LECTURE NOTES ON

COURSE: AIRCRAFT PROPULSION:21AE52

COURSE CODE: 21AE52

5th Sem

Department of Aeronautical Engineering

Acharya Institute of Technology

Bengaluru-560107

Prepared by:

Dr. Swetha S

Head of the Department

Acharya Institute of Technology

 Course Objectives
1. Understand the basic principle and theory of aircraft propulsion.
2. Understand the purpose of a centrifugal, axial compressors, axial and radial turbines
3. Acquire knowledge of importance of nozzles & inlets and combustion chamber.

Course Outcomes
CO1: Describe the basic principle and theory of aircraft propulsion.
CO2: Acquire the knowledge on the performance of nozzles & inlets.
CO3: Explain the function of different Gas Turbine Engine Compressors
CO4: Explain the function of different Gas Turbine Engine Turbines and Combustion
chambers
CO5: Articulate the different Gas Turbine Engines.
CO6: Demonstrate the performance parameters of various components & characteristics
of Aviation fuel

Syllabus Module- 3
Inlets & Nozzles Internal flow and Stall in Subsonic inlets, Boundary layer separation. Major
features of external flow near a subsonic inlet. Relation between minimum area ratio and
eternal deceleration ratio. Diffuser performance. 18062023 Supersonic inlets: Supersonic
inlets, starting problem in supersonic inlets, Shock swallowing by area variation, External
deceleration. Modes of inlet operation. Nozzles: Theory of flow in isentropic nozzles,
Convergent nozzles and nozzle choking, Nozzle throat conditions. Nozzle efficiency, Losses
in nozzles. Over-expanded and under-expanded nozzles, Ejector and variable area nozzles,
Thrust reversal.

Recommended Text Books

1. Bhaskar Roy, “Aircraft propulsion”, Elsevier (2011), ISBN-13: 9788131214213.
2. 2. V. Ganesan, “Gas Turbines”, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2010, New Delhi, India, ISBN:
0070681929.
 Inlets
The inlet interchanges the organized kinetic and random thermal energies of the gas inan essentially
adiabatic process. The perfect (no-loss) inlet would thus correspond to an isentropic process. The primary
purpose of the inlet is to bring the air required by the engine from free stream conditions to the conditions
required at the entrance of the fanor compressor with minimum total pressure loss. The fan or
compressor works bestwith a uniform flow of air at a Mach number of about 0.5
The Requirements of the inlets:

 high total pressure ratio πd,

 controllable flow matching of requirements,
 good uniformity of flow,
 Low installation drag,
 Good starting and stability,
 Low signatures (acoustic, radar, etc.),
 Minimum weight and cost while meeting life and reliability goals.

A list of the major design variables for the inlet and nacelle includes the following:

 Inlet total pressure ratio and drag at cruise

 Engine location on wing or fuselage (avoidance of foreign-object damage,
 inlet flow up wash and downwash, exhaust gas re ingestion, ground clearance)
 Aircraft attitude envelope (angle of attack, yaw angle, cross-wind takeoff)
 Inlet total pressure ratio and distortion levels required for engine operation
 Engine-out wind milling airflow and drag (nacelle and engine)
 Integration of diffuser and fan flow path contour
 Integration of external nacelle contour with thrust reverser and accessories
 Flow field interaction between nacelle, pylon, and wing
 Noise suppression requirements.Design considerations:
 The airflow entering the compressor or fan must have low Mach number, in the range
0.4 to 0.7, Part of this deceleration occurs upstream of the inlet entrance plane.
 The inlet must be designed to prevent boundary layer separation, even when the axis of the intake is
not perfectly aligned with the streamline direction far upstream of theinlet.
 It is important that the stagnation pressure loss in the inlet be small.
 It is even more important that the flow velocity and direction leaving the inlet be uniform, since
distortions in the velocity profile at the compressor inlet can severely upset the compressor
aerodynamics and may lead to failure of the blades due to vibrations.
 Design of inlets that must operate efficiently in both supersonic and subsonic flight poses special
problems;
 Subsonic Inlets:

Internal flow and Stall in subsonic inlet sand Boundary layer Separation

Depending on the flight speed and the mass flow demanded by the engine, the inlet may have to operate
with a wide range of incident stream conditions. The Figure shows the streamline patterns for two typical
subsonic conditions and the corresponding thermodynamic path of an “average” fluid particle.
During level cruise the streamline pattern may include some deceleration of the entering fluidExternal to
the inlet plane and hence low mass flow rate[Fig. a]. During low-speedhigh-thrustoperation (e.g., during
takeoff and climb), the same engine will demand more mass flow and the streamline pattern may resemble
Fig. b, which illustrates external acceleration of the streamnear the inlet. .
For given air velocities external acceleration raises the inlet velocity and lowers the inlet pressure, thereby
increasing the internal pressure rise across the diffuser. If this pressure increase is too large, the diffuser
may stall because of boundary layer separation; stalling usually reduces the stagnation pressure of the
stream as a whole.
Conversely, external deceleration requires less internal pressure rise and hence a less severe loading of the
boundary layer.

Therefore the inlet area is often chosen so as to minimize external acceleration during takeoff,with the result
that external deceleration occurs during level-cruise operation. Under these conditions the “upstream
capture area” Aa is less than the inlet area A1, and some flow is “spilled over” the inlet, accelerating as it
passes over the outer surface.

In the actual engine inlet, separation can take place in any of the three zones shown in Fig. 2. Separation of
the external flow in zone 1 may result from local high velocities andsubsequent
deceleration over the outer surface. Separation on the internal surfaces may take place in eitherzone 2 or
zone 3, depending on the geometry of the duct and the operating conditions.

Zone 3 may be the scene of quite large adverse pressure gradients since the f low accelerates around the
nose of the center body, then decelerates as the curvature decreases

Major features of external flow near a subsonic inlet

Figure shows a typical streamline pattern for large external deceleration. In flowing over the lip of the inlet,
the external flow is accelerated to high velocity, much as the flow is acceleratedover the suction surface of
an airfoil. This high velocity and the accompanying low pressure can adversely affect the boundary layer
flow in two ways:
For entirely subsonic flow, the low-pressure region must be followed by a region of rising pressure in which
the boundary layer may separate. Hence one might expect a limiting low pressure Pmin or, equivalently, a
maximum local velocity Umax, beyond which boundary layer separation can be expected downstream.

For higher flight velocities (or higher local accelerations), partially supersonic flow can occur. Local
supersonic regions usually end abruptly in a shock, and the shock-wall intersection maycause boundary
layer separation. One might expect a limiting local Mach number that should not be exceeded.
Relation for minimum area ratio (Amax/Ai) in terms of external deceleration(Ui/Ua )
The main point here is that the larger the external deceleration (i.e., the smaller the value of Uj/Ua), the
larger must be the size of the nacelle if one is to prevent excessive drag. Even in the absence of separation,
the larger the nacelle, the larger the aerodynamic drag on it. But if the external deceleration is modest (e.g.,
U/ISa > 0.8), its effect on minimum nacelle size is quite small.

it shows that the performance of an inlet depends on the pressure gradient on both internal and external
surfaces. The external pressure rise is fixed by the external compression and the ratio,Amax/Ai of maximum
area to inlet area. The internal pressure rise depends on the reduction of velocity between entry to the inlet
diffuser and entry to the compressor (or burner, for a ramjet).Nacelle size required for low drag can be quite
strongly dependent on the degree of external deceleration
Diffuser Efficiency

Isentropic efficiency: we can define the isentropic efficiency of a diffuser in this form:
 Typical Typical

subsonic diffuser performance is shown as

Diffuser:

The flow within the inlet is required to undergo diffusion in a divergent duct. This reductionin flow
velocity creates an increase in static pressure that interacts with the boundary layer. If the pressure rise due
to diffusion occurs more rapidly than turbulent mixing can reenergize theboundary layer, the boundary layer
will assume the configurations shown in Fig. .

The rate of area increase in a diffuser has a direct effect on the behavior of flow in thediffuser, as shown in
Fig.

. If the rate of area increase is greater than that needed to keep the boundary layer energized and attached,
the flow may be characterized by unsteady zones of stall. Theturbulent mixing is no longer able to overcome
the pressure forces at all points in the flow, and local separation occurs at some points. The total pressure
decreases markedly due to the irreversible mixing of a fairly large portion of low-velocity fluid with
the main flow. If the diffuser walls diverge rapidly, the flow will separate completely and behave
much as a jet, as shown in Fig. d. The rate of area increase without stall for a diffuserdepends on
the characteristics of the flow at the entrance and on the length of the divergent section
Use Of Vortex Generators As A Mechanical Mixing Device To Supplement TheTurbulent Mixing

In the presence of an adverse pressure gradient (static pressure increasing in the directionof flow),
boundary layers tend to separate when the boundary layer is not reenergizedrapidly enough by
turbulent mixing. Taylor proposed the use of vortex generators as a mechanical mixing device to
supplement the turbulent mixing. If vortices are generatedby vortex generators in pairs, regions of inflow
and outflow exist. These carry high- energy air into the boundary layer and low-energy air out. Figure
shows how vortex generators reenergize a boundary layer.
By using vortex generators together with a short, wide-angle diffuser, it may be possibleto have a lower
total pressure loss than with a long diffuser without vortex generators. Here, the reduced skin friction
losses associated with flow separation are traded against vortex losses. The use of shorter diffusers may
reduce weight and facilitate engine installation.

Supersonic Inlets

The supersonic inlet is required to provide the proper quantity and uniformity of air to the engine over a
wider range of flight conditions than the subsonic inlet is. In addition, thenature of supersonic flow
makes this inlet more difficult to design and integrate into the airframe. In supersonic flight, the flow is
decelerated by shock waves that can producea total pressure loss much greater than, and in addition to,
the boundary-layer losses.

Working Principle of Supersonic Inlets:

A supersonic inlet is made up of two distinct parts. First the flow is compressed supersonicallyfrom the
velocity of the flight vehicle or, in other words, the free stream Mach number. This is done by reducing the
flow area as the flow proceeds downstream. In this region the flow velocity is reduced through a series of
compression waves and/or oblique shocks. Flow velocity is reduced to a minimum speed at the duct
minimum area, called the throat of the inlet, where the flow approaches sonic velocity or a Mach number
of one. At this point the flow Mach number will be reduced from supersonic, above one, to subsonic, below
one, through a normalshock. This begins the second part of the inlet, the subsonic diffuser. In this region the
velocityis reduced as the flow area is increased. The result of this process is conditioned air, smooth,
subsonic air at high pressure, which is then delivered to the engine.

Supersonic Inlet Types:

Internal compression inlet: The internal compression inlet shown in Figure achieves compression through
a series of internal oblique shock waves followed by a terminal normal shock positioned downstream
of the throat (its stable location). This type ofinlet requires variable throat area to allow the inlet to
swallow the normal shock (during starting). Fast reaction bypass doors are also required downstream of
the throat to permit proper positioning of the normal shock under varying flight and engine conditions.
External compression inlet. The compression of the external compression inlet isachieved through
either one or a series of oblique shocks followed by a normal shock,or simply through one normal
shock

Mixed compression inlet. : At flight Mach numbers above 2.5, the mixed compression inlet is used to
obtain an acceptable total pressure ratio (by utilizing the required numberof oblique shocks) while
obtaining acceptable cowl drag. The mixed compression inlet is more complex, heavier, and costlier
than the external compression inlet. The typical mixed compression inlet achieves compression through
the external oblique shocks, theinternal reflected oblique shocks, and the terminal normal shock. The
ideal location ofthe normal shock is just downstream of the inlet throat, to minimize total pressure loss
while maintaining a stable operating location of this shock. Similar to the internal compression inlet, the
mixed compression inlet requires both fast-reacting bypass doors (to maintain the normal shock in a stable
location) and variable throat area
Successive steps in the acceleration and over speeding of a one-dimensionalsupersonic inlet.
Condition (a) illustrates low subsonic speed operation, for which the inlet is not choked. In Condition (b),
though the flight velocity is still subsonic, the flow is assumed to be acceleratedto sonic velocity at the
minimum area At and the inlet mass flow rate is limited by the choking condition at At. Once the shock is
established, the flow entering the inlet is no longer isentropic.Hence when the design Mach number of the
aircraft is first reached, as at condition (d), the “reversed isentropic nozzle” mass flow cannot pass through
the throat area At. At the Design Mach number , the inlet is capable of ingesting the entire incident mass
flow without spillage.The shock position will be just on the lip of the inlet, as in condition (e), and a slight
incrementin speed, as to condition (e’), will cause the shock to enter the convergence. Since a shock cannot
attain a stable position within the convergence it will move quickly downstream to cometo rest within the
divergence, at a position determined by downstream conditions. Havingthus attained isentropic flow in the
inlet, the Mach number may be reduced from M0 to MD, as at condition (f). At exactly the design speed,
the throat Mach number would be just unity and isentropic deceleration from supersonic to sub sonic flow
would exist. Even for this simplifiedmodel, however, this condition.

The Starting Problem / Shock swallowing by area variation

Internal supersonic deceleration in a converging passage is not easy to establish. In fact designconditions
cannot be achieved without momentarily over speeding the inlet air or varying the diffuser geometry. This
difficulty is due to shocks that arise during the deceleration process, while we examine the starting behavior
of a converging-diverging diffuser

An inlet having Ai/At, greater than 1 ( Ai>At ) will always require spillage upon reachingsupersonic flight
velocities, since Aa/At, will always pass through a minimum of 1 just as sonic flight velocity is attained. It
is necessary to perform some operation other than simply accelerating to the design speed in order to
“swallow” the starting shock and establishisentropic flow. Over speeding is one such operation, but there
are others.
If over speeding is not it might be possible to swallow the shock by a variation of geometry at constant flight
speed. The principle is easily seen in terms of simple one-dimensional analysis.
 Suppose the inlet is accelerated to the design Mach number MD with the starting shock present,as at point (d)
in the above figure, if the actual area ratio can be decreased from Ai/At to the value that can ingest the entire
inlet flow behind the shock, the shock will be swallowed to takeup a position downstream of the throat. This
variation would normally involve a momentary increase of throat area from At to a new value that we will
call At* Having thus achieved isentropic flow within the convergence, the throat Mach number M, is greater
than 1, and a relatively strong shock occurs farther downstream. Completely isentropic flow can then be
achieved by returning the area ratio to its original value, while the operating conditions move from (d) to
(f).
If the shock should undergo a momentary motion into the converging section of the diffuser the shock
Mach number will be lowered and the down-stream stagnation pressure increased. This will increase the
mass flow through the diffuser throat, lowering the density and the staticpressure downstream of the shock.
To accommodate this, the shock must move further down the converging section. From these arguments
there is no location in the converging section at which the shock will be stable so the shock will move
through the throat. If no adjustments aremade in conditions downstream of the diffuser, the shock will move
to a location in the diverging section of the diffuser at an area corresponding to the test section area, where
it willthen be stably positioned. This process is known as swallowing the shock. Once it occurs the shock
can be positioned by changing the operating conditions of the exhauster.
In practice the shock must be maintained somewhat downstream of the diffuser throat becausethe shock is
unstable in the converging part of the diffuser. If the shock moves upstream slightly, the shock Mach
number increases, increasing the stagnation pressure loss and decreasing the mass flow capacity of the
diffuser throat.

The Shock—Boundary Layer Problem

Across a shock wave of appreciable strength, the boundary layer separates, and this separation may have a
large effect on the structure of the shock. Consider the interaction of a weak shock with a boundary layer
.The following figure shows a series of schiieren photographs of the interaction of a shock wave and a
boundary layer for upstream free-streamMach numbers.
For M > 1, the shock wave near the boundary layer has taken up a “lambda” shape, with an oblique shock
reaching ahead of the main shock location. Because a large fraction of the boundary layer is subsonic, the
pressure rise due to the shock is sensed (near the wall) some distance ahead of the main shock wave. This
upstream pressure gradient causes the boundary layer to grow rapidly,
As the free-stream Mach number increases above 1.25, the boundary layer thickens very rapidly under this
lambda shock system, and causes the boundary layer to separate. The pressure gradient near the wall has
become too large for the slow-moving fluid near the wallto continue moving in the main flow direction.

The above figure shows the effect of a strong shock in a diverging duct. The interaction between the “shock”
and the boundary layer results in Large separation zones .Large separationzones cause a highly distorted,
and probably unsteady, flow field that may require an axial distance of 10 duct widths or more to return to
reasonable uniformity of flow. The flow field disturbances and distortions shown in above figure would
have seriously harmful effects on the behavior of a compressor or combustor placed immediately
downstream.
Unless one makes a strenuous effort to remove the wall boundary layer, strong shocks mayhave disastrous
effects on duct flow. If a shock wave must be placed in a supersonic stream of given Mach number, then:
a. An oblique shock is much better than a normal one because the pressure rise is less;

b. The shock should interact with the wall at the point where the boundary layer is thinnest —preferably at
the leading edge for the simple diverging inlet

External Deceleration

External deceleration must occur upstream of the inlet plane in order to reduce the Mach number of the
normal shock to a suitable value. The simplest and most practical external deceleration mechanism is an
oblique shock or, in some cases, a series of oblique shocks. Though such shocks are not isentropic, the
stagnation pressure loss in reaching subsonic velocity through a series of oblique shocks followed by a
normal shock is less than that accompanying a single normal shock at the flight velocity. The losses
decrease as the number of oblique shocks increases, especially at high flight Mach numbers.
In the external compression process, shocks and boundary layers may inter act strongly, so thatit is highly
desirable to locate the oblique shocks at points where boundary layers are absent
The shape, size, and the number of the oblique planes influences the normal shocks

Considering the typical single oblique shock system and the double oblique shock systems. The double
shock systems theoretically give better performance. . If the deceleration had been achieved by a single
normal shock, the overall stagnation pressure ratio would have been only
0.33. But in case of double oblique shock systems the overall stagnation pressure ratio would have been
only 0.875

The following figure provides a ideal geometry to achieve low losses, while at the same time avoiding the
starting problems of an internal convergence.
However, several practical difficulties would be encountered in the operation of such an inlet. This
geometry, like that of the isentropic internal flow diffuser, would function properly at onlyone Mach number,
and performance would be very sensitive to angle of attack. Furthermore, the boundary layer along the
curved surface, unlike that along plane or conical surfaces, wouldbe subject to a high adverse pressure
gradient, which might cause separation. Finally, for highflight Mach numbers it would be necessary that
the flow turnthrough large angles before reaching sonic velocity

The Flow Stability Problem

. Consider a fixed geometry inlet designed for shock-free operation at Compressible internal flow. At
supersonic Mach numbers below the design value the inlet cannot pass the flow in theupstream stream tube
and the excess must be diverted around the inlet. A shock therefore standsin front of the inlet, as in Figure
(a). This mode is known as subcritical mode
As the Mach number is increased towards MD, the corrected flow per unit area of the incomingstream
decreases, reducing the flow that must be spilled round the inlet, and allowing the shockto move closer to
the inlet. At the design Mach number, the shock will sit on the inlet lip. In this position it is unstable,
because a small perturbation that moves it into the inlet causes a decrease in shock Mach number, this mode
is known as Critical mode
With achieving shock swallowing in the diffuser, the consequence of the transient is shock motion through
the throat to a downstream position determined by the variable nozzle. To achieve the best recovery, the
nozzle is adjusted to position the shock at the throat. The mode is known as supercritical Mode.
Working Principle of Supersonic Inlet of Concorde Aircraft

The above figure shows the design of the two-dimensional intake adopted for the Concorde
aircraft, whose design flight Mach number is 2; the Concorde is also required to cruise over certain
land areas at subsonic speeds. The Figure shows the intake geometry during takeoff; here the ramp
assembly is raised to allow as much air as possible to the engine. Shock waves are of course absent
as the air enters the engine with a Mach number of about 0.5. As the Concorde reaches a flight
Mach number of about 0.7, the auxiliary door closes. Above a flightMach number of 1.3, the ramps
are progressively lowered; the forward ramp controls the position of the oblique shock waves that
decelerate the airstream from supersonic to subsonic speeds at the engine intake.
Nozzles
The task of the exhaust nozzle is to convert gas potential energy into kinetic energy (i.e. gas
velocity) necessary for the generation of thrust. This is accomplished solely by the geometrical
shape of the nozzle, which is basically a tube of varying cross-section. Not every nozzle type
performs in the same manner. Depending on the type of aircraft, and design flightspeed, different
types of nozzles are employed.

To illustrate the nature of the flow in the different regions of Nozzle we consider the case of a
nozzle designed for air (Ɣ = 1.4) and ait exit Mach number M = 3 under different back pressure

a. Pa/Pt, = I: The hack pressure is equal to the supply stagnation pressure and there is no flow
in the Nozzle.
b. Pa/Pt = 0.987: The back pressure is low enough to have the flow accelerate and choke the
throat
c. Pa/Pt = 0.70: Here the back pressure is low enough to ensure starting but not low enoughto
permit supersonic flow throughout the nozzle. The supersonic flow must “shock down.”
that is. a normal shock must appear to bring down the Mach number to an appropriate
subsonic level so that a higher static pressure is produced behind the shock.Further diffusion
through the increasing area duct serves to bring the pressure at the exit up to the appropriate
level.

d. Pa/Pt = 0.28: In this instance. the back pressure is low enough to ensure supersonic flow
throughout the nozzle but still higher than the pressure at the end of the nozzle.
e. 0.28 :> Pa/Pt > 027: In this range of hack pressure the flow is continuously supersonic
throughout the nozzle and the adjustment of the exhaust pressure takes place through shock
waves occurring outside the nozzle proper. Because the back pressure is higher than the
exit pressure. the nozzle is said to be “over expanded.”
f. Pa/Pt = 0.027: Here the exit pressure is exactly equal to the back pressure, the flow is
 continuously supersonic throughout. and the exhaust stream is perfectly adapted to the
surrounding ambient pressure. This case is called the perfectly expanded nozzle.
g. Pa/Pt< 0.027: For all back pressures below the perfectly expanded value the flow through
the nozzle is supersonic and the adjustment to the low back pressure takes placeoutside the
nozzle. This case is called the underexpanded’ nozzle.

Functions of the Nozzles:

• Accelerate the flow to a high velocity with minimum total pressure loss

• Match exit and atmospheric pressure as closely as desired

• Permit afterburner operation without affecting main engine operation

• Allow for cooling of blades

• Mix core and bypass streams of turbofan if necessary

• Allow for thrust vectoring

• Suppress jet noise and infrared radiation Thrust vector control.

The exhaust nozzles may be classified as

1. Convergent or C-D types
2. Axisymmetric or two-dimensional types
3. Fixed geometry or variable geometry types

Convergent nozzle

In a convergent nozzle that the cross-section of a duct decrease in the stream wise direction if a
subsonic fluid flow is to be accelerated. A convergent nozzle is fitted to all airliners which fly at
subsonic or transonic speeds. Thus it is either of the axisymmetric or annular geometry. All
subsonic/ transonic turbojets and turboprop engines have one axisymmetric convergent nozzle
Convergent-Divergent Nozzles

For higher exhaust velocities above Mach 1.5. Convergent-Divergent nozzle shape is required. The
geometric characteristic of this nozzle is a decreasing cross- sectional area in itsforward part (much
like a convergent nozzle), followed by a cross-sectional increase in its rearward portion (the
divergent section).

In this nozzle, the subsonic flow is accelerated in the converging section up to the minimum area
or throat. It reaches a sonic speed exactly at the throat In the divergent section, pressure is allowed
to decrease below its critical value, with fluid velocity continuing to accelerate to supersonic values.

Variable Geometry Nozzles

Variable area nozzle, which is sometimes identified as adjustable nozzle, is necessary for engines
fitted with afterburners. Generally, as the nozzle is reduced in area, the turbine inlet temperature
increases and the exhaust velocity and thrust increase.
Three methods are available, namely:
1. Central plug at nozzle outlet
2. Ejector type nozzle
3. IRIS nozzle

Central plug at nozzle outlet

The plug nozzle is the exact analogue of the isentropic

spike inlet. The improvement in otT design
performance results from the flow remaining attached
to the spike at pressureratios below design, while the
stream tube
leaving the nozzle contracts to satisfy the requirements for lower expansion ratio.
Variable geometry ejector nozzle with tailflaps:

This type of nozzle is effective through a secondary airflow and spring-loaded petals. At subsonic
speeds, the airflow constricts the exhaust to a convergent shape. As the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a C-D shape, speedingthe exhaust gases past Mach
1 (Figure 11.7). Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability.
Disadvantages are average performance (compared to the other nozzle type) and relatively high
drag due to the secondary airflow

IRIS nozzle

Iris nozzle, which is used for higher performance nozzles. This type uses overlapping, hydraulically
adjustable “petals.” Although more complex than the ejector nozzle, it has significantly higher
performance and smoother airflow. It is employed primarily on high performance fighters such as
F-16. Some modern iris nozzles have the ability to changethe angle of the thrust
Choking Condition: Ambient pressure is not a constant but decreases with altitude. If the aircraft
flies at high altitude, lower ambient pressure will cause exhaust velocity Ve to increase
accordingly. This process cannot go on indefinitely, however. There is a limit when the jet
discharges at sonic velocity. Static pressure at nozzle discharge is then said to be critical. When
nozzle mass flow rate is at its maximum, the nozzle is said to be ‘choked’, i.e. mass flow cannot
be increased any more. When a jet is discharging from the nozzle at a higher static pressure than
ambient pressure, its expansion is incomplete or under-expanded.

Thrust Reversers: A jet powered aircraft, during its landing run, lacks the braking action afforded
by slow turning propellers, which on larger aircraft are capable of going into reverse pitch, thus
giving reverse thrust. The problem is further compounded by the higher landing speeds due to the
high streamlined, low drag fuselage and the heavier gross weights common to modern jet
airplanes. Standard wheel breaks are no longer adequate under these adverse conditions, and larger
breaks would incur a severe weight and space penalty and decrease the useful load of the aircraft.
In addition, breaks can be very ineffective on wet or icy runways.
Types of thrust reversers
The two basic types of thrust reversers are as follows:
 Postexit or target type/clamshell
 Preexit using cascades or blocker/deflector doors

Post exit reversing is accomplished simply by placing an obstruction in the jet exhaust
stream about one nozzle diameter to the rear of the engine. The gas stream may be
deflected in either a horizontal or vertical direction, depending on the engine's
placement on the airframe.

In the preexit type, the gases are turned forward by means of doors that are normally
stowed or airfoils that are normally blocked during forward thrust operation. During
reverse thrust, doors are moved so that they now block the exhaust gas stream. The gas
now exits andis directed in a forward direction through turning vanes or by deflector
doors.

Thrust Reverser Designs and Systems

A good thrust reverser should do the following:
 Be mechanically strong and constructed of high-temperature metals to take the full
force of the high-velocity jet and, at the same time, turn this jet stream through a large
angle
 Not affect the basic operation of the engine, whether the reverser is in operation or
not.
 Provide approximately 50 percent of the full forward thrust
 Operate with a high standard of fail-safe characteristics
 Not increase drag by increasing engine and nacelle frontal area
 Cause few increased maintenance problems
 Not add an excessive weight penalty
 Not cause the reinjection of the gas stream into the compressor nor cause the gas
streamto impinge upon the airframe. That is, the discharge pattern must be correctly
established by the placement and shape of the target or vane cascade.
 Allow the pilot complete control of the amount of reverse thrust
 Not affect the aerodynamic characteristics of the airplane adversely.
 Pivoting reverser.

Thrust Vectoring:

Thrust vectoring is a technique whereby the orientation of the primary exhaust jet from a
propulsive unit is varied in order to provide useful aircraft control moments.

1. Mechanical thrust vectoring is achieved by mechanically deflecting the exhaust

flow of an aircraft using some sort of physical object changes in nozzle geometry. This is
usually achieved using various nozzles or vanes.
2. On the other hand, fluidic thrust vectoring systems use a secondary air jet to control
the direction of the primary jet. Fluidic control in exhaust nozzles includes throat area,
expansion ratio, and thrust vector angle.

Mechanical Thrust Vectoring Methods

1. Flaps :Flaps deflect the engines flow in much the same way as wing flaps deflect
the external air flow see figure (15 a). This type of system introduces a thrust loss of
approximately 3-6% when vectored to 90 degrees. The vectoring flaps can also be external
to the nozzle as a part of the wing flap.

2. Bucket :The bucket thrust vectoring mechanism is similar to the commonly used
clamshell thrust reverser see figure(15 b).The great advantage to this concept is that all the
force is transmitted through the hinge line of the bucket meaning actuators can be
reasonably small. Another advantage of this system is that the turning surface can be made
very efficient. This method can be used to create 90 degree vectoring with about 2-3%
thrust loss.

3. Axisymmetric: In this type of nozzle (figure 15 c) the tailpipe is broken along

slanted lines into three pieces as shown. The three pieces are connected with circular
rotatingring bearings so that the middle (shaded) piece can be rotated about its longitudinal
axis while the other parts remain un-rotated. This causes the middle and end parts of the
nozzle to vector thrust downward. This vectoring nozzle has a 3-5% thrust loss when
vectoring at 90 degrees

4. Ventral :The ventral nozzle (figure 15 d ) is simply a hole in the bottom of the
tailpipe leading to a downward facing nozzle. The normal exhaust opening is blocked by
some sort of valve. These valves can be used easily on aircraft with afterburners because
they can be placed upstream of the afterburner. These ventral nozzlesan help solve the
balance problem of VTOL aircraft. The ventral nozzle has a thrust loss of 3-6% when
vectored to 90 degrees

3. Elbow Nozzle: This type of nozzle is used on the AV-8 Harrier. The elbow nozzle is
simple and lightweight and doesn’t require much actuating force. A disadvantage of this
design is the fact that the flow is always being turned through a total of 180 degrees, even
in forward flight. Because the flow is always being turned this nozzle type suffers 6-8%
thrust loss at all times. All the other types of vectoring nozzle only impose a thrust loss
during vertical flight.
Losses in a Nozzle

• Thrust loss due to exhaust velocity vector angularity.

• Thrust loss due to the reduction in velocity magnitude caused by friction in the
boundary layers

• Thrust loss due to loss of mass flow between nozzle entry and exit from leakage
through the nozzlewalls
• Thrust loss due to flow no uniformities.
Behaviour of the Nozzles at different altitudes

When exit pressure, Pe, is greater than the ambient pressure, Pa, the expansion process to the
ambient pressure is incomplete. The nozzle is then said to be an under-expanded nozzle. The
opposite conditions prevail when Pe<Pa The exit pressure is lower than the ambient pressure and
the nozzle is said to be over expanded.
A rocket traverses different altitudes, andthe ambient pressure decreases as the rocket moves away
from the surface of the Earth. If the area ratio of the nozzle is designed for optimum conditions at
a given altitude of operation, it will be operating in an 'under-expanded' condition for altitudes
higher than the design altitude (Pe=Pa) whereas it will function as an 'over-expanded' nozzle for
the lower altitudes (Pe<Pa).

Engine backpressure control:

The throat area of the nozzle is one of the main means available to control the thrust and
fuel consumption characteristics of an existing engine. In preliminary engine cycle analysis,
selection of specific values for the engine design parameters and the design mass flow rate
fixes the throat area of the nozzle. This assumption of constant areas establishes the off-
design operating characteristics of the engine and the resulting operating lines for each major
component. Changing the nozzle throat area from its original design value will change the
engine design and the operating characteristics of the engine atboth on- and off-design
conditions.

At reduced engine corrected mass flow rates, the operating line of a multistage compressor
moves closer to the stall or surge line. Steady-state operation close to the stall or surge line is
not desirablebecause transient operation may cause the compressor to stall or surge. The
operating line can be moved away from the stall or surge line by increasing the exhaust
nozzle throat area. This increase innozzle throat area reduces the engine backpressure and
increases the corrected mass flow rate throughthe compressor.
 Large changes in the exhaust nozzle throat area are required for afterburning engines
to compensate forthe large changes in total temperature leaving the afterburner. The variable-
area nozzle required for an afterburning engine can also be used for back pressure control
at its no afterburning settings.
One advantage of the variable-area exhaust nozzle is that it improves the starting of the engine.
Opening the nozzle throat area to its maximum value reduces the backpressure on the
turbine and increases its expansion ratio. Thus the necessary turbine power for starting
operation may be produced at a lower turbine inlet temperature. Also, because the
backpressure on the gas generator is reduced, the compressor may be started at a lower
engine speed, which reduce