines)
c) Plastic moment capacity
• Safe moment of resistance
𝑀 = 𝑓𝑍$
¨ 𝑍$ = 𝐼/𝑦 section modulus, flexural strength parameter
¨ 𝑓 = permissible bending stress
¨ Safe moment of resistance is independent of span and loading, it is a property of a c/s for a
given c/s and material.
• Yield moment of resistance
𝑀5 = 𝑓5 𝑍$
¨ As stress distribution is linear at the beginning of yielding.
• Plastic moment capacity of cross-section
M7 = C × lever arm = T × lever arm
𝐴
⇒ 𝑀B = C𝑓5 ∙ G (𝑦 JJJI + JJJ)
𝑦L
2
𝐴
𝑀B = 𝑓5 C (𝑦 JJJ + 𝑦 JJJ)G = 𝒇𝒚 𝒁𝒑
2 I L

𝑀B = 𝑓5 𝑍B = 𝑓5 R 𝑦𝑑𝐴
¨ At fully plastic state neutral axis cuts the area into two equal areas. (Elastic NA passes
through the CG of the c/s)
• Plastic Section modulus 𝑍B = ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐴
d) Shape factor
• For a ductile material like structural steel a member reaching yield at extreme fibers retains a
reserve of strength that varies with shape factor.

1
 • Higher the shape factor, more ductile will be the section and will give greater deflection at
collapse. This implies that such a section gives longer warning before collapse.
• In other words, shape factor gives an indication of reserve capacity of a section from onset of
yielding at extreme fibers to full plastification.
• It is the ratio of plastic moment capacity and yield moment capacity of c/s
𝑀B 𝑓5 𝑍B
𝑆𝐹 = =
𝑀5 𝑓5 𝑍
𝑍B
=
𝑍$
• It is always greater than 1 (for very thin c/s it is equal to 1)

16 4
1.5 𝟐. 𝟑𝟒 = 1.7 = 1.27 1.12 − 1.14 1.5 2
3𝜋 𝜋
• Triangular c/s is the most inefficient c/s because most of the area lies near the plastic NA so 𝑦JJJ,
I JJJ
𝑦L
are very less.
e) Load factor
• Load factor is defined as the ratio of the collapse load to the working load. The prime function of
the load factor is to ensure that the structure will be safe under service conditions.
Ultimate load Plastic moment capacity
LF = (𝑅𝐶𝐶) = (𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙)
working load Safe moment capacity
𝑀B
𝐿𝐹 =
𝑀5
𝑓5 𝑍B
=
𝑓𝑍$
= FOS × SF
• Therefore, the load factor may also be defined as the product of the factor of safety and shape
factor.
• This formula is applicable to ductile materials, not valid for brittle materials like concrete.
• Load factor represents the reserved strength of beam section beyond safe moment to reach plastic
state.
• Margin of safety (brittle materials)
ultimate stress ultimate load
𝑀𝑂𝑆 = −1= − 1 = 𝐹𝑂𝑆 − 1
working stress working load
f) Area Moment of inertia/ 2nd moment of area
• 𝑦𝑑𝐴 is called first moment of area, used to located CG of area.
• 𝑦 L 𝑑𝐴 is called 2nd moment of area or MI
¨ 𝐼€€ = ∫ 𝑦 L 𝑑𝐴
¨ 𝐼55 = ∫ 𝑥 L 𝑑𝐴
¨ 𝐼‚‚ = ∫(𝑥 L + 𝑦 L )𝑑𝐴 = 𝐼€€ + 𝐼55
• Moment of inertia is only a mathematical term, but when it is combined with a material property
like Young’s Modulus, it represents a measure of resistance to rotation or buckling.
• CG of certain areas

2
 hemisphere

𝑟 sin 𝛼 2𝑟 sin 𝛼 3𝑟
𝑦J = 𝑦J = 𝑦J =
𝛼 3𝛼 8
2𝑟 4𝑟
𝛼 = 90˚ 𝑦J = 𝛼 = 90˚ 𝑦J =
𝜋 3𝜋
g) Plastic hinge
• It can be defined as a yielded zone due to flexure in a structural member in which infinite rotation
can take place at a constant restraining moment 𝑀B of the section.
• The value of the moment at sections adjacent of the yield zone for a certain length is more than
the yield moment. This length known as Hinge Length, depends upon the loading and geometry
of the section.
1
For simply supported beam with UDL 𝐿B = 𝑙‰1 −
𝑆𝐹
1
Length of elasto-plastic zone with point load 𝐿B = 𝑙 C1 − G
𝑆𝐹
Cantilever point load at SS point load SS UDL
SS point load (rectangle)
end (rectangle) (I beam) (rectangular)
𝑙/3 𝑙/3 𝑙/9 = 0.107𝑙 𝑙/√3 = 0.577𝑙
h) Mechanism
• When a structure is subjected to a system of loads, it is stable and hence functions until a
sufficient number of plastic hinges have been formed to render the structure unstable. As soon as
the structure reaches an unstable condition, it is considered to have been failed.
• The segments of the beam between plastic hinges are able to move without an increase of load.
This condition in a member is called mechanism.
• If an indeterminate structure has the redundancy r, the insertion of r plastic hinges makes it
statically determinate. Any further hinge converts this statically determinant structure into
mechanism. Hence, for collapsing the number of plastic hinges required are (r +1).
• Types of mechanism
¨ Beam mechanism
¨ Sway mechanism
¨ Joint mechanism: it is formed due to action of moment.
¨ Gable mechanism: it is exhibited in gable frames
¨ Combined mechanism: any of the two independent mechanisms may be combined to form
composite mechanism.
• Number of Independent Mechanism
¨ n = number of possible plastic hinges − number of redundencies
• Plastic collapse
Partial If the number of plastic hinges in the collapse mechanism are less than r +1
collapse collapses is called partial collapse. In such a case, a part of the structure
may fail making it useless as a whole.
Complete If the numbers of plastic hinges in the collapse mechanism are r +1, the
collapse collapse is called complete collapse.
Over-complete If the number of plastic hinges developed are more than r +1, the collapse
collapse is called over-complete collapse.

3
 In the case of over-complete collapse, there are two or more mechanisms
for which the corresponding value of the load is the same; this load value
being the actual collapse load.
i) Conditions in Plastic Analysis
• In plastic analysis following conditions must be satisfied.
¨ Equilibrium condition: summation of the forces and moments should be equal to zero
¨ Mechanism condition: the structure at the collapse must be capable of deforming as a
mechanism due to the formation of plastic hinges.
¨ Yield condition: when the structure is about to collapse BM at any section should not
exceed plastic moment capacity of cross-section.
• If all three conditions are satisfied, a unique value, the lowest plastic limit load, is obtained.
Usually, it is not possible to satisfy all the three conditions of plastic analysis in one operation.
UBT Ø Kinematic method
Upper bound Ø It satisfies Equilibrium and Mechanism conditions.
theorem Ø It states “the collapse load found by assuming a mechanism will always be
greater than or equal to true collapse load.”
LBT Ø Static method
Lower bound Ø It satisfies Equilibrium and Yield condition.
theorem Ø It states “the collapse load found on the basis of any collapse BMD, in
which BM ≤ Mp will always be less than or equal to true collapse load.”
j) Location where plastic hinges can form
• At maximum BM locations
• At fixed supports and rigid joints
• Under point loads in supported spans not at free ends
• At cross-section changes (hinge develops in weaker member whose Mp is less)
• At material change points (hinge in weaker member whose 𝑓5 is less)
k) Collapse load of Standard Cases

𝐿 𝑎 1 𝐿
𝑊* C G 𝜃 = 𝑀B (𝜃 + 𝜃) 𝑊* (𝑎)𝜃 = 𝑀B •𝜃 + 𝜃’ 𝑊* C G 𝜃 = 𝑀B (𝜃 + 𝜃)
2 𝑏 2 2
4𝑀B 𝑀B (𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑀B 𝐿 8𝑀B
𝑊* = 𝑊* = = 𝑊* =
𝐿 𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑏 𝐿

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 𝐿 𝑎 1 𝐿
𝑊* C G 𝜃 = 𝑀B (𝜃 + 2𝜃 + 𝜃) 𝑊* (𝑎)𝜃 = 𝑀B •2𝜃 + 2 𝜃’ 𝑊* C G 𝜃 = 𝑀B (𝜃 + 2𝜃 + 𝜃)
2 𝑏 2 2
8𝑀B 2𝑀B (𝑎 + 𝑏) 2𝑀B 𝐿 16𝑀B
𝑊* = 𝑊* = = 𝑊* =
𝐿 𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑏 𝐿
Since positive and negative BM are equal, 3 First hinge is formed near the closer support, then Since negative BM is more than positive BM two
plastic hinges are developed simultaneously. at the other support then at the point of load plastic hinges are developed at supports
simultaneously, after further loading a third plastic
hinge is developed at center.
Propped cantilever with UDL
Location of BMmax from prop = 3𝑙/8
Maximum positive BM = 9𝑤𝑙L /128
Location of POC from prop = 3𝑙/4
Maximum negative BM = 𝑤𝑙L /8
By propping a cantilever at free end, BM
reduces by 4 times at fixed support and
deflection becomes zero at free end.
Since -ve BM is more than +ve BM 1st
plastic hinge is developed at fixed support.
When the beam is loaded further a 2nd plastic
hinge is NOT developed at a distance of
3𝑙/8 from the propped end, but it shifts
towards left.
𝐿 𝑎 𝑥 = (√2 − 1)𝑙 = 0.414𝑙
𝑊* C G 𝜃 = 𝑀B (𝜃 + 2𝜃) 𝑊* (𝑎)𝜃 = 𝑀B •2𝜃 + 𝜃’
2 𝑏 4”1.5 + √2•𝑀B
6𝑀B 𝑀B (𝐿 + 𝑏) 𝑤* =
𝑊* = 𝑊* = 𝑙L
𝐿 𝑎𝑏 11.656𝑀B
Since negative BM is more than positive BM, 1st =
𝑙L
plastic hinge is developed at the fixed support, At the place of maximum BM SF is zero,
after further loading hinge develops at centre II.–—–
ratio with simply supported is = 1.457
below the point load ˜

l) For more than one load analysis

• In plastic analysis all the loads must be applied at once and increased gradually till collapse.
• Principle of superposition cannot be applied because material is loaded beyond elastic range.
• If a continuous beam is subjected to downward loading only; then failure mechanism of each span
will determine the collapse load. (partial collapse)
m) Points to remember
• For triangular section plastic NA at ℎ/√2 and elastic at 2ℎ/3 from top
II
• If a rectangular section is stressed to 𝑓5 up to depth of ℎ/4 then 𝑀 = š˜ 𝑏ℎL 𝑓5
II
• Which is same as to produce strain of 2𝜖5 at extreme fibers 𝑀 = š˜ 𝑏ℎL 𝑓5
œ# •
• if 𝑀5 = is yield moment then 𝑀 = 1.375𝑀5 produce strain of 2𝜖5
–
2. Design of steel structures (based on plastic analysis)
a) Characteristic of steel used in plastic design
• 𝑓5 ≯ 450 Mpa
5
 Ÿ
• ≮ 1.2 ultimate tensile stress should be at least 20% more than yield stress.
Ÿ¡

• % 𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ≮ 15%
• 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 ≮ 6𝜖5
b) Permissible stresses in structural steel (WSM)
Axial compressive stress 𝜎%« = 0.6𝑓5 Design of column and struts
Axial tensile stress 𝜎%( = 0.6𝑓5 Design of tension members and ties
Bending compressive stress 𝜎œ« = 0.66𝑓5 Design of flexural members,
beams, plate girders, purlins, girts
Bending tensile 𝜎œ( = 0.66𝑓5 Same as above
Shear stress 𝜏-% = 0.4𝑓5 Same as above
Bearing stress 𝜎œ = 0.75𝑓5 Design of base plates

c) Permissible stresses (design stresses) in plastic design (LSM)

Structural steel Bolts and welds
Maximum permissible axial 2.5𝑓*
compressive, axial tensile, bending 𝑓5 𝑓œ$%&,+® =
1.25
= 0.9𝑓*
compressive, bending tensile and 1.1
𝑓($+),¯+ =
bearing stress 1.25
Maximum permissible shear stress 𝑓5 𝑓*
= =
√3 × 1.1 √3 × 1.25
• Bolts and welds can be loaded up to ultimate stress without the danger of large deformation.
• For bolting and welding done at site, partial safety factor of 1.5 is used.
d) Maximum permissible deflection (Stiffness criteria)
SS beam – if it supports elements which are susceptible to cracking, like 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛
=
glass panels etc. maximum permissible deflection 360
SS beam – if it supports elements which are not susceptible to cracking 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛
=
300
For cantilever maximum permissible deflections are twice the above limits 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛
&
180 150
3. Simple Connections- riveted, bolted and pinned
a) Riveted connection
• The grip of a rivet is the distance between the underside of the two
heads, i.e., the shank length inside the connection. When the grip of the
rivet becomes long, the rivet is subjected to bending in addition to
bearing and shearing stresses. The grip length should ≯ 4𝜙.
• The diameter of the shank is called nominal diameter. A hole slightly
greater than the nominal diameter is drilled in the parts to be connected.
• The diameter of the rivets when hot driven is equal to the diameter of
the hole and is called gross diameter. As the hot rivet fills the rivet hole completely.
b) Types of joint
• Lap joint
¨ Two members to be connected are overlapped and connected together. The load in the lap
joint has eccentricity as the centre of gravity of load in one member and the centre of
gravity of load in second member is not in the same line. Therefore, a couple is formed
which causes undesirable bending in the connection and the rivets may fail in tension.
¨ In the case of lap joints, the minimum lap should not be less than four times the thickness
of the thinner part joined or 40 mm, whichever is more.
• Butt joint

6
 ¨ Two members to be connected are placed end to end. Additional plates provided on either
one or both sides, called cover plates are placed and are connected to the main plates.

c) Failure of riveted joints

The shear stress in the rivet may exceed the
working shear stress in the rivet. Shear stress is
Shear failure of
generated because the plates slip due to applied
rivets
forces

The rivet is crushed around the half

Bearing failure of circumference. The plate may be strong in
rivets bearing and the heaviest stressed plate may press
the rivet.
This can be caused as a result of over driven
rivets placed at a lesser edge distance. Cracks are
Shear failure of
developed parallel to the direction of force.
plate
Provide proper end distance to avoid shear
failure.
It occurs due to diagonal tension in the plate at
Splitting failure of bolt level, to prevent diagonal tension failure,
plate provide proper end distance for the bolt.

Bolt will push the plate forward.

Bearing failure of It occurs when bearing strength of plate is less.
plate Provide proper end distance

Cracks are developed perpendicular to the

Tearing failure of direction of force.
plate The tensile stress in the plate at the net cross-
section may exceed the working tensile stress.
d) DESIGN specifications
• To estimate the strength of the riveted joints and to ensure safe design, the specifications for pitch
and edge distances as laid down in IS 800-1984 (now revised to 2007, but these are same.)
Diameter 𝜙² = 𝜙+ + 1.5 𝑚𝑚 𝜙+ ≤ 25 mm
(rivet) 𝜙² = 𝜙+ + 2 𝑚𝑚 𝜙+ ≥ 25 mm

7
 Gauge (𝑔)

Maximum pitch ≯
Pitch Minimum pitch ≥ 2.5ϕ· 16t or 200 mm in Tension zone
12t, 200 mm in Compression zone
1.5ϕ for machine cut elements ≯ 12 ∙ t ∙ ϵ
≮¸
Edge and end 1.7ϕ for hand cut elements L—»
𝜖=ºŸ 𝑡 → thickness of thinner plate
distance To prevent shear, splitting and ¡

bearing failure of plate To prevent separation of plate

Gauge ≯ 75mm
Staggered Pitch can be increased 50% ie:
bolts Ø Tension zone = min(≯ 24t, 300mm)
Ø Compression zone = min(≯ 18t, 300mm)
These are bolts used to connect two structural members so that they act as single
unit. They don’t take any structural load.
Tack Bolts or Ø Tacking bolts should have a pitch not exceeding 32t or 300 mm, whichever is
welds less.
Ø In compression members, maximum pitch ≯600 mm
Ø In tension members, Maximum pitch =1m
e) Bolted connection
• The net tensile area of bolt to be considered is the area at the root of the threads (§Table 05). This
area is also called the stress area or proof area. However, in the absence of this table, the ratio of
net tensile are at root of thread to nominal plain shank area of bolt may be taken as 0.78.
• Diameter of bolt hole (depends on nominal dia of bolt used)
12 − 14mm ϕ½ + 1mm
16 − 24mm ϕ½ + 2mm
24 & above ϕ½ + 3mm
¨ Diameter of bolt holes is slightly more to place the bolts easily, not to take care of
temperature changes.
• Nominal diameter of a bolt used for a plate is found from Unwin’s formula
¨ 𝜙 = 6.04√𝑡
¨ 𝑡 is thickness of plate in mm, it is just a guideline for selection of bolt for a particular
thickness of plate.
Property class 4.6
The number before decimal indicates 1/100th of the ultimate tensile strength and the number after
decimal indicates the ratio of yield stress to ultimate stress.
Thus, ultimate tensile stress 𝑓* = 400 MPa and 𝑓5 is 60% of 𝑓* = 240 MPa
f) Strength of Bolted connections
• Shearing of bolts
¨ Shear strength of all bolts (number of shear planes also needs to be multiplied)
𝜋
𝑃) = 𝑛 • 𝑑L ’ 𝑓)
4
¨ Area of threaded portion = 0.78𝐴
𝑓*œ
Design shear (LSM) 𝑓) =
√3 × 1.25
8
 𝑓*œ = ultimate tensile strength of bolt.
𝛾Àœ = partial safety factor for the material of bolt.
• Bearing strength of bolt
𝑃œ = 𝑛 × (𝑑 ∙ 𝑡) × 𝑓œ
𝑓*
= 𝑛𝑑𝑡 × 2.5 ×
1.25
𝑓* = ultimate tensile strength of plate
• Tensile strength of bolt
¨ The nominal tensile capacity of bolt subjected to factored tensile force (𝑇œ ) is given by
𝑇+œ = 0.9𝑓*œ 𝐴+œ
𝛾Àœ
< 𝑓5œ 𝐴)œ
𝛾À»
𝑓*œ = ultimate tensile strength of bolt 𝑓5œ = yield stress of bolt
𝐴+œ = net tensile stress area of bolt 𝐴)œ = sank area of bolt
¨ The design strength of bolt in tension
𝑇+œ
𝑇.œ =
𝛾Àœ
𝛾Àœ = 1.25 𝛾À» = 1.1
• Tearing strength of plate
¨ Tensile strength of plate 𝑃( is determined by Gross area yielding or net area cracking
𝑓5
𝐴®
𝑃( = Ã 1.1
0.9𝑓5
𝐴+$(
1.25
𝛾À» = 1.1 partial safety factor for material resistance governed by yielding
𝛾ÀI = 1.25 partial safety factor
For chain bolting
𝐴+$( = 𝐵 − 𝑛𝑑#
For staggered bolting
𝑝,L
𝐴+$( = Å𝐵 − 𝑛𝑑# + Æ Ç ÈÉ 𝑡
4𝑔,

g) Long joints
• It is assumed that, applied axial load is shared by all bolts equally but when the applied load is
within proportionality limit, outer bolts take more load more than inner bolts. The above
assumption is valid at collapse load or at failure load only.
• If the length of the joint is more than 15𝑑 𝑜𝑟 150𝑡( then it is called a long joint.
• In long joints, end bolts take more load than inner bolts, so the failure of bolts in long joints is
sequential and is called unbuttoning failure. It is a tension failure in long joints.
• To avoid excessive stresses in the extreme bolts of the joint, the shear capacity of the joint is
reduced by a factor
𝑙Ì
𝛽ËÌ = 1.075 − 0.75 ≤ 𝛽ËÌ ≤ 1.0
200𝑑
• Where 𝑙Ì is the length of the joint and is taken as the distance between the first and last row of
bolts in a joint measured in the direction of the load transfer.
h) Grip length
• When the grip length of a bolt increases, the bolt is subjected to a greater bending moment due to
shear forces acting on its shank. Therefore, if the total thickness of connected plates exceeds five
times the nominal diameter of the bolt, the shear capacity if the bolt is reduced.

9
 8𝑑
𝛽Ë® =
3𝑑 + 𝑙®
¨ If 𝑙® ≯ 8𝑑 then section must be redesigned, (increase diameter of bolt)
i) Rivet value or bolt value
• It is the load a single bolt can transfer. It is the least value of failure in shear and bearing of a
single bolt.
• Single shear
Í Ÿ
¨ 𝑃) = • š 𝑑L ’ • ’
√Î×I.L—
L.—Ÿ
¨ 𝑃œ = (𝑑 ∙ 𝑡) × • I.L— ’
• Double shear
Í Ÿ
¨ 𝑃) = 2 • š 𝑑L ’ • ’
√Î×I.L—
L.—Ÿ
¨ 𝑃œ = (𝑑 ∙ 𝑡) × • I.L— ’
• Number of bolts required at the joint
ÏÐÑÒÓÔÕÖ ×ÓÐÖ
¨ 𝑛= ÔØÙÕÒ ÙÐ×ÚÕ
• Efficiency of a joint
¨ Also called as the percentage strength of the joint is ratio of the strength of the joint to the
strength of the main member expressed as a percentage.
least value of (PÜ , PÝ , PÒ )
𝜂=
strength of solid plate
j) In Plane Eccentric
• If CG of bolt does not lie on the line of action of the load, then it is called eccentric connection.
• The effect of eccentric load (𝑃) can be made equivalent to a load at
the CG of bolt group and a twisting moment.
𝑇 =𝑃∙𝑒
• Due to direct load, direct shear stress is developed in the bolts, due to
twisting moment, torsional shear stress is developed in the bolts.
• Shear force due to direct load (applied direct load is shared by bolts in
proportion to their cross-section area)
𝑃
𝐹I = 𝐴
∑𝐴, ,
𝑃
=
𝑛
¨ For equal area.
• Force in any bolt due to the torque is proportional to its distance from
the centre of rotation of the connection.
𝐹L ∝ 𝐴, 𝑟, = 𝐾 ∙ 𝑟,
¨ Therefore, the torque about the centre of rotation of the bolt
group
= 𝐹L 𝑟
= 𝐾𝑟 ∙ 𝑟
¨ Total resisting moment
𝑀 = ∑𝐾𝑟 L
𝑀 = 𝐾∑𝑟 L
𝐹L
𝑀 = ∑𝑟 L
𝑟
𝑀
𝐹L = 𝑟
∑𝑟 L

10
 o The force 𝐹L is maximum when distance r is maximum.
¨ The two forces 𝐹I and 𝐹L act at some angle on various bolts in the connection. Let 𝜃 be the
angle between these forces on the critical bolt. Then the resultant force 𝐹 on the critical bolt
will be.

𝐹& = º𝐹IL + 𝐹LL + 2𝐹I 𝐹L cos 𝜃

• For the resultant force to be maximum with 𝐹I being same for all the bolts and 𝐹L being maximum
for the bolt farthest from the centre of gravity of the joint, the angle 𝜃 between the two forces has
to be minimum.
k) Out of Plane Eccentricity
• Bolt group and load are not in the same plane. The bolts are subjected to direct shear along with
tension due to moment.
• The eccentric load 𝑃 can be made concentric along with a moment 𝑀 = 𝑃𝑒» .
• The direct load is shared equally by all the bolts,
force 𝐹I in any bolt due to direct load.
𝑃
𝐹I =
𝑛
• To estimate the amount of tension in the bolts, the
position of NA has to be located first. The bracket
section below the line of rotation presses against
the compression flange of the column. Bolts below
neutral axis are useless in resisting compression. It is assumed that the bracket rotates about a line
which lies at a distance of 1/7th of the depth of the bracket, from the base of bracket.
¨ This depth is measured form the bottom of the bracket to the topmost bolt in the
connection.
• The tensile force in the bolt is proportional to the distance of the bolt from the line of rotation.
𝑇, = 𝐾𝑦,
¨ Moment of resistance due to tensile force in a bolt, 𝑦, = distance from NA.
= 𝑇, 𝑦, = 𝐾𝑦,L
• Total moment of resistance due to tensile force
𝑀á = ∑𝐾𝑦,L
𝑀á = 𝐾∑𝑦,L
𝑇,
𝑀á = ∑𝑦,L
𝑦,
𝑀á 𝑦,
𝑇, =
∑𝑦,L
• Total tensile force
𝑀á ∑𝑦,
=
∑𝑦,L
• For equilibrium, total compressive force 𝐶 should be equal to total tensile force.
𝑀á ∑𝑦,
𝐶=
∑𝑦,L
• External moment = moment resisted by bolt in tension + moment of the compressive force
𝑀 = 𝑀á + 𝐶𝑦J
𝑀á ∑𝑦, 2ℎ
𝑃𝑒» = 𝑀á + ×
∑𝑦,L 21
∑𝑦, 2ℎ
𝑃𝑒» = 𝑀á Å1 + × É
∑𝑦,L 21

11
 𝑃𝑒»
𝑀á =
∑𝑦, 2ℎ
1+ ×
∑𝑦,L 21
• After the design the connection is checked in combined shear and tension by using the Interaction
equation
L L
𝑃(á 𝑃)á
Ç È +Ç È ≤1
𝑃( 𝑃)
¨ 𝑃( , 𝑃) – are tension and shear capacity of bolt
¨ 𝑃(á , 𝑃)á – are calculated factored maximum tension and SF on bolt.
4. Welded connections
a) Fillet weld (structural behavior)
• The fillet weld is done for members which overlap each other. For such joints the critical stress is
shear stress. They are also subjected to direct stresses but these are not of much importance.
• Size:
¨ The nominal size of a fillet weld is the dimension of its leg. Thus, the size of fillet weld is
specified as the minimum leg length of the weld.
• Maximum size
¨ The maximum size is a function of the thickness of the thinner part jointed.
¨ It is obtained by subtracting 1.5 mm from the thickness of the thinner member.
¨ In case of welds applied to the round toe of steel sections the maximum size of the weld
should not exceed ¾ of the thickness of the section at the toe.
• Minimum size
¨ A small weld placed on a thick member is undesirable. As the welding process will not heat
the heavy plate much beyond the immediate vicinity of the weld. The mass of the thick
plates will cool the weld too rapidly and tend to make it brittle.
¨ To help control this situation IS 800 specifies that:
Thickness of thicker
0-10 mm 10-20 mm 20-32 mm 32-50 mm
member
Minimum size (mm) 3 5 6 8
• Throat:
¨ Effective throat thickness is the shortest distance from the root of the fillet weld to the face
of the diagrammatic weld (line joining the toes).
¨ It is part of weld which is assumed to be effective in transferring the stress. It is weakest
plane in fillet weld.
Effective throat thickness = K × size of weld
Angle b/w plates 60˚-90˚ 91˚-100˚ 101˚-106˚ 107˚-113˚ 114˚-120˚
K= cos 𝜃/2 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
¨ Fillet weld should not be used if the angle between fusion plates is < 60˚ or > 120˚
• Effective length
¨ It is the length of the fillet weld for which the specified size and throat thickness of weld
exist.
𝑙ÕÏÏ = actual length of weld − 2 × size of weld
¨ The deduction is made to allow for craters to be formed at the end of weld length.
• Slot welding
¨ Width of slot ≥ max(3𝑡, 25mm)
¨ If the width of plate is limited, then slot welding is done by making slots in the connecting
plate. It is done to increase the length of the weld.
• Effective area
𝐴 = 𝑙ÕÏÏ × 𝑡(
12
b) Design Strength
• Shear strength of weld
𝑃 = 𝑓) × 𝑙ÕÏÏ × 𝑡(
𝛾À- = Partial safety factor
𝑓*
𝑓) = 1.25 for shop welding For E250
√3 × 𝛾À-
1.5 for site welding 𝑓* = 410Mpa
c) Fillet weld for Truss Members
• Truss members are composed of single-angle or double-angle sections. The following points is
kept in mind while designing the weld
¨ The calculated weld length is placed as longitudinal fillet welds either on the two sides
parallel to axis of the load or transverse weld along with longitudinal weld.
¨ The centre of gravity of the weld should
coincide with the centroid of the section used
as a truss member. If the member is
symmetrical, the welds will be placed
symmetrically but if the member is
unsymmetrical (angle, channel), the length of
longitudinal fillet welds will be kept different
on the two sides.
• Taking moment about the line passing through 𝐿I
𝑃L ℎ − 𝑃ℎL = 0
𝑃ℎL
𝑃L =
ℎ
𝑃ℎI
𝑃I =
ℎ
• Once the factored design loads 𝑃I and 𝑃L are known, the fillet weld lengths can be designed:
𝑡𝑓*
𝑙× =𝑃
√3𝛾À-
d) Intermittent weld
• Intermittent fillet welds are provided to transfer calculated stress across a joint when the strength
required is less than that developed by a continuous fillet weld of smallest practical size.
Staggered intermittent fillet welds are
structurally better than the chain pattern
intermittent fillet weld.
Pitch in Compression zone ≯ min(12t, 200mm)
Pitch in Tension zone ≯ min(16t, 200mm)
𝑡 = thickness of thinner plate jointed
• The weld at the junction of flange plate and web plate are designed to resist horizontal shear stress
çè5J
developed at the junction. 𝑞 = éל

e) In Plane Eccentric Welded connection

• When the twisting moment is in the plane of the weld, it is subjected
to direct shear and torsion. The weld group is subjected to direct shear
stress due to load 𝑃 and shear stress due to the twisting moment 𝑃𝑒.
The resulting shear force in the weld should not exceed the strength of
the weld.
¨ Direct shear stress
𝑃
𝑓I =
∑𝑙 × 𝑡(

13
 ¨ The shear stress due to twisting moment can be computed from
the torsion computation
𝑇 𝜏
=
𝐽 𝑟
𝑇𝑟
𝜏=
𝐽
𝑃𝑒 ∙ 𝑟
𝑓L =
𝐽
¨ Polar MI of welded area 𝐽 = 𝐼‚‚ = 𝐼€€ + 𝐼55
circular 𝑑 L line 𝑡𝑎IÎ 𝑡𝑎LÎ 𝑑𝑡 Î
𝐽 = 𝜋𝑑𝑡 C G 𝐼55 = 2 Å + É+ + 𝑑𝑡𝑎LL
ring 2 area 3 3 12
𝑡𝑑 Î 𝑎𝑡 Î 𝑑 L 𝑎L = 𝑥̅
line area 𝐼€€ = + 2Å + 𝑎𝑡 C G É
12 12 2 𝑎I = 𝑎 − 𝑥̅
¨ Resultant stress is obtained by adding the two stresses

𝑓& = º𝑓IL + 𝑓LL + 2𝑓I 𝑓L cos 𝜃

f) Out of plane eccentric load
• When the movement is in a plane perpendicular to the
weld, the weld is subjected to direct shear and bending.
¨ Direct shear stress
𝑃
𝑓) =
∑𝑙 × 𝑡(
¨ Bending tensile stress (axial stress)
𝑀
𝑓% = 𝑦
𝐼€€
¨ Since the weld element is subjected to complex
stresses the equivalent shear stress to prevent failure of the weld is given by
𝑓*
𝑓$ = º𝑓%L + 3𝑓IL ≤
√3 × 1.25
¨ NA lies at the CG of weld group because bending tensile and compressive stresses are
resisted by weld only. And it is assumed that there is a small gap between flanges of section
and the bracket.
5. Tension member
a) Net sectional area
• The presence of holes reduces the strength of the tension member. The net sectional area of the
plate member is obtained by deducing the area of bolt holes from the gross sectional area of
plates.
𝐴+ = 𝐴® − 𝑛(𝑑# 𝑡)
• For staggered pattern
¨ When the bolts are arranged in a zigzag fashion with a
pitch 𝑝 and gauge 𝑔, the net effective area of the plate
with a width 𝐵 and thickness 𝑡 is given by
𝑝L
𝐴+ = Å𝐵 − 𝑛𝑑 + Æ Ç ÈÉ 𝑡
4𝑔

14
 ¨ At critical path for each inclined leg,
B•
corresponding •š®’ must be added.
• For angles
¨ When all the legs are connected
𝑔L = 𝑔œ + 𝑔% − 𝑡
¨ 𝐵 = sum of leg lengths − t

In WSM
Ø In case of single angle connected through one leg.
𝐴+$( = 𝐴I + 𝑘𝐴L
Ø 𝐴I = effective net c/s area of the connected leg
Ø 𝐴L = gross c/s area of the outstanding leg
3𝐴I
𝑘=
3𝐴I + 𝐴L
Ø Where lug angles are used, the effective sectional area of the whole
of the angle member should be considered.
Ø In case of a pair of angles back-to-back (or a single Tee) connected
by one leg of the angle to the same side of gusset plate.
𝐴+$( = 𝐴I + 𝑘𝐴L
5𝐴I
𝑘=
5𝐴I + 𝐴L

Ø For double angles placed back-to-back and connected to each side

of a gusset plate or to each side of part of a rolled steel section, (as
there is no eccentricity)
𝐴+$( = 𝐴®&¯)) − deduction for rivet holes

b) Shear lag
• Shear lag is non-uniform straining of a member due to tension. It reduces the efficiency. It reduces
the efficiency of tension member component that is not directly connected to the gusset plate.
• As long as resultant action and resultant reaction pass through CG of c/s there is no shear lag.
• The effect of shear lag exist at the connection level only.
c) Types of failure
• Gross Section Yielding: considerable deformation of the member in longitudinal direction may
take place before it fractures, making the structure un serviceable.
• Net Section Rapture: the fracture of the member when the net c/s of the member reaches the
ultimate stress.
• Bloc Shear Failure: a segment of block of material at the end of member shear out due to the
possible use of high bearing strength of the steel and high-strength bolts resulting in smaller
connection length.
d) Load carrying capacity of tension members
Gross section 𝑓5
𝑃í = 𝐴®
yielding 1.1
0.9𝑓*
𝑃í = 𝐴+
1.25
Net section The tearing strength of angle section connected through one leg is affected by shear
rapture lag also. The design strength, governed by tearing at net section is given by:
𝐴+« 𝑓* 𝐴®¯ 𝑓5
𝑇.+ = 0.9 +𝛽
1.25 1.1
15
 𝐴+« = net area of the connected leg
𝐴®¯ = gross area of the outstanding leg
𝑤 𝑓5 𝑏)
𝛽 = 1.4 − 0.076 × ×
𝑡 𝑓* 𝐿«
𝑓* 1.1
≤×
𝑓5 1.25
≥ 0.7
Shear yield and tension fracture
𝐴-® 𝑓5 0.9𝑓*
𝑇.I = Ç È + 𝐴(+ C G
√3 1.1 1.25
Tension yield and shear fracture
Block shear
𝑓5 𝐴-+ 0.9𝑓*
failure 𝑇.L = 𝐴(® Ç È + C G
1.1 √3 1.25
𝐴-® , 𝐴-+ are minimum gross and net areas in
shear.
𝐴(® , 𝐴(+ are gross and net areas in tension
• Block shear failure occurs along a path involving tension on one plane and shear on a
perpendicular plane. It has been experimentally found that fracture of the net section surface
accompanied with yielding of gross shear surface generally governs the design.
e) Slenderness ratio:
• The slenderness ratio of a tension member is defined as the ratio of its unsupported length (L) to
its least radius of gyration (𝑟). However, IS 800 (2007) specifies the maximum effective
slenderness ratio to be the ratio of effective length KL of the member to the appropriate radius of
gyration.
Member 𝐾𝐿/𝑟
Ø A member carrying compressive load resulting from dead load and imposed load.
Ø A tension member in which a reversal ⇄ of direct stress occurs due to loads other
180
than wind or seismic forces (top member of truss)
less value because of buckling
Member subjected to compressive forces resulting only from a combination of wind
earthquake actions, provided the deformation of such members does not adversely 250
affect the stresses in any other part of the structure.
Compression flange of beam restrained against Lateral Torsional buckling 300
Pure tension member subjected to reversal ⇄ of stresses due to action of wind or
350
earth quake. (tie rod or bracing system)
Members always in tension (bottom member of truss)
There is no possibility of buckling in pure tension members, if 𝜆 > 400 then the tension member
400
behaves like a cable and sags due to its own self weight and straight configuration of the member will be
lost.
For hanger bars
160
These are tension members but not a tension member in a truss
Lacing member
145
It is a compression member but not in truss
f) Lug angle
• Lug angle is small piece of angle, used to connect outstand legs of tension members to the gusset
plate. The purpose of lug angle is to eliminate shear lag effect and to reduce the length of the
connection to the gusset plate.
• Bolt connecting outstand legs of main angle and lug angle, must start in advance of all bolts. To
ensure that outstand of main angle transfers the load to lug angle effectively.
• Minimum number of bolts connecting lug angle to plate is 2

16
 • Shear lag factor (𝛽): which takes care of the loss of efficiency due to shear lag ≮ 0.7
¨ the loss of efficiency is not more than 30%
¨ to take care of shear lag effect the area of outstand leg is multiplied by 𝛽
• Lug Angle may be designed as follows (strength requirement)
¨ In case of angle members, lug angle and gusset plate connection should be capable of
developing strength not less than 20% more than force taken by outstanding leg of the
angle. The attachment of the lug angle to the angle member should be capable of
developing 40% in excess of that force.
¨ When lug angles are used to connect angle member, the whole area of the member should
be taken as effective. The net area is calculated by deducing the area of the bolt holes from
the gross sectional area.
¨ In case of channel member, lug angle and gusset plate connection should be capable of
developing strength not less than 10% more than force taken by outstanding leg of the
channel. The attachment of the lug angle to the angle member should be capable of
developing 20% in excess of that force.
6. Compression member
Ë
a) Maximum Slenderness ratio 𝜆 = & ñòò = 180
óôõ
b) Effective length:
• It is the length of a column between points of zero moment.
Support Theoretical Recommended 𝑃«&

𝜋 L 𝐸𝐼
2𝑙 2𝑙
4𝑙 L

2𝜋 L 𝐸𝐼
𝑙/√2 0.8𝑙
𝑙L

4𝜋 L 𝐸𝐼
𝑙/2 0.65𝑙
𝑙L

𝜋 L 𝐸𝐼
𝑙 𝑙
𝑙L

𝜋 L 𝐸𝐼
1.2𝑙 1.2𝑙
1.44𝑙 L

c) Euler’s critical load

Í• ÷é
• 𝑃«& =
Ë•
Í• è÷
• 𝑃«& = ø•
• Euler’s critical load is dependent on axial rigidity, flexural rigidity, and slenderness ratio
𝜋L𝐸
𝜎«& = L
𝜆
Í• ÷
• In IS Code 𝑓«« = ùú •
• ’
û

17
 • Because of the assumptions involved in the derivation of Euler’s critical stress, we get a higher
value of stress, but columns actually buckle at lesser than 𝑓«« so IS 800 (2007) modified Euler’s
critical stress and given Design Compressive Stress 𝑓«. .
• As per IS 800 (2007), the factored compressive load carrying capacity of the column is given by
𝑃« = 𝑓«. 𝐴®
d) Radius of gyration
• It is the distance at which entire area must be kept as a strip so that it will give same moment of
inertia as that of original area. It is a measure of resistance to rotation or buckling.
• If radius of gyration is more it means it is difficult to rotate or buckle a member.
𝐼
𝑟=‰
𝐴
•The most efficient cross-section in resisting compression is thin hallow circular section, because
for a given c/s area 𝐼À,+ is maximum for thin hallow circular section. (box section has point of
stress concentrations so not efficient)
e) DESIGN strength IS800
• Hot rolled and built-up steel members, with cross sections commonly used for carrying axial
compression, usually fail by flexural buckling. The buckling strength of these members is affected
by residual stresses, initial bow and accidental eccentricities of load and initial imperfection of
geometry of cross-section.
• To account for all these factors, buckling curves a,b,c, or d.
• The design compressive strength of a member is
𝑃. = 𝐴® ∙ 𝑓«.
Ø Design Compressive Stress 𝑓«. 1
𝜙 = [1 + 𝛼(𝜆 − 0.2) + 𝜆L ]
𝑓5 2
𝛾À» 𝛼 – imperfection factor
𝑓«. =
𝜙 + [𝜙 L − 𝜆L ]».— Ø Non-Dimensional effective
𝜒𝑓5 slenderness ratio
=
𝛾À» 𝑓5
Ø Stress reduction factor 𝜆=‰
𝑓««
1
𝜒= Í• ÷
𝜙 + [𝜙 L − 𝜆L ]».— 𝑓«« = Euler buckling stress = ùú •
• ’
û

f) Analysis of struts (compression member of trusses)

• If a strut is spanning between two gusset plates only then it is called as a discontinuous strut.
• And if it spans over more than two gusset plates, then it is called a continuous strut.
• Effective length
¨ Single angle discontinuous with one bolt LÕÏÏ = 𝑙
¨ Single angle discontinuous with two or more bolt or weld LÕÏÏ = 0.85𝑙
¨ Double angle discontinuous with two or more bolt LÕÏÏ = 0.7𝑙 to 0.85𝑙
• If there is a possibility of buckling of the strut perpendicular to the plane of the truss 𝐿 = 𝑙
• When structural steel sections like angles, channels and t section are used as compression
members, maximum pitch of tag bolts should not be greater than 600mm
¨ Slenderness ratio between tack bolts, to prevent buckling of member in between tack bolts
o 𝜆 ≯ 40
o 𝜆 ≯ 0.6𝜆- of whole strut
g) Principal axes
• These are the axes about which product of inertia is zero, and moment of inertia is either
minimum or maximum.
• Product of inertia
18
 ¨ 𝑥 ∙ 𝑦 ∙ 𝑑𝐴 is called product of inertia (PI)
¨ 𝐼€5 = ∫ 𝑥 ∙ 𝑦 ∙ 𝑑𝐴
¨ It is only a mathematical term, if 𝐼€€ 𝐼55 𝐼€5 are known, then we can find moment of inertia
of the area about any inclined axis.
¨ Product of inertia can be positive negative or zero depending on the orientation of the area
w.r.t. x and y but moment of inertia is always a positive quantity.
¨ Product of inertia of an area w.r.t. a symmetric axis and any other perpendicular axis is
always zero. If the two axes are passing through CG they are called principal axes.
h) Design of lacings
• Lacing is a system of connecting elements of a built-up-column. It makes them act as a single unit.
If the components of the column are very close to each other, then tack bolts are used to make
them act as a single unit. If spacing of components are more, then tack bolts are useless so we use
lacing or battening.
• Lacing members are designed as truss elements, i.e. they are
subjected to tension and compression only. Bending moment is
zero in lacing members.
• The sections of are so spaced that the radius of gyration of the
section about the axis perpendicular to the plane of lacing is not
less than the radius of gyration about the axis in the plane of
lacing.
¨ This is achieved by making the radius of gyration about the yy-axis equal to or greater than
that about the zz-axis. 𝑟5 ≥ 𝑟‚
• Effective length is increased by 5% in calculations, to take care of shear deformation effects.
¨ By increasing the elective length of the column, 𝑓«. decreases, so the 𝐴® provided will be
more, this additional gross area will take care of the additional shear deformation effect.
• Angle of lacing 𝜃 w.r.t. vertical
¨ Is kept between 40˚ ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 70˚
¨ If 𝜃 is greater than 70º then spacing of the lacing will be very less and uneconomical, and if
it is less than 40º then length of lacing members will be more and it will buckle.
• The maximum spacing between lacing bars 𝑐 should be such that the minimum slenderness ratio
of the component member 𝑐/𝑟 ≯ 50 or 0.7 times the slenderness ratio of the member as a whole.
𝑐 𝑐
≯ 50 ≯ 0.7𝜆-
𝑟À,+ 𝑟À,+
¨ If the above condition is not satisfied, then increase the value of 𝜃 up to 70˚. If still the
component column is found to be unsafe a double lacing system remains the only choice.
• Lacing system are designed for a transverse shear 𝑉 = 2.5% of column load. It takes care of
eccentricity of axial loads and moments arising due to accidental lateral loads.
¨ 𝑉 is shared by parallel planes of lacing system 𝑁
¨ 𝑁 = 4 for double lacing.
¨ Lacing members are subjected to compressive or
tensile force of
𝑉
𝐹=
𝑁 sin 𝜃
¨ Number of bolts at joint
2𝐹 cos 𝜃 2𝑉 cot 𝜃
𝑛= =
𝑅- 𝑁𝑅-
• Dimension of lacing system, so that (𝜆 ≯ 145)
Width of lacing bars 𝑏À,+ ≮ 3𝜙 of bolt

19
 Thickness 𝑙ÕÏÏ
Single lacing system 𝑡À,+ ≮
40
𝑙ÕÏÏ
Double lacing system 𝑡À,+ ≮
60
Minimum radius of gyration for a lacing flat is 𝑟À,+ = 𝑡/√12
Slenderness ratio of lacing bar should be < 145
Effective length The inner end rivets/bolts for a single lacing system.
of the lacing bar is the 0.7 times of distance for double lacing system
length between In welded connection, 0.7 times of distance between inner ends
• Lacing system on opposite side should be mirror images of each other, and should not vary along
the length of column.
• At top and bottom, tie plates or batten plates are provided. They prevent distortion of built-up
column c/s due to twisting moment developed at the connection of the base plate with the column.
• As far as possible, laced column should not be subjected to eccentric load in the plane of lacing.
Because additional transverse shear force is developed in the lacing system due to moments.
Buckling in plane of lacing should be avoided.
• As far as possible, horizontal cross members between lacing system should be avoided. As it
would induce additional secondary stresses in the lacing system due to contraction of column.
i) Design of battening
• Battening is also a method of connecting elements of a built-up column. Batten members are
designed as framed members. i.e. battens are subjected to SF and BM.
• Minimum 4 battens are required, so that the column is divided into a minimum of 3 bays to
ensure that batten column behave like a frame.
• Battened columns have the same strength as laced columns but are uneconomical and are
therefore used rarely.
• Column sections to be Battened are designed in a way similar to a laced column. The only
difference is in the effective slenderness ratio which is increased by 10% to account for shear
deformation.
• The maximum spacing of the battens 𝑐 should be such that the minimum slenderness ratio of the
component member 𝑐/𝑟5 ≯ 50 or 0.7 times the slenderness ratio of
the member as a whole.
𝑐 𝑐
≯ 50 ≯ 0.7𝜆-
𝑟À,+ 𝑟À,+
• Effective depth of batten
End batten Intermediate
á
𝑑′ ≮ 𝛼 = 𝑠 + 2𝑐55 3
𝑑,+($& ≮ 𝛼
á
𝑑 = 𝑑 + 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ≯ 2𝑏 4
𝑏 – width of column component 𝑑 ,+($& ≮ 2𝑏
𝛼 – distance b/w centroid of column
component

• Thickness
𝑆I
𝑡À,+ ≮
50
o 𝑆I – distance b/w inner most bolt lines
• Forces in battens
¨ Batten should be designed to carry the bending moment and shear arising from the
transverse shear force, V, which is 2.5% of the total axial force on the whole compression
member. Which is shared by parallel planes of batten system 𝑁.
¨ Portal method of analysis
20
 o Point of contra flexure is assumed to be located at midpoint of each beam and
column.
o Horizontal shear taken by interior column is twice that of exterior column.
Longitudinal SF in batten Bending moment
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐
= =
𝑁𝑆 2𝑁
𝑆 – distance between centroid of bolt group 𝑐 – distance between battens
• As far as possible, Batten column should not be subjected to eccentric load in the plane of Batten,
because additional transverse shear force is developed in the batten system due to moments.
Buckling in plane of battening should be avoided.
j) Splices
• A joint when provided in the length of a member is called a splice.
• Theoretically, a splice plate should be located at the point of contraflexure of the column. It is a
common practice to design a column of two storey length and splice it at about 30-150 cm above
the floor level. This arrangement also keeps the splice clear of beam or wind brackets.
• DESIGN
• The first step is to ascertain the nature of the law to which the splice is subjected. They are the
axial compressive load, bending moment and occasionally shear.
• For axial compressive load the splice plates are provided on the flanges of the two column section
to be spliced.
¨ If the column has machined ends, the splice is designed only to keep the columns in
position and to carry tension due to bending moment to which it may be subjected. The
splice plate and the connections should be designed to carry 50% of the axial load and
tension.
¨ If the ends of the columns are not machined, the splice and connections are designed to
resist the total axial load and any tension, if present due to BM.
• The cross-sectional area of splice plate is calculated by dividing the appropriate portion of the
factor load coming over the splice by the yield stress.
• The width of the splice plate is usually kept equal to the width of the column flange. The thickness
of the splice plate is found by dividing the cross-sectional area of the splice plate with its width.
7. Design of flexural members
a) Beam: it is a structural member subjected to transverse loads only.
• If the compression flange of the beam is completely restrained against lateral movement then it is
called laterally supported beam. There is no possibility of buckling of compression flange, so
design bending compressive stress.
𝑓5
𝑓œ. =
1.1
• If compression flange is not restrained against lateral movement it is called laterally unsupported
beam
¡ Ÿ
¨ 𝑓œ. = 𝑋$í I.I
¨ 𝑋$í is a factor to take care of lateral torsional buckling.
b) Analysis
• Flanges are designed to take entire BM and web are designed to take entire SF
• For rolled steel sections, depth of web is taken as overall depth of the beam in resisting shear, if
welding is done to make I section, depth of web is taken as clear depth of web excluding flange
thickness.
Ÿ¡
¨ Compressive stress in bending 𝜎œ« =
I.I
Ÿ¡
¨ Design shear stress 𝜏-% =
√Î×I.I

21
 • Area resisting shear:
¨ For rolled section 𝐴 = 𝑑 × 𝑡-
¨ For built up section 𝐴 = 𝑑- × 𝑡-
c) Cross section classification
Plastic Cross sections which can develop plastic hinges and have the rotation capacity
class 1 required for the failure of the structure by the formation of a plastic mechanism.
Compact Cross sections which can develop their plastic moment resistance, but have
class 2 inadequate plastic hinge rotation capacity because of local buckling.
Cross sections in which the elastically calculated stress in the extreme
Semi-compact compression fibre of the steel member, assuming an elastic distribution of
class 3 stresses, can reach the yield strength, but local buckling is liable to prevent the
development of the plastic moment resistance.
Cross sections in which local buckling will occur even before the attainment of
Slender yield stress in one or more parts of the cross section. In such cases, the effective
class 4 sections for design are calculated by deducting the width of the compression
plate element in excess of the semi-compact section limit.
• Only plastic sections can be used in indeterminate frames. The compact sections are suitable for
simply supported beams which fail after reaching plastic moment at one section.
• Semi-compact sections can be
used for elastic design, where
the section fails after reaching
the first yield moment 𝑀5 at the
extreme fibers of the beam.
• Slender sections are used for
plastic girders and cold-formed
sections only.
• The above figure shows the
moment rotation characteristics
of the four classes of cross section. The plot also depicts the bending stress pattern of all four
classes of sections. The plastic sections exhibit sufficient ductility. The compact sections have
relatively lower deformation capacity than the plastic sections, but are capable of reaching their
full plastic moment values.
d) Local flange buckling
• It occurs due to bending compressive stress in the compression flange. Because of large width of
outstand.
• For rolled section, width of outstand is measured from center of beam.
• For welded I section b is measured from face of web
• For bolted I section b is from outermost bolt line to extreme edge.
e) To prevent buckling of flange into the web
.
¨ (%
≤ 345𝜀ŸL
L—»
¨ 𝜀Ÿ = º Ÿ
¡

f) Design of built-up members

• If a single beam section cannot withstand applied loads then built-up beams are used.
(
• 𝑍B &$' = Ÿ
¡ /I.I

• If cover plates are provided to increase the moment carrying capacity then.
• 𝑍B &$' = 𝑍B œ$%À + 𝑍B BË%($
• 𝑍B BË%($ = 𝐴B 𝑑

22
 g) Web Buckling
• The web in a rolled section behaves like a column when placed under concentrated loads. The
web is quite thin and is there for subjected to buckling.
• Web buckling (vertical buckling) occurs when the intensity of vertical compressive stress near the
centre of the section becomes greater than the critical buckling stress for the web acting as
column.
• The buckling of the column web is
very much influenced by the restraints
provided for the flanges. Various types
of buckling that can occur are as
shown.
• Generally, vertical buckling of webs is not a problem
with rolled beam sections. This possibility exists mainly
in the rather thin webs of deep plate girders where this
ratio may exceed the permissible limit.
• The maximum diagonal compression occurs at the
neutral axis and will be inclined at 45˚ to it.
• The web buckling strength will be
𝐹-œ = 𝐵𝑡- 𝑓«.
h) Web Crippling
• Loads and reactions concentrated along a short length of flange of beam
are resisted by compressive stresses in the web which vary with distance
from the load. The webs of rolled steel section are, therefore, subjected to
a large amount of stress just below the concentrated loads and above the
reactions from the support.
• The stress concentration occurs at the junction of the web and the flange.
As a result, large bearing stress are developed below the concentrated
loads. Consequently, the web near the portion of the stress concentration tends to fold over the
flange. This type of local buckling phenomena is called crippling or crimpling of the web.
• The bearing strength
𝑓5-
𝐹- = 𝐴$
𝛾À»
• 𝑓5- = the design yield strength of web
• 𝐴$ = effective area of the web = 𝑏I 𝑡-
• The angle of dispersion of the load is assumed
to be 1: 2.5
• Aside from spreading the load over a longer
portion of the flange there are two remedies to Bearing length
the problem. The first is to provide a stiffener 𝑏I = 𝑏 + 2𝑛I (under concentrated loads)
which bear against the flanges at the load 𝑏I = 𝑏 + 𝑛I (under reactions at support)
points and connected to the web so as to transfer the force to it gradually. The other is to make the
web thicker.
8. Design of gantry girders
a) Introduction
• Overhead travelling cranes are used in industrial buildings to lift and transport heavy jobs,
machines and so on, from one place to another.
• The crane may be a manually operated overhead travelling (MOT) crane or an electrically
operated overhead travelling (EOT) crane.

23
 • Channel section is provided to increase lateral stability of the
gantry girder when it is subjected to lateral loads. The
function of the top channel is to increase, MI about vertical
axis and increase lateral buckling strength.
• Torsional restraint cannot be provided by channel section; to
provide torsional restraint, web of gantry girder must be
connected to the column with the help of brackets.
• Cat walls provide lateral support to the compression flange of
the beam when they are provided, load carrying capacity of
gantry girder will be more.
b) Loads
• Gantry gardeners are unique in themselves. First it is different from usual beams in the buildings.
¨ It is generally laterally unsupported except at columns.
¨ It is one of the very few girders in the buildings that is subjected to impact.
¨ Third it must be analysed for unsymmetrical bending because of lateral thrust from starting
and stopping of the crab.
¨ It is subjected to longitudinal load due to
starting and stopping of the crane bridge
itself.
¨ These are always simply supported.
• Vertical loads
¨ A vertical load acting over the gantry
girder is the reaction from the crane
girder and consist of the self-weight on the crane, self-weight of the crab and the crane
capacity (the maximum load that can be hoisted.)
¨ These loans are transferred from the crane girder to the gantry girder through the wheels
attached to the crane girder.
¨ To calculate the reaction the maximum wheel load is computed. It occurs when the crab is
nearest to the gantry girder.
¨ In addition to the reactions from a crane girder, the self-weight of the rails would also be
considered.
• Lateral loads
¨ The lateral loads are also known as surge loads.
¨ The lateral thrust is assumed to act in the plane of the centre of gravity of the upper flange.
Acting as it does at rail level, it has a lever arm producing torque. This small lever-arm and
torque are however neglected.
¨ No help is assumed to be offered by the lower or tensile flange in resisting lateral thrust.
• Longitudinal loads
¨ The longitudinal loads are also known as drag loads.
¨ Longitudinal loads are caused due to the stopping and starting of the crane girders, and
produce a thrust along the rails. The largest of these, EOT cranes, is due to the sudden
application of the brakes.
¨ The lateral and longitudinal loads are transferred at the rail level. Therefore, gantry girders
are also subjected to bending moments due to these loads.
• Impact Loads
¨ The dynamic action of a moving load is called impact load, static load is multiplied by
impact factor to get an equivalent static load.
Type of load Impact allowance (percentage)
Vertical force transferred to the rails

24
 Ø Electrically operated 25% of maximum static wheel load
Ø Hand operated 10% of maximum static wheel load
Lateral force transferred to rail
Ø Electrically operated 10% of weight of the crab and weight lifted on crane
Ø Hand operated 5% of weight of the crab and weight lifted on crane
Longitudinal force along the rail 5% of the static wheel loads for both.
c) Specifications
• A gantry girder section is subjected to
vertical loads and horizontal thrust
simultaneously. Either of the two
horizontal forces should be considered to
act along with the vertical loads at a time.
• The vertical deflection of a gantry girder
should not exceed the values specified
below:

𝐿
Manually operated crane:
500
𝐿
EOT crane upto 50-ton capacity
750
𝐿
EOT crane with more than 50-ton capacity
1000
𝐿
Other moving loads, such as charging cars
600
9. Plate Girders
a) Introduction
• A flexural member is designed usually for bending and occasionally for shear. When spans are
large and loads are heavy, even when an I-section with cover plates maybe insufficient to support
the anticipated loads. In such a case any Plate Girder may be provided.
• Plate gardeners are built up flexural members. Some of the typical plate girder sections are
shown. Their bending resistance can be increased by increasing the distance between the flanges.
• Since the flanges provides most of the flexural strength, most of the steel must be concentrated in
the flanges and as far as possible away from the neutral axis of the girder which consequently
results in deep thin web.
• Such slender webs account for many of the special problems associated with plate girders,
including local instability.
b) Proportioning of web
• Web thickness
¨ The thickness of web in no case should be less than 6 mm if painted and 8 mm if unpainted.
¨ For webs with no longitudinal stiffeners, the maximum

25
 𝑑
< 270
𝑡-
¨ Also, aspect ratio
𝑐
<3
𝑑
¨ Where, 𝑐 is the spacing of transverse stiffeners and 𝑑 is the depth of the web.
• Minimum web thickness
¨ The thickness of the web of a plate girder section should meet following serviceability
criteria and compression flange buckling criteria.
Ø Serviceability criteria
𝑑 Web connected to flanges along
≤ 200𝜀-
When transverse stiffeners are not 𝑡- both longitudinal edges.
provided 𝑑 Web connected to flanges along
≤ 90𝜀-
𝑡- one longitudinal edge only.
𝑑
When only transverse stiffeners are ≤ 200𝜀- For 𝑑 ≤ 𝑐 ≤ 3𝑑
𝑡-
provided 𝑐
≤ 200𝜀- For 0.74𝑑 ≤ 𝑐 ≤ 𝑑
𝑡-
For 𝑐 > 3𝑑 the web is considered as
𝑑
unstiffened ≤ 270𝜀- For 𝑐 ≤ 0.74𝑑
𝑡-
𝑑
≤ 250𝜀- For 𝑑 ≤ 𝑐 ≤ 2.4𝑑
When transverse stiffeners are 𝑡-
provided along with longitudinal 𝑐
≤ 250𝜀- For 0.74𝑑 ≤ 𝑐 ≤ 𝑑
stiffness at one level only, (at 0.2 d 𝑡-
from compression flange) 𝑑
≤ 340𝜀- For 𝑐 < 0.74𝑑
𝑡-
When there is a second longitudinal
𝑑
stiffener provided at the neutral ≤ 400𝜀- 𝜀- = º250/𝑓5-
𝑡-
axis.
Ø Compression flange buckling criteria
To prevent the vertical buckling of a girder flange into the web before the yield stress is reached
into the flange, the maximum permissible web slenderness value 𝑑/𝑡- which depends on
stiffener spacing represented by 𝑐/𝑑 also called aspect ratio, is limited by code
When transverse stiffeners are not 𝑑
≤ 345𝜀ŸL
provided 𝑡-
𝑑
≤ 345𝜀ŸL For 1.5𝑑 ≤ 𝑐
When only transverse stiffeners are 𝑡-
provided 𝑑
≤ 345𝜀Ÿ For 𝑐 < 1.5𝑑
𝑡-
c) Stiffener design (§Cl 8.7.1.1): When the web of a member acting alone (that is without stiffeners)
proves inadequate, stiffeners for meeting the following requirement are provided:
Intermediate To improve the buckling strength of a slender web due to shear.
transverse stiffener
and longitudinal
stiffeners
Load carrying To prevent local buckling of the web due to concentrated loading.
stiffener
At support to prevent bending of flange plates and buckling of web plate
Bearing stiffener due to support reaction, end bearing stiffeners are provided.
To prevent local crushing of web due to concentrated loading

26
 If bearing stiffeners are the only means of providing torsional restraint
then they are called torsional stiffeners.
Torsion stiffener To provide torsional restraint to beam and girders at support.
Other means of providing torsional restraint or extending the plate girder
into the wall or using web cleat.
Diagonal stiffener To provide local reinforcement to a web under shear and bearing.
Tension stiffener To transmit tensile forces applied to a web through a flange
d) DESIGN of end bearing stiffeners
• These are designed as column with 𝑙ÕÏÏ = 0.7𝑙I
¨ 𝑙I is length of bearing stiffeners between flange angles.
• Since bearing stiffeners is designed as a column it should be vertical and should not be joggled,
i.e. they should not be bent to touch the web plate. And the gap between bearing stiffeners and
web plate must be filled by filler plate. The ends of bearing stiffeners should have tight bearing
with the flange angle.
• If flats are used as bearing stiffeners, then c/s area of the imaginary column or effective area of
bearing stiffener is taken as
𝐴® = 2 × 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 + (40𝑡- )𝑡-
e) DESIGN of vertical stiffeners
• They are used to prevent buckling of the web due to diagonal compression. These stiffeners are
not designed as column so the ends of stiffeners need not have tight bearing with the flange
angles. So, they can be joggled to touch the web plate, so that filler plate need not be provided.
≮ 0.33𝑑I
• Spacing of vertical stiffeners ¸
≯ 1.5𝑑I
• Lesser clear panel dimension ≯ 180𝑡-
• Greater clear panel dimension ≯ 270𝑡-
10. Column bases
a) Design of base plate
• Base plates are used to transfer the column load to the concrete footing. It is a steel plate used to
reduce bearing pressure on the concrete footing. Due to column load, base plate is subjected to
biaxial bending.
• If the bearing ends of column and base plate are machined (smoothened) for complete bearing,
entire load is transferred to the base plate by direct bearing action only. The purpose of weld is
only to hold the column in position, but it is assumed 50% of the load is transferred by direct
bearing and remaining 50% is transferred through welds.
• If the bearing ends are not machined, then entire load is transferred through welds only.
• If the column load is axial (no moment is getting transferred), the base can be designed by
assuming a uniform bearing pressure from below.
¨ Then the thickness of the base plate is given
by
2.5𝑤 L
𝑡=‰ (𝑎 − 0.3𝑏L )
𝑓5 /1.1
¨ 𝑤 factored upward pressure,
¡ Ÿ
¨ 𝜎œ) = I.I design bending stress
¨ 𝑎, 𝑏 greater and smaller projection of base
plate beyond column edge
¨ 𝜇 Poisson’s ratio = 0.3
• To get minimum base plate thickness keep overhang equal.
b) Gusseted base plate

27
 • It is used to increase the stiffness of the column at the contact surface of base plate. It reduces
bearing stress at the contact surface and prevents web crippling at the contact surface.
• If stiffener is provided in a slab base then it will prevent bending of the base plate.
c) Grillage foundation
• When safe bearing capacity of the soil is very less then grillage foundation is used, the beam in
grillage foundation are checked for BM, SF, Web crippling and web buckling but not checked for
compression.
d) Portal bracing and sway bracing are located at top chord members of a trough type truss.
• Sway bracing is located at intermediate panel points of the top cord members to reduce the sway
of trusses.
• Portal bracing is located at the portal of the truss bridge. It is designed to transfer load from sway
bracing to the supports.
e) Counter bracing
• The disadvantage of N type truss is that if the length of the diagonal is more then it may buckle,
then, panel shear is not resisted by any member and the truss collapses. To prevent collapse,
additional diagonal members are added to each panel. If diagonal fails due to compression, then
the other diagonal is subjected to tension and resists the panel shear, these additional members are
called counter bracing.
• Bracing is done to resist out of plane loads. Counter bracing is done to prevent collapse of the
truss due to in-plane loads.
f) Splicing
# #
• The most suitable location for splicing a column is at a distance of to from top or bottom of the
Î š
floor level because at these locations, BM is zero and SF is not maximum.
• So, the splice plate in column splicing are subjected to axial forces only.
11. Roof truss
a) Introduction
•
b) Selection of the type of truss
•
c) Spacing of truss
• The spacing between trusses is determined by the required column spacing and buy consideration
of minimum cost for the structure as a whole. The economic to spacing of trusses is the spacing
that makes the overall cost of the trusses, purlins, roof coverings, columns etc. the minimum.
• If the spacing is large, the cost of these trusses per unit area decreases but the cost of purlins
increases. On the other hand, if the spacing of trusses is small, the cost of trusses per unit area
increases. Roof covering cost more if the spacing of truss is large.
I «
𝑡 = cost of trusses/unit area ∝ = + 𝑝 = cost of purlins/unit area ∝ 𝑆 L = 𝑐L 𝑆 L
" )
𝑟 = cost of roof covering/unit area ∝ 𝑆 = 𝑐Î 𝑆 𝑆 = spacing of the trusses
• Overall cost
𝑐I
𝑥 = + 𝑐L 𝑆 L + 𝑐Î 𝑆
𝑆
¨ For the overall cost to be minimum
𝑑𝑥
=0
𝑑𝑆
𝑐I
= − L + 2𝑐L 𝑆 + 𝑐Î
𝑆
𝑐I
= − + 𝑐L 𝑆 L + 𝑐Î 𝑆
𝑆
= −𝑡 + 2𝑝 + 𝑟
𝑡 = 2𝑝 + 𝑟
28
d) Loads on the roof truss
• IS 875 Part 3, specifies requirements for Wind Loads, for the roof and walls of an industrial
building, consideration must be made for the pressure difference between the opposite faces of
such elements to account for external and internal air pressure exerted by the wind blowing
against the building.
¨ Wind speed
𝑉‚ = 𝑉œ 𝑘I 𝑘L 𝑘Î
𝑘I = Probability factor (risk coefficient) 𝑘L = Terrain height and Structural size factor
𝑘Î = Topography factor 𝑘š = Importance factor for cyclonic region
¨ Wind pressure
𝑝. = 0.6𝑉‚L
¨ Wind force
𝐹 = ”𝐶B$ − 𝐶B, •𝑝. 𝐴
¨ Positive wind load indicates that the force is acting towards the structural element while
negative indicates away from it. These forces act perpendicular to the surface of roof.
• IS 875 Part 2, specifies the following Live Loads to be assumed in the analysis of an industrial
building.
Type of roof UDL on plane area Live Load (kN/m2)
Access provided 1.5 of plan area
Flat sloping or curved with slope ≤ 10˚
Access not provided 0.75 of plan area
For roof member sheet
Sloping roof with slope ≥ 10º 0.75 − 0.02(𝜃 − 10¯ ) ≮ 0.4
or purlins
Curved roof with 𝜃 > 10˚ 𝛾 = ℎ/𝑙 0.75 − 0.52𝛾 L
e) Purlins
• Purlins are beams provided over trusses to support the roofing
between the adjacent trusses. These are placed in a tilted
position over the principal rafters of the trusses. Channel and
angle sections are commonly used as purlins.
• The wind force is assumed to act normal to the roof truss and
the gravity loads pass through the centre of gravity of the purlin
section. Hence, the purlin section is subjected to twisting in
addition to bending.
• IS 800 recommends the purlins to be designed as continuous
beams.
f) Design of purlins
• For purlins to be safe
𝑀*€ «%Ë 𝑀*5 «%Ë
+ ≤1
𝑀*€ 𝑀*5
(- ÑÓÜ ,)Ë •
¨ 𝑀*€ «%Ë is calculated factored BM about x axis = I»
Ÿ
¨ 𝑀*€ is factored moment carrying capacity about x axis = • ¡ ’ 𝑍B€
I.I
(- ÜØ· ,)Ë •
¨ 𝑀*5 «%Ë is calculated factored BM about y axis = I»
¡ Ÿ
¨ 𝑀*5 is factored moment carrying capacity about y axis = •I.I ’ 𝑍B5
• Purlins are designed as continuous beams, because they span over more than 2 truss joints, so
-Ë •
maximum BM is taken as I»
• Tubular sections (hollow circular sections) are subjected to uniaxial bending. All other sections
are subjected to unsymmetrical bending.

29
 • Purlins are interconnected by sag rods or tie rods to reduce BM and deflection in the purlins.
Flanges are turned towards ridge to increase torsional stability of purlins because the distance
between the line of action of the load and shear center will be less.
• Trusses can resist in plane loads (loads acting in the plane of the truss) but cannot offer any
resistance to out of plane loads i.e. loads acting perpendicular to the plane direction, so to
strengthen the truss for out of plane loading, bracing is provided. Purlins can also act as bracing, if
purlins are used as bracing also then they are called beam columns.
• Top most point in a truss is called ridge, and the imaginary line joining all the ridge points of all
the trusses is called ridge line. So, any load acting parallel to the ridge line is resisted by bracing
only.
• If heavy vibrating equipment is used then diagonal cross bracing is used at bottom chord
members.
g) IS 800 §table 06
• Partial safety factor 𝛾À
Definition Partial safety factor
Resistance governed by yielding 𝛾À» 1.1
Resistance of member due to buckling 𝛾À» 1.1
Resistance governed by ultimate stress 𝛾ÀI 1.25
Resistance of connection Shop fabrication Field fabrication
Bolt friction type 𝛾ÀŸ 1.25 1.25
Bolt bearing type 𝛾Àœ 1.25 1.25
Rivets 𝛾À& 1.25 1.25
Welds 𝛾À- 1.25 1.50
12. Important Questions
a) Connections
• For aluminum strength to unit weight ratio is high, they are less ductile, lesser value of E, lesser
tensile strength and does not have definite yield point.
• In bearing the basic assumption states that if the applied load passes through centroid, each
connection transmits its proportional share of the applied load.
• Member subjected to heavy impact and fatigue shall not be designed on the basis of plastic theory.
• In truss bridges, diagonal bracing cannot be provided. The end posts are tied together to form a
rigid frame called as portal frame. It transmits the end reaction of the top lateral truss to the
abutments. Portal bracing causes bending moment in posts.
• Order of elongation before mild steel undergoes fracture is 10%.
• Permissible stresses in slab base is independent of yield stress.
• Smaller bar of mild steel, strength expressed per unit area, is more because, outer hard core is
more than inner present in smaller bars.
• The seam welding is done by a process of resistance welding. The welding in which the pressure
is applied continuously and current impulsively to produce a linear weld.
Other side of arrow Weld length is written without parenthesis, while non
On the side of arrow welded part is written in bracket.

• Gross area of a rivet is taken as the cross-sectional area of rivet hole. (end distance)
• Distance between rivets is taken according to nominal diameter is rivet. (2.5 times)
• Deflection of a beam with bolted connection is greater than that of riveted connection, as bolted
connection allows greater slip between components.
• Reduction in allowable stress in steel chimney is necessary if temperature exceed 200ºC
• Permissible stress in a weld are usually taken less than those of parent body.
• Hex bolt designated M16x70NL means 16mm nominal bolt and 70 represents the length of bolt.

30
 —
• Strength of V-butt weld is = × thickness of thinner plate × permissible stress
˜
b) Tension members
• The boundaries of grains of mild steel are composed of brittle material. This forms a rigid
skeleton. At the upper yield point, this rigid skeleton breaks down. As a result of this, the stress in
the material drops down without elongation from upper yield point to lower yield point. This is
followed by sudden stretching of the material at constant stress from lower yield point up to strain
hardening.
Îè+
• When the outstand is not tack welded 𝑘 = Îè
+ -è•
—è+
• Two angles on one side of gusset without tack welded 𝑘 = —è
+ -è•
c) Beams
• The minimum width of finished cased beam is given by (B+100) mm
d) Industrial buildings
• Howe truss is made of combination of wood and steel. vertical members are tension members and
are made of steel.
• Economic spacing of roof truss depends upon the cost of the purlins and cost of roof covering. As
the increase in spacing of the roof truss, the size of purlin and thickness at the roof covering
increases the cost of truss
¨ 𝑡 = 2𝑝 + 𝑟
.ó./õ .
• Radius of gyration of hollow tube √2 for solid shaft š
š
• Guidelines for selecting section for a purlin
¨ The angle or channel sections may be used suitably and economically upto 5m span without
sag rods.
¨ The tubular section may be used up to 6m span
¨ Channel section is preferable over hollow for easy fastening and over angle section for
more strength.
• Eaves board is the protective or decorative non-structural element.
• Building with gabled roof will experience, negative pressure on lee-ward side.
• Pitch for a symmetrical truss is defined as the ratio of its rise to span.
(
• Moment carried by a symmetrical plate girder is M, made of three equal plates, then 0
moment is
carried by the web plate.
• If the web plate is punctured with a circular hole of diameter half the height, then the ratio of
strength will be 93%.
• In a plate girder of uniform cross-section where vertical stiffeners are required, they shall be
provided through the length of the girder and spaced equally, this increases the capacity of the
plate girder because of truss like behavior.
• IS 800 specifies minimum web thickness required from the serviceability point of view for
different situation with regards to the provision of stiffeners.
e) Test Series
• According to Cl 5.6 of IS 800:2007 serviceability limit state is limit beyond which the service
criteria specified below, are no longer met:
¨ Deflection limit
¨ Vibration limit
¨ Durability consideration
¨ Fire resistance
• According to Cl 4.5.2 When a plastic method of analysis is used the following conditions must be
satisfied.
¨ The yield stress of grade of steel used shall not exceed 450 MPa.

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 ¨ The stress-strain diagram shall have a plateau at the yield stress, extending for at least six
times the yield the yield strain.
¨ The ratio of the tensile strength to the yield stress specified for grade of steel shall not be
less than 1.2.
¨ The cross-section of members not containing plastic hinges should be at least that of
compact section.
• Advantages of bolted connection:
¨ The erection can be speeded up.
¨ Less skilled persons are required.
¨ The overall cost of bolted construction is cheaper than that of riveted connection because of
reduced labour and equipment costs.
• General objections to the use of bolts:
¨ Cost of material is high, about double that of rivets.
¨ When subjected to vibrations or shocks, bolts may get loose.
¨ The tensile strength of the bolts is reduced because of area reduction at the root of the
thread.
•

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