DPRB ACSCE 26

DPRB ACSCE 1
 Limit Load: is the maximum load that the
aircraft is expected to experience in
normal operation.
Proof Load: is the product of the limit
load and the proof factor (1.0–1.25)
Ultimate Load: is the product of the limit
load and the ultimate factor (1.5).
The aircraft’s structure must withstand the
proof load without detrimental distortion
and should not fail until the ultimate load
has been achieved.
The proof and ultimate factors may be
regarded as factors of safety and provide
for various contingencies and
uncertainties.

Flight envelope or V-n diagram: It gives the basic strength and flight performance limits for a particular
aircraft and are selected by the airworthiness authorities.
Values of n1, n2, and n3 are specified by the airworthiness authorities for particular aircraft. Flight
envelopes are therefore drawn for a range of altitudes from sea level to the operational ceiling of the
aircraft..
Rectilinear flight - straight line, aircraft does not accelerate normal to the direction of flight.
Curvilinear flight- curved path with acceleration normal to tangential flight path – manoeuvring - aerodynamic and inertial
loads are much higher.
Lift generated by the wings is generally offset from the centre of gravity of the aircraft and may thus produce a net pitching
moment that has to be offset by the control surfaces.
DPRB ACSCE 2
Loadings may be caused by air pressure (lift), inertia (mass, weight) forces, or ground reactions during takeoffs and landings.
DPRB ACSCE 3
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An aircraft having a total weight of 45 kN lands on the deck of an aircraft carrier and is brought to rest by
means of a cable engaged by an arrester hook, as shown in Fig. 14.3. If the deceleration induced by the
cable is 3g, determine the tension, T, in the cable, the load on an undercarriage strut, and the shear and
axial loads in the fuselage at the section AA; the weight of the aircraft aft of AA is 4.5 kN. Calculate also
the length of deck covered by the aircraft before it is brought to rest if the touch-down speed is 25 m/s.

DPRB ACSCE 7
Fig. shows a simplified airplane landing gear unit. The brace struts are pinned at each end
and the support at C is of roller type, thus no vertical reaction. A known load of 5000 kg is
applied to axle unit at A. find the load in the brace struts & reaction at C

DPRB ACSCE 8
Gust loads: The movements of the air in turbulence are generally known as gusts and produce
changes in wing incidence, thereby subjecting the aircraft to sudden or gradual increases or
decreases in lift from which normal accelerations result. These may be critical for large, high
speed aircraft and may possibly cause higher loads than control initiated manoeuvres. Fig shows
distribution of vertical gust velocity over a given finite length or given period of time.

DPRB ACSCE 9
The aircraft shown in Fig. weighs 135 kN and has landed such that at the instant of impact the
ground reaction on each main undercarriage wheel is 200 kN and its vertical velocity is 3.5 m/s. If
each undercarriage wheel weighs 2.25 kN and is attached to an oleo strut, as shown in Fig. b, calculate the
axial load and bending moment in the strut; the strut may be assumed to be vertical. Determine also the
shortening of the strut when the vertical velocity of the aircraft is zero. Finally, calculate the shear force and
bending moment in the wing at the sectionAA if the wing, outboard of this section, weighs 6.6 kN and has
its CG 3.05m from AA.

DPRB ACSCE 10
 An aircraft having a weight of 250 kN and a tricycle undercarriage lands at a vertical velocity of 3.7 m/s,
such that the vertical and horizontal reactions on the main wheels are 1,200 kN and 400 kN,
respectively; at this instant, the nosewheel is 1.0 m from the ground, as shown in Fig. 14.5. If the
moment of inertia of the aircraft about its CG is 5.65x108 Ns2 mm, determine the inertia forces on the
aircraft, the time taken for its vertical velocity to become zero, and its angular velocity at this instant.

The relative positions of the center of gravity and the

centers of pressure of the wing and tailplane of an
aircraft are shown in Fig. P.13.2; the total weight of the
aircraft is 667.5 kN. If the fuselage and its contents
weigh 26.3 kN/m and the weight of the tailplane is 8.9
kN, calculate the ultimate shear force in the fuselage at
the section AA for a maneuver load factor of 3 g
including gravity. Assume a factor of safety
DPRB
of 1.5. ACSCE 11
Ans:212.2kN
 Level flight

symmetric maneuver

DPRB ACSCE 12
 Steady pull-out

The smaller the radius of the

flight path, that is, the more
severe the pull-out, the
greater is the value of n.
@smaller V

Banked turn
for a limiting value of n, the minimum time taken to turn through a given angle at a
given value of engine thrust occurs when the lift coefficient CL is a maximum; that
is, with the aircraft on the point of stalling.

DPRB ACSCE 13
A semi-aerobatic aircraft has reached its design diving speed of 185 m/s in a dive
inclined at 45o to the horizontal ground. If the maximum maneuver load factor for the
aircraft is 5.5, determine the height at which the pull-out from the dive must begin for
straight and level flight to be achieved at a height of 500 m.

DPRB ACSCE 14
P.14.1 The aircraft shown in Fig. P.14.1(a) weighs 135 kN and has landed such that, at the instant of impact, the ground
reaction on each main undercarriage wheel is 200 kN and its vertical velocity is 3.5 m/s. If each undercarriage wheel
weighs 2.25 kN and is attached to an oleo strut, as shown in Fig. P.8.1(b), calculate the axial load and bending moment in
the strut; the strut may be assumed to be vertical. Determine also the shortening of the strut when the vertical velocity of the
aircraft is zero. Finally, calculate the shear force and bending moment in the wing at the section AA if the wing, outboard of
this section, weighs 6.6 kN and has its CG 3.05 m from AA.

DPRB ACSCE 15
DPRB ACSCE 16
 Material Selection Criteria
Static strength: Material must support ultimate loads without failure.
Material must support limit loads without permanent deformation.
• Initial evaluation for each component
• Usually aluminum is the initial material selection
• If aluminum cannot support the applied load within the size
limitation of the component, higher strength materials must be
considered (titanium or steel).
• If aluminum is too heavy to meet the performance requirements,
graphite/epoxy or next generation materials should be
considered.

Stiffness: Deformation of material at limit loads must not interfere with

safe operation
* There are cases where meeting the static strength requirement
results in a component that has unacceptable deflections
* If that is the case, the component is said to be a ‘stiffness’ design

DPRB ACSCE 17
Fatigue (crack initiation): The ability of a material to resist cracking
under cyclical loading
*Spectrum dependent
*Stress concentration factors
*Component is limited to a certain stress level based on the required
life of the airframe
*further processing may improve fatigue properties such as shot
peening or cold working

Damage tolerance (crack growth): The ability of a material to resist

crack propagation under cyclical loading
*Slow crack growth design
*Use of alloys with increased fracture toughness

Weight: Low weight is critical to meeting aircraft performance goals

*Materials are tailored for specific requirements to minimize weight
*Materials with higher strength to weight ratios typically have higher
acquisition costs but lower life cycle costs (Lower fuel consumption)
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Corrosion: Surface corrosion galvanic corrosion of dissimilar metals
surface treatments, proper drainage
Stress corrosion cracking certain alloys are more susceptible to
stress corrosion cracking especially severe in the short transverse grain
direction

Producibility: Commercial availability, lead times

fabrication alternatives
built up, machined from plate, machined from forging, casting

Cost: Raw material cost comparisons, detail fabrication costs, assembly

costs, life cycle costs
cost of weight (loss of payload, increased fuel consumption)
cost of maintenance

Specialized Requirements: Temperature, lightning and static electricity

dissipation, erosion and abrasion, marine environment, impact resistance,
fire zones, electrical transparency

DPRB ACSCE 19
Performance vs. Cost dilemma
Highest performance for the lowest cost is the goal of every airplane
material selection.
Mutually exclusive
Compromise is required
Define the cost of weight to the aircraft

Material Typical Application

2024-T3, High Strength Tension Applications. Best Fracture
T351, Toughness/Slow Crack Growth Rate and Good Fatigue life.
T42 Thick Forms Have Low Short Transverse Properties including
Stress Corrosion Cracking.
2324-T3 8% Improvement In Strength Over 2024-T3 With Increased
Fatigue And Toughness Properties.
7075-T6, High Strength Compression Applications. Higher Strength
T651, Than 2024-T3, But Lower Fracture Toughness. T7351 has
T7351 Excellent Stress Corrosion Cracking Resistance and Better
Fracture Toughness Than T6.
7050-T7451 Better Properties Than 7075-T7351 In Thicker Sections.

DPRB ACSCE 20
Aluminum
**Aluminum accounts for ~80% of the structural material of most
commercial and military transport aircraft

**Inexpensive and easy to form and machine

**Alloys are tailored to specific needs

**2000 series alloys (aluminum-copper-magnesium) are medium to high

strength with good fatigue resistance but low stress corrosion cracking
resistance. 2024-t3 is the yardstick for fatigue properties
**5000 and 6000 series alloys are low to medium strength but easily
welded

**7000 Series Alloys (Aluminum-zinc-magnesium-copper) Are High

Strength With Improved Stress Corrosion Cracking Resistance but Most
Have No Better Fatigue Properties Than 2000 Series
7050 and 7075 Alloys Are Widely Used
7475 Alloy Provides Higher Fatigue Resistance Similar to 2024-T3

DPRB ACSCE 21
Sr. Constituents approximate
Alloy Group Properties Uses
No. percent

1 Brass Copper - 4.5
Manganese - 0.7
Magnesium - 0.7
silicon - 0.7
Aluminium remainder
2 Alclad It is a duralumin sheet but
having coating of pure
aluminium on each side.
3 Y-alloy Copper-4
Nickel-2
Magnesium-1.5
Aluminium remainder
Having light weight, one Aircraft sheets, engines
third that of steel. Strong and airframe structural
like mild steel. Can be parts rivets, tubes etc.
heat treated and age-
hardened.
Having all the properties Aircraft sheets and wing
of duralumin with the coverings.
resistance to corrosion of
aluminium.
Resistant to corrosion and Used for making pistons
fatigue. Withstands and cylinder heads.
relatively high
temperatures. Can be heat
treated and age-hardened.

4 Hiduminium Copper - 2.5 Strong as mild steel. Used for making air-craft
Nickel - 1.5 Can be heat treated and structural parts, pistons,
Iron - 1.5 age-hardened at low cylinder heads etc.
Magnesium - 1.2 temperatures.
Silicon - 1.0
Aluminium remainder
DPRB ACSCE 22
Titanium
Better strength to weight ratio than aluminum or steel
Typically comprises ~5% by weight in commercial aircraft and up to ~25%
by weight for high performance military aircraft
Good corrosion resistance & Temperature resistance
Good fatigue and damage tolerance properties in the annealed form
Typical alloy is ti 6al-4v either annealed or solution treated and aged
High cost for metals

Steel
Steel may be selected when tensile strengths greater than titanium are
necessary
Steel is usually limited to a few highly loaded components such as landing
gear
There are many steel alloys to choose from; select the one that is tailored
for your application.

DPRB ACSCE 23
 Composite
The embedding of small diameter high strength high modulus fibers in a
homogeneous matrix material
Material is orthotropic (much stronger in the fiber oriented directions)
Fibers: Graphite (high strength, stiffness)
Fiberglass (fair strength, low cost, secondary structure)
Kevlar (damage tolerant)
Matrix: Epoxy (primary matrix material) to 250° F
Bismaleimide (high temp applications) to 350° F

New generation materials

Aluminum lithium, GLARE (fiberglass reinforced aluminum)
Tigr (graphite reinforced titanium), Thermoplastics
Resin transfer molding (RTM), stitched resin fusion injected (stitched RFI)
Material Ftu (ksi) Fty (ksi) Fcy (ksi) E (106psi) Density (lb/in3)
2024-T3 Aluminum 64 47 39 10.5 .101
7075-T6 Aluminum 78 71 70 10.3 .101
6Al-4V Titanium Annealed 134 126 132 16.0 .160
6Al-4V Titanium Solution Treated and Aged 150 140 145 16.0 .160
15-5PH Stainless Steel (H1025) 154 145 152 28.5 .283
Fiberglass Epoxy (Unidirectional) 80 60 5 .065
Graphite Epoxy (Unidirectional) 170 140 22 .056
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A point in a body is subjected to tensile stresses 100MPa and 70 MPa along two mutually perpendicular
directions. The point is also subjected to shear stress of magnitude 50 MPa. Determine i) Normal stress and
shear stress acting on a plane which is at an angle of 120° with reference to the 100 MPa stress plane. ii)
Magnitude of principal stresses and maximum and minimum shear stresses. iii) Orientations of the principal
planes and maximum & min shear stress planes. iv) Normal stress on the planes of Maximum and minimum
shear stresses.

DPRB ACSCE 35
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DPRB ACSCE 42
A truss is a structure composed of rod
members arranged to form one or more
triangles.
Load applied only at joints
members are free to rotate and can only
carry axial loads. - 2 force member
Pin Joint
Members are straight
DPRB
A frame, on the other hand, is a structure
that consists of arbitrarily oriented beam
members which are connected rigidly or by
pins at joints.
Load applied only on member or joint
members are rigidly connected and can
support all load types. Axial, bending &
shear – one member will have multi force
Fixed-rigid or hinged joints
Members are straight and also can be bent
ACSCE 43
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DPRB ACSCE 49
The Three-Moment Equation. The three-moment equation gives us the relation
between the moments between any three points in a beam and their relative vertical
distances or deviations. This method is widely used in finding the reactions in a
continuous beam. Consider three points on the beam loaded as shown.
DPRB ACSCE 50
Clapeyron Three Moment Equation

DPRB ACSCE 51
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DPRB ACSCE 55
 https://mathalino.com/reviewer
/strength-materials/problem-
827-continuous-beam-three-
moment-equation

Apply three-moment equation to first and middle spans

M1L1+2M2(L1+L2)+M3L2+6A1a¯1L1+6A2b¯2L2=0M1L1+2M2(L1+L2)+M3L2+6A1a¯1L1+6A2b¯2L2=0Where,
M1=0M1=0
L1=L2=12 ftL1=L2=12 ft
6A1a¯1L1=860woL3=860(150)(123)=34560 lb⋅ft26A1a¯1L1=860woL3=860(150)(123)=34560 lb⋅ft2

6A2b¯2L2=ΣPbL(L2−b2)=400(9)12(122−92)+300(4)12(122−42)6A2b¯2L2=ΣPbL(L2−b2)=400(9)12(122−92)+300(4)12(122−42)
6A2b¯2L2=31700 lb⋅ft26A2b¯2L2=31700 lb⋅ft2
Thus,
0+2M2(12+12)+M3(12)+34560+31700=00+2M2(12+12)+M3(12)+34560+31700=0
48M2+12M3=−6626048M2+12M3=−66260 ← equation (1)

Apply three-moment equation to middle and last spans

M2L2+2M3(L2+L3)+M4L3+6A2a¯2L2+6A3b¯3L3=0M2L2+2M3(L2+L3)+M4L3+6A2a¯2L2+6A3b¯3L3=0
Where,
L2=L3=12 ftL2=L3=12 ft
L3=3 ftL3=3 ft
M4=−4(50)(2)=−400 lb⋅ftM4=−4(50)(2)=−400 lb⋅ft
6A2a¯2L2=ΣPbL(L2−a2)=400(3)12(122−32)+300(8)12(122−82)6A2a¯2L2=ΣPbL(L2−a2)=400(3)12(122−32)+300(8)12(122−82)
6A2a¯2L2=29500 lb⋅ft26A2a¯2L2=29500 lb⋅ft2

6A3b¯3L3=14woL3=14(50)(123)=21600 lb⋅ft26A3b¯3L3=14woL3=14(50)(123)=21600 lb⋅ft2

Thus,
M2(12)+2M3(12+12)−400(12)+29500+21600=0M2(12)+2M3(12+12)−400(12)+29500+21600=0
12M2+48M3=−4630012M2+48M3=−46300 ← equation (2)

Solving equations (1) and (2) simultaneously

M2=−1215.22 lb⋅ftM2=−1215.22 lb⋅ft answer
M3=−660.78 lb⋅ftM3=−660.78 lb⋅ft answerDPRB ACSCE 56