READING MATERIALS in PHIL HIST

Readings in Philippine History
MARIANO MARCOS STATE UNIVERSITY

College of Arts & Sciences
Department of Social Sciences
READINGS IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY
Compiled by:
JERRY C. BUENAVISTA
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COURSE SYLLABUS
Course Title : READINGS IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY

Course Credits : 3 units
Number of Hours : 54 hours in a semester
COURSE DESCRIPTION:
Philippine history viewed from the lens of selected primary sources in different periods, analysis
and interpretations.
The course aims to expose students to different facets of Philippine history through the lens of
eyewitnesses. Rather than rely on secondary materials such as textbooks, which is the usual
approach in teaching Philippine history, different types of primary sources will be used –
written (qualitative and quantitative), oral, visual, audio-visual, digital – covering various
aspects of Philippine life (political, economic, social and cultural). Students are expected to
analyze the selected readings contextually and in terms of content (stated and implied). The
end goal is to enable students to understand and appreciate our rich past by deriving insights
from those who were actually present at time of the event.
Context analysis considers the following: (i) the historical context of the source [time and place
it was written and the situation at the time], (ii) the author’s background, intent (to the extent
discernible), and authority on the subject; and (iii) the source’s relevance and meaning today.
Content analysis, on the other hand, applies appropriate techniques depending on the type of
source (written, oral, visual). In the process, students will be asked, for example to identify the
author’s main argument or thesis, compare points of view, identify biases, and evaluate the
author’s claim based on the evidences presented or other available evidence at the time. The
course will guide the students through their reading and analysis of the texts and require them
to write reaction essays of varied length and present their ideas in other ways (debate format,
powerpoint presentation, letter to the editor of the source, etc.) The instructor may arrange
the readings chronologically or thematically, and start with the present (more familiar) and go
back to the earlier periods or vice-versa. (CMO No. 20, series of 2013).
The course analyses Philippine history from multiple perspectives through the lens of selected
primary sources coming from various disciplines and of different genres. Students are given
opportunities to analyze the author’s background and main arguments, compare different
points of view, identify biases and examine the evidences presented in the document. The
discussions will tackle traditional topics in history and other interdisciplinary themes that will
deepen and broaden their understanding of Philippine political, economic, cultural, social
scientific and religious history. Priority is given to primary materials that could help students
develop their analytical and communication skills. The end goal is to develop the historical and
critical consciousness of the students so that they will become versatile, articulate,
broadminded, morally upright and responsible citizens.
This course includes mandatory topics on the Philippine Constitution, agrarian reform, and
taxation.
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LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of the course, students should be able to:

1. Evaluate primary sources for their credibility, authenticity and provenance.
2. Analyze the content, context and perspective of different kinds of primary sources.
3. Determine the contribution of different kinds of primary sources in understanding Philippine
history.
4. Develop critical and analytical skills with exposure to primary sources.
5. Demonstrate the ability to use primary sources to argue in favour or against a particular
issue.
6. Effectively communicate, using various techniques and genres, their historical analysis of a
particular event or issue that could help others understand the chosen topic.
7. Propose recommendations/solutions to present-day problems based on their understanding
of root causes and their anticipation of future scenarios.
8. Display the ability to work in a team and contribute to a group project
9. Manifest interest in local history and concern in promoting and preserving our country’s
national patrimony and cultural heritage.
Course Outline
To meet the expected learning outcomes, this course is organized into five (5) parts:
Outline of Syllabus from CHED

WEEK TOPIC
1-2  Meaning and Relevance of History
 Distinction of Primary and Secondary Sources
 External and Internal Criticism
 Repositories of Primary Sources
 Different Kinds of Primary Sources
3-6  Content and Contextual Analysis of Selected Primary Sources
 Identification of the Historical Importance of the Text
 Examination of the Author’s Main Argument and Point of View
7-10  “One past but many histories.”
Controversies and Conflicting Views in Philippine History
a. Site of the First Mass
b. Cavite Mutiny
c. Retraction of Rizal
d. Cry of Balintawak or Pugadlawin
11-14 Social, Political, Economic and Cultural Issues in Philippine History
Mandated Topics
a. Agrarian Reform Policies
b. The Philippine Constitution: 1899 (Malolos) Constitution; 1935 Constitution;
1973 Constitution; 1987 Constitution
c. Taxation
15-18  Critical Evaluation and Promotion of Local and Oral History, Museums, Historical
Shrines, Cultural Performances, Indigenous Practices, Religious Rites and Rituals
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Revised Syllabus during the Training

Topic Learning Outcome References Assessment
1. Meaning Evaluate primary Chronicles in a Changing World, Witnesses to Groups are
and sources for their the History of the Filipino People tasked to do
Relevance credibility, the following:
of History authenticity and Gottschalk, Louis, Understanding History: A report on their
 Basics of provenance. Primer of Historical Method, New York: A.A> assigned
Historio- Knopf, 1969. readings; and
graphy produce
Colonel Furay and Michael Salevouris, The examples of
Methods and Skills of History: A Practical Guide, primary
1-17. sources and the
corresponding
Martha Howell and Walter Prevenier. From secondary
Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical sources derived
Methods, 17-68. from them.
Prepare a 25
John Schumacher, “The Historian’s Task in the minute
Philippines” in The Making of a Nation: Essays presentation in
on Nineteenth-Century Filipino Nationalism, 7- class.
15.
“The Propagandists’ Reconstruction of the

Philippine Past” in The Making of a Nation:
Essays on Nineteenth-Century Filipino
Nationalism, 102-116.
2. Content Analyze the Transliteration of the Laguna Copperplate Groups are
and context, content Inscription by Antoon Postma. Available online. tasked to
Contextual and perspective of discuss the
Analysis of different kinds of Excerpts from History of the Philippine Islands importance of
Selected primary sources; by Antonio de Morga the text, the
Primary determine the author’s
Sources contribution of Excerpts from History of the Philippine Province background,
different kinds of of the Society of Jesus by Pedro Chirino the context of
primary sources in the document,
understanding Excerpts from A Historical View of the and its
Philippine history; Philippine Islands Exhibiting their Discovery, contribution to
and develop critical Population, Language, Government, Manners, understanding
and analytical skills Customs, Productions and Commerce by Philippine
with exposure to Joaquin Martinez history.
primary sources. De Zuniga
Selected Chapters from Paul Dumol

(translator), The Manila Synod of 1582, 3-33.
Selected Chapters from William Henry Scott,

Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture
and Society, 189-216.
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http://philmuseaum.tripod.com/archaeo.html
3. Contro- Demonstrate the Milagros Guerrero, Emmanuel Encarnacion and Groups are
versies ability to formulate Ramon Villegas. “Andres Bonifacio and the tasked to
and arguments in 1896 Revolution”, Sulyap Kultura, 2-12. report on their
Conflicting favour or against a assigned
Views in particular issue Vivencio Jose, “Ang Diskurso ng Kaisipan at readings and
Philippine using primary Layunin ng Katipunan” in Pagbabalik sa bayan: debate a
History sources. mga lektura sa kasaysayan ng historiograpiya particular issue
at pagkabansang Pilipino, 117-138. in Philippine
society.
Jim Richardson, The light of liberty: documents
and studies on the Katipunan, 1892-1897, 125-
137; 189-206.
4. Social, Effectively A. Agrarian Reform Policies Groups are
Political, communicate using tasked to come
Economic various techniques The Philippine Rice Share Tenancy Act of 1933 up with a
and and genres, their (Act 4045) research
Cultural historical analysis http://www.chanrobles.com/acts/actsno40 output that
Issues in of a particular 45.html may be in the
Philippine event or issue that form of term
history could help others “Agricultural Tenancy Act of the Philippines in paper, exhibit,
understand the 1954” (RA 1199) http://www.lawphil.net/ documentary,
Sample chosen topic; webpage
Topics: propose Agricultural Land Reform Code of 1963 (RA and/or other
recommendations/ 3844) innovative
 Filipino solutions to http://www.lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/r modes.
Cultural present-day a1963/ra_3844_1963.html
Heritage problems based on
their understanding P.D. 27 of 1972
 Filipino- of root causes and http://www.lawphil.net/statutes/presdecs/
American their anticipation of pd1972/pd_27_1972.html Comprehensive
Relations future scenarios; Agrarian Reform Program of 1988
and display the
 Gov’t. ability to work in a RA 6657
Peace team and http://www.gov.ph/downloads/1988/06jun
Treaties contribute to a /19880610-RA-6657-CCA.pdf
group project.
 Agrarian Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program
Reform Extension with Reforms of 2009 (RA 9700)
Policies http://www.chanrobles.com
implement- /republicacts/republicactsno9700_pdf.php
ted by the
Phil. Gov’t. B. Philippine Constitution
 Evolution Malolos Constitution of 1899.

http://www.lawphil.net/consti/consmalo.h
5
of tml
Philippine
Constitu- Commonwealth Constitution of 1935.
tions http://www.gov.ph/constitutions/1935-
constitution-amended/
 Institu-
tional 1973 Constitution.
History of http://www.gov.ph/constitutions/1973-
Schools, constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-
Corpo- philippines-2/
rations,
Industries, 1987 Constitution.
Religious http://www.gov.ph/constitutions/1987-
Groups constitution/
C. Taxation
Edwin Valencia and Gregorio Roxas, Income

Taxation: Principles and Laws with
Accounting Applications
Efren Vincent Dizon, Taxation Law

Compendium.
Danilo Duncano, Philippine Taxation

Handbook.
Artemio Saguinsin, Taxation in the

Philippines.
Hector S. de Leon and Hector de Leon Jr.,

The Fundamentals of Taxation
5. Living Manifest interest in Documents on building of towns: Historical Groups are
History: local history and Papers, Ereccion de Pueblo tasked to
Evaluation concern in Archives, museums, local studies centers conduct
and promoting and Art galleries, painting collections memory walk
Promotion preserving our Historical landmarks, UNESCO heritage sites or walking tour
of Local country’s national Performances that showcase traditional arts
and Oral patrimony and and customs
History, cultural heritage. Fiestas and related activities
Museums,
Historical
Shrines,
Popular
Culture,
and
Cultural
Practices
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Course Requirements
Group activities and presentations 60%

Examination 30%
Recitation 10%
TOTAL 100%
Groupings
Participants will form themselves into groups. The groups will become the basis for collective
outputs.
Class Presentations
Class meetings are highly interactive. Participants are expected to attend class having read the
required materials. The presentation of the group will take 20-30 minutes. In making the
presentation, please note that (1) the group must identify and explain the main points of the
readings; and (2) the group must reflect on issues raised by the readings, and contrast what
they have learned from the readings with whatever prior knowledge they had. The group is
expected to be creative in making the presentation. The group activities will account for 60
percent of the final grade.
Examination
There is a final exam in this course. There is no making up for failure to take a test. Only when
there is a properly documented and valid reason for an absence will a make-up test be given.
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READINGS IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY Rubrics
Assessment Rubric for Group Presentation

Criteria Outstanding Very Good Good Fair/Pass Failure
91-100 81-90 71-80 61-70 Below 60
Background  The presentation  The presentation  The presentation  The introduction  There is no
of the includes a clear, includes a clear includes a clear is somewhat background and
Primary interesting and introduction that introduction that inadequate in introduction, or
Source (20%) effective identifies how the identifies how the communicating the
introduction that material is material is how the material background/intr
identifies how the related to the related to the is related to the oduction is not
material is topic under topic under topic under useful in
related to the discussion, as discussion. discussion. understanding
topic under well as to relevance of the
discussion, as previously- material in
well as to discussed topic. understanding
previously- Philippine
discussed topic. history.
 The introduction  The introduction  The introduction  Information
effectively provides the provides a provided about
provides all important sufficient the background of
important background background on the material is
background information on the material incomplete or
information on the material (who, what, incorrect.
the material (who, what, when, where).
(who, what, when, where).
when, where) in
an accurate and
detailed manner.
 The introduction  The introduction  The introduction  The introduction
effectively discusses the discusses the identifies some
discusses the relevance of the relevance of the relevance of the
relevance of the material in material in material in
material in understanding understanding understanding
understanding major major major
major episodes/themes episodes/themes episodes/themes
episodes/themes in Philippine in Philippine in Philippine
in Philippine history, and also history. history, but the
history, as well as attempts to discussion is
in developing a relate the largely superficial
historically- material to or incomplete.
grounded contemporary
understanding of events/themes/i
contemporary ssues.
events/themes/is
sues.
Contextual  The presentation  The presentation  The presentation  The discussion of  There is no
Analysis of the author’s of the author’s of the author’s the historical discussion of the
(30%) background and background and background is context and historical context
context is context is clear clear and importance of the of the document.
exhaustive, clear and accurate. accurate. document is too
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and accurate. general and lacks

 The students  The students  The students specific details.
identify and identify and identify the  The background
analyse the analyse the problems that of the author was
problems that problems that the document not clearly
the document the document wants to explained.
wants to wants to address.
address. address.
 The students  The students  There is an
explain clearly explain the attempt to
the importance importance of explain the
of the document the document in importance of
in understanding understanding the document in
the issues of the the issues of the understanding
given period. given period. the issues of the
 The document is given period.
correlated with
the other
documents
dealing with the
same period.
Content  The important  The important  The important  Some important  There is no
Analysis elements of the elements of the elements of the elements of the adequate
(30%) document are document are document are document are discussion of the
correctly identified and identified and identified and content of the
identified and analysed. analysed. analysed. document.
analysed.
 There is a  There is a  There is a little  There is an
thorough discussion of the discussion of the attempt to discuss
discussion of the value and value and the value and
value and contributions of contributions of contributions of
contributions of the contents of the contents of the contents of
the contents of the document in the document in the document in
the document in understanding understanding understanding the
understanding the issues the issues issues prevalent
the issues prevalent during prevalent during during the period.
prevalent during the period. the period.
the period.
 The contents of  The contents of  There is an
the document the document attempt to
are correlated are correlated correlate the
with the events with the events contents of the
that happened that happened document with
before it was before it was the events that
written. written. happened before
 The students are it was written.
able to identify
the
inconsistencies
and
shortcomings of
the document.
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Organization  The presentation  The presentation  The presentation  The presentation  The presentation
and is very well- is well- is adequately- is loosely- is done in a
Presentation structured, structured, and structured. organized. It is not haphazard
Style providing a there is a logical Transitions evident how one manner, lacking
(20%) logical sequence sequence to the between topics topic is related to a clear
to the discussion discussion. help in another in the organization and
within the understanding presentation. structure.
prescribed time the overall  Presenters lack  Presenters were
period. discussion. confidence but unable to
 Presenters are  Presenters are  Presenters are there is occasional capture the
confident, confident, somewhat use of gestures, attention of
effectively using sometimes using confident, using eye contact, and students.
gestures, eye gestures, eye occasional tone of voice to
contact, and contact, and gestures, eye try to capture the
tone of voice tone of voice contact, and attention of
that keep the that keep the tone of voice to students.
class engaged in class engaged in engage the class
discussion. discussion. in the discussion.
 Audio-visual aids  Audio-visual aids  Audio-visual aids  Audio-visual aids  Audio-visual aids
are well- are effective are helpful in are mostly not are not used, or
executed, paying leading to an generating an helpful in the are not really
careful attention appropriate understanding of presentation. helpful in the
to the understanding of key information Visual aids either presentation.
combination of key information and ideas. lack important
elements (e.g., and ideas. information or are
text and too text-heavy.
graphics) that
lead to both an
effective
understanding of
key information
and ideas, and
continuing
interest in the
discussion.
 Presenters are  Presenters are  Presenters are  Presenters  Presenters
highly articulate, articulate. In articulate. In encounter some cannot
using precise and general, there is general, there is difficulties in effectively
grammatically- use of use of communicating communicate
correct language. grammatically- grammatically- information and information and
Language used is correct language. correct language. ideas. The use of ideas, relying on
also respectful of Language used is Occasional grammatically- a verbatim-
diversity, and also respectful of grammatical incorrect reading of notes
sensitive to the diversity, and lapses do not language tends to or text-heavy
conditions of the sensitive to the prevent an be pervasive. visual aids to
different groups. conditions of the understanding of convey
different groups. information and information and
ideas that are ideas. The use of
conveyed. grammatically-
incorrect
language is
pervasive.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TOPICS PAGE
CHAPTER I: BASICS OF HISTORY

Meaning and Relevance of History……………………………………….…………… 1
Sources of History …………………………………...……………………………...... 2
General Kinds of Historical Sources ……………………………………..………….. 3
Historical Criticism …………………………………………………...…………….... 6
Locating Primary Sources …………………………………………...……………….. 6
Colonial Historiography …………………………………………………..…………. 6
Philippine Historiography After World War II …………………………………….... 7
Characteristics of Contemporary Philippine Historiography ………………………. 10
The Method and Skills of History: A Practical Guide (Chapter 1 & 2) ….…… …. 13
The Uses of History …………………………………………………………………. 13
Nature of History: History as Reconstruction ………………………………………. 13
Process of History ………………………………………...………………………… 15
Methods of Historical Analysis ……………………………………………………... 15
The Question of the Truth …………………………...……………………………… 15
Technical Analysis of Sources ……………...……………………………………..….. 16
Credibility of Historical Sources………………………………………………….…. 16
Technical Tools in Identifying and Authenticating Historical Sources (External) …. 16
Criticisms on Historical Sources (Internal) …………………………………………. 17
The Source: The Basis of Our Knowledge About the Past …………………….…… 18
What is a Source …………………………………………………………………..… 18
Source Typologies, Their Evolution and Complementarity ………………………… 19
Storing and Delivering Information ………………………………...………………. 20
The Historian’s Task in the Philippines …………………………………………….. 21
Recovering the Past …………………………………………………………………. 22
The Formative Century …………………...………………………………………… 23
Method in History ………………………………………...………………………… 24
Nationalist History ………………………………………………………...…………25
The Propagandist’s Reconstruction of the Past …………………………………….. 28
Beginnings of the Search for the Filipino Past ……………………………………… 29
National Identity and Racial Equality ………………………………………………. 30
Legitimation of the Nationalist Struggle ……………………………………………. 32
Lineage from Propagandists to Revolutionaries ……………………………….…… 37
CHAPTER II: CONTENT AND CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF SELECTED

PRIMARY SOURCES ……………………………………………… 39
Laguna Copperplate Transliteration ……………………………………………...… 39
Tagalog Translation …………………………………………………………………. 40
Political Entities in Southeast Asia in the 10th Century ……...…………………….. 41
Characteristics of the Laguna Copperplate ……………………………...………….. 42
Origins of the Inscription on the Laguna Copperplate ……………………………… 42
The Inscription ……………………………………………………………...………. 43
History of the Philippine Islands ………………………………………….…………. 45
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Excerpts from History of the Philippines Province of the Society of Jesus ……...... 51
The Pagan False Religion, Idolatries, and Sacrifices of the Filipinos ……………..... 51
Summary ………………………………………………………………...………….. 53
An Historical View Of The Philippine Islands Exhibiting Their Discovery, Population,
Language, Government, Manners, Customs, Production and Commerce ………….. 58
Contributions to Understanding Philippine History (Content) …………………..… 58
Analysis of The Document ………………………………………………..……….... 59
A Historical View of the Philippines Islands Exhibiting their Discovery, Population,
Language, Government, Manners Customs, Productions and Commerce ……….. 60
The Ministers of their Sacrifices ………………...………………………………….. 65
The Barbirity of their Sacrifices …………………………………………………….. 66
Usury and Slavery Among the Filipinos …..……………………………..…….…… 67
The Society Goes to Ibabao ……………………………………………….………… 67
Barangay : Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and Society ………………….... 68
Exercises on Examining Primary Documents ………………………………………. 74
Manunggul Jar …………………………………………………………………... 74
Battle of Mactan …………………………………………………………………. 75
Act of Declaration of Philippine Independence …………………………………. 77
Chapter III: CONTROVERSIES AND CONFLICTING VIEWS IN PHILIPPINE

HISTORY ……………………………………………………………… 79
Andres Bonifacio and the 1896 Revolution …………………………………………. 79
The Founding of the Katipunan ………………………………………………………79
Members of the Katipunan …………………………………………………...……... 82
Katipunan Literature ………………………………………………………………… 82
Discovery of the Katipunan …………………………………………………………. 82
A Nation is Born …………………………………………………………………….. 83
First Filipino Government ……………………………………………………………83
The First President …………………………………………………………...……… 85
Bonifacio Vs. Aguinaldo ……………………………………………………….…… 85
Existence Of Katipunan Government ………………………………………….…… 86
Katipunan Democracy …………………………………………………………….… 86
Significance Of 1896 Revolution …………………………………………………… 88
Katipunan ……………………………………………………………………………... 89
Ang Diskurso Ng Kaisipan At Layunin Ng Katipunan ……………………………. 92
Panimula …………………………………………………………...………………... 92
I. Bansang Pilipino: Konsepto at Realisasyon …………………………………….… 94
Isinilang ng Reporma ang La Liga Filipina …………………………………………. 95
Pinamumunuan ng Katipunan ang Himagsikan …………………………………….. 96
II. Ang Batayang Kaisipan ng Katipunan ……………………………………….….. 97
A. Mga Pundamental ng Paniniwala ………………………………………………... 97
B. Ang Kasunduang Historikal: Pagbuo, Pagsira at Pagtatakwil ………………..… 99
C. Ang Papel ng Katipunan sa Pagbabago ………………………………………… 100
D. Ang Kahulugan ng Rebolusyon ………………………………………………… 100
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The Light of Liberty: Documents and Studies on The Katipunan ………………. 101
Katungkulang Gagawin ng mga Anak ng Bayan ……………………..………..…. 101
Duties of the Sons of the People ……………………………...…………………… 102
Mga Aral ng Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan …………………………………. 103
Cartilla (English Version) …………………………………………………………. 105
Ang Dapat Mabatid ng mga Tagalog ……………………………………………… 106
Pag-Ibig sa Tinubuang Bayan ……………………………………………………... 111
CHAPTER IV. SOCIAL, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL ISSUES

IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY
A. Agrarian Reform
The Philippine Rice Share Tenancy Act of 1933 (Act 4045) ………………...……. 114
“Agricultural Tenancy Act of the Philippines in 1954” (RA 1199) ……….…….. 116
Agricultural Land Reform Code of 1963 (RA 3844) ………...….……..………….. 120
Presidential Decree No. 27 …………………………………………..……….……. 123
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program of 1988 (RA 6657) ………..………… 125
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program
Extension with Reforms of 2009 (RA 9700) ……………...……………………….. 128
B. Philippine Constitution
Malolos Constitution of 1899 ……………………………………………………… 131
Commonwealth Constitution of 1935 …………………...………………………… 137
1973 Constitution ………………….………………………………………………. 140
1987 Constitution ………………………………………………………………….. 144
C. Taxation …………………………………………………………..……………… 152
CHAPTER V. LIVING HISTORY: EVALUATION AND PROMOTION OF

LOCAL AND ORAL HISTORY, MUSEUMS, HISTORICAL
SHRINES, POPULAR CULTURE, AND CULTURAL PRACTICES
Living History Sessions ………………………………………………………….….. 153
REFERENCES ……………………………………………………………………..… 155
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Chapter I:
MEANING AND RELEVANCE OF HISTORY
Outline:
 Meaning of History
 Sources of History
 General Kinds of Historical Sources
 Historical Criticism
 Locating Primary Sources
 Colonial Historiography
 Philippine Historiography After World War II
 Characteristics of Contemporary Philippine Historiography
 MEANING OF HISTORY
The Greek philosopher Aristotle used the word history which meant a systematic
account of a set of natural phenomena, whether or not chronological ordering was a
factor in the account; and that usage, though rare, still prevails in English in the phrase
natural history. In the course of time, however, the equivalent Latin word scientia
(English, science) came to be used more regularly to designate non-chronological
systematic accounts of natural phenomena.
History deals with the study of past events presented in chronological order and
often with explanation. Others define it as His story and sanaysay na may saysay.
Individuals who write about history are called historians. They seek to understand the
present by examining what went before. They undertake arduous historical research to
come up with a meaningful and organized reconstruction of the past. But whose past are
we talking about? This is a basic question that a historian needs to answer because this
sets the purpose and framework of a historical account. Hence, a salient feature of
historical writing is the facility to give meaning and impart value to a particular group of
people about their past.
By its most common definition, the word history now means “the past of
mankind.” Compare the German word for history – Geschichte, which is derived from
geschehen, meaning to happen. Geschichte is that which has happened. This meaning of
the word history is often encountered in such overworked phrases as “all history teaches”
or “the lessons of history.”
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It requires only a moment’s reflection to recognize that in this sense history

cannot be reconstructed. The past of mankind for the most part is beyond recall. Even
those who are blessed with the best memories cannot re-create their own past, since in the
life of all men there must be events, persons, words, thoughts, places, and fancies that
made no impression at all at the time they occurred, or have since forgotten. A fortiori,
the experience of a generation long dead, most of whom left no records or whose records,
if they exist, have never been disturbed by the historian’s touch, is beyond the possibility
of total recollection. The reconstruction of the total past of mankind, although it is the
goal of historians, thus becomes a goal they know full well is unattainable.
The practice of historical writing is called historiography. Traditional method in

doing historical research focuses on gathering of documents from different libraries and
archives to form a pool of evidence needed in making a descriptive or analytical
narrative. However, modern historical writing does not only include examination of
documents but also the use of research methods from related areas of study such as
archaeology and geography.
 SOURCES OF HISTORY
a. Documents – handwritten, printed, designed, drawn and other composed materials

e.g. books, magazines, maps, journals, architectural perspectives, newspapers, paintings,
advertisements, and photographs
Relacion de las Islas Filipinas Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas
15
Colonial records such as government reports and legal documents form a

significant part of our collection of documents here and abroad, particularly in Spain and
the United States. In the 20th century and up to now, memoirs of personal accounts
written by important historical personages constitute another type of documents.
Philippine presidents such as Emilio Aguinaldo, Manuel Quezon, and Diosdado
Macapagal wrote their memoirs to highlight their roles as nation-builders.
b. archaeological records – preserved remains of human beings, their activities and their
environment
 fossils – remains of animals, plants and other organisms
In the Philippines, the most significant excavated human remains include Callao
Man’s toe bone (dated 67000 BCE) and the Tabon Man’s skullcap (22000 BCE). Aside
from human remains, other archaeological records are generally categorized as fossils
and artifacts.
 artifacts – remnants of material culture
Laguna Copperplate Inscription Manunggul Jar
c. oral and video accounts – audio-visual documentation of people, events and places
These are usually recorded in video and audio cassettes, and compact discs. Aside
from scholars, media people also use oral and video accounts as part of their news and
public affairs work.
16
 GENERAL KINDS OF HISTORICAL SOURCES
a. Primary – documents, physical objects, and oral/video accounts by an individual or

group present at the time and place being described
- The testimony of eyewitness, or of a witness by any other of the senses, or of a
mechanical device like the Dictaphone – that is, of one who or that which was present
at the events of which he or it tells (hereafter called simply eyewitness)
b. Secondary - materials made by people long after the events being described had
taken place
- The testimony of anyone who is not an eyewitness – that is, of one who was not
present at the events of which he tells
A primary source must thus have been produced by a contemporary of the events
it narrates. It does not, however, need to be original in the legal sense of the word original
– that is, the very document (usually the first written draft) whose contents are the subject
of discussion – for quite often a later copy or a printed edition will do just as well; and in
the case of the Greek and Roman classics seldom are any but later copies available.
“Original” is a word of so many different meanings that it would have been

better to avoid it in precise historical discourse.
A document may be called “original”
1. because it contains fresh and creative ideas

2. because it is not translated from the language in which it was first written
3. because it is in its earliest, unpolished stage
4. because its text is the approved text, unmodified and untampered with
5. because it is the earliest available source of the information it provides
Unfortunately, the phrase “original sources” has become common among

historians, and it is desirable to define its usage accurately. It is best used by the historian
in two senses – (1) to describe a source, unpolished, uncopied, untraslated, as it ussued
from the hands of the authors (e.g. original draft of the Magna Carta) or (2) a source that
gives the earliest available information (i.e., the origin) regarding the question under
investigation because earlier sources have been lost.
Primary sources need not be original in either of these two ways. They need to be
“original” only in the sense of underived or first-hand as to their testimony. This point
ought to be emphasized in order to avoid confusion between original sources and primary
17
sources. The confusion arises from a particularly careless use of the word original. It is
often used by historians as a synonym for manuscript or achival.
Most historical narratives today are so reliant on documentary sources due to the
plethora of written records and the lack of archaeological records and oral/video
memoirs. Although having several documents about an event allows for easier
counterchecking of facts, history researchers are confronted with one basic challenge
with regard primary sources – their ability to read and understand texts in foreign
language.
Aside from reading the Spanish original documents or translated works, another
daunting task for Filipino historians is to discern the cultural context and historical value
of primary sources because most of these primary documents were written by colonialists
and reflected Western cultural frames. For examples, derogatory terms used to label
Filipinos such as “pagan,” “uncivilized,” “wild,” and “savage” abound in these colonial
documents. Uncovering myths and misconceptions about Filipino cultural identity
propagated by the Spanish and American colonizers is extra challenging for
contemporary Filipino scholars.
If the key function of primary source documents is to give facts, secondary source
documents, on the other hand, provide valuable interpretations of historical events. The
works of eminent historians such as Teodoro Agoncillo and Renato Constantino are good
examples of secondary two phases: the first phase covers the years from the start of the
revolution in August 1896 to the flight of Emilio Aguinaldo and company to Hong Kong
as a result of the Pact of Biak-na-Bato, while the second phase spans from Aguinaldo’s
return to Manila from Hong Kong until his surrender to the Americans in March 1901.
However, Constantino refuted Agoncillo’s leader-centric scheme of dividing the

revolution into two phases by stressing that Agoncillo’s viewpoint implied that the
revolution came to a halt when Aguinaldo left the country. Constantino disputed the
soundness of Agoncillo’s two-phase scheme by asserting that the war of independence
continued even without Aguinaldo’s presence in the country.
Aside from the issue on Philippine Revolution, there are other contending issues
in Philippine history such as the venue of the first Christian mass in the country and the
question of who deserves to be named national hero. By and large, interpretations serve
as tools of discernment for readers of historical sources, but they should be cautious of
frames of analysis for biased, discriminatory, and self-serving ends.
18
 HISTORICAL CRITICISM
Many documents have primary and secondary segments. For instance, examining
a newspaper as a historical source entails a discerning mind to identify its primary and
secondary components. A news item written by a witness of an event is considered as a
primary source, while a feature article is usually considered as a secondary material.
Similarly, a book published a long time ago does not necessarily render it as a primary
source. It requires reading of the document to know its origin.
To ascertain the authenticity and reliability of primary sources to be used in

crafting a narrative, a historian needs to employ two levels of historical criticism, namely
external criticism and internal criticism.
a. External criticism – answers concerns and questions pertinent to the authenticity of a

historical source by identifying who composed the historical material, locating when and
where the historical material was produced, and establishing the material’s evidential
value
b. Internal criticism – deals with the credibility and reliability of the content of a given
historical source. It focuses on understanding the substances and message that the
historical material wants to convey by examining how the author framed the intent and
meaning of a composed material.
 LOCATING PRIMARY SOURCES
a. National Library
b. National Archives
c. Academic Institutions
d. Privately owned museums and archives
e. Religious congregations
f. Abroad
 COLONIAL HISTORIOGRAPHY
Philippine historiography has changed significantly since the 20th century. For a
long time, Spanish colonizers presented our history in two parts: a period of darkness or
backwardness before they arrived and a consequent period of advancement or
enlightenment when they came.
19
Spanish chroniclers wrote a lot about the Philippines but their historical accounts
emphasized the primacy of colonization to liberate Filipinos from their backward
“barbaric” lifeways. In the same manner, American colonial writers also shared the
same worldview of the predecessors by rationalizing their colonization of Filipinos as a
way to teach the natives the “civilized lifestyle” which they said the Spaniards forgot to
impart including personal hygiene and public administration. Colonial narratives have
portrayed Filipinos as a people bereft of an advanced culture and a respectable history.
This perception challenged Filipino intellectuals beginning in the 1800s to rectify such
cultural bias or prejudice. In 1890, Jose Rizal came out with an annotation of Antonio de
Morga’s Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (Events in the Philippine Islands), a book
originally published in 1609. He used de Morga’s book, a rare Spanish publication that
positively viewed precolonial Filipino culture, as a retort to the arrogant Spaniards.
However, cultural bias against Filipino culture continued even after Rizal’s death and the
end of Spanish colonialism.
Learning from the fate of its colonial predecessor, the United States did not only
use brute force but also effected ingenious ways of pacification such as the use of
education as a tool to control their subjects and increase political and economic power of
the elite few. These colonial instruments were so ingrained among Filipinos that they
perceived their colonial past in two ways: initially maltreated by “wicked Spain” but later
rescued by “benevolent America.” This kind of historical consciousness has effectively
erased from the memories of Filipino generations the bloody Filipino-American War as
exemplified by the Balangiga Massacre in Eastern Samar and the Battle of Bud Bagsak in
Sulu. Consequently, such perception breathes new life to the two part view of history: a
period of darkness before the advent of the United States and an era of enlightenment
during the American colonial administration. This view has resonated with Filipino
scholars even after the Americans granted our independence in 1946.
 PHILIPPINE HISTORIOGRAPHY AFTER WORLD WAR II
The stark reality of Filipino historians thinking like their colonial counterparts
during the postcolonial period troubled a small group of professors and cultural workers
who were mostly alumni of the University of the Philippines. This spurred the emergence
of Filipino scholars who challenged the narrow view of colonial narratives and developed
historical writing from the viewpoint of a nationalist agenda.
20
In the 1950s, Teodoro Agoncillo pioneered

nationalist historiography in the country by
highlighting the role of the Filipino reformists
and revolutionaries from 1872, the year that
saw the execution of the GomBurZa priests, to
the end of the Philippine Revolution as a focal
point of the country’s nation-building
narrative. Two of his most celebrated books
focus on the impact of the Philippine
Revolution: The Revolt of the Masses: The
Story of Bonifacio and the Katipunan (1956)
and Malolos: The Crisis of the Republic
(1960). His writings veered away from
emphasizing colonial period and regarded
events before 1872 as part of the country’s
Teodoro Agoncillo “lost history.”
The discourse of “lost history” was not

accepted by another known scholar, Renato
Constantino, whose published work entitled,
“The Miseducation of the Filipino” became a
staple reading for academics and activists
beginning in the late 1960s. Constantino
advanced the idea of a “people’s history” – a
study of the past that sought to analyze society
by searching out people’s voices from colonial
historical materials that typically rendered
Filipinos as decadent, inept and vile.
Following this mode of historical inquiry, he
authored The Philippines: A Past Revisited
(1975), a college textbook that offered a more
critical reading of Philippine history compared
to Agoncillo’s History of the Filipino People
(1973). Undoubtedly, these two nationalist
scholars inspired or challenged other historians
to reevaluate the country’s national history. Renato Constantino
21
Other Filipino historians set new directions in

redefining Philippine historiography in the last
30 years of the 20th century. The first of these
scholars is Zeus Salazar who conceptualized
“Pantayong Pananaw” as an approach to
understanding the past from our own cultural
frame and language. He emphasized the value
of our Austronesian roots in defining Filipino
culture and encouraged other scholars to
conduct outstanding historical researches in
Filipino such as the work of Jaime
Veneracion’s Kasaysayan ng Bulacan (1986).
Zeus Salazar
Equally important is the contribution of

Reynaldo Ileto who wrote about his “history
from below”treatise in his ground-breaking
work, Pasyon and Revolution: Popular
Movements in the Philippines, 1840-1910
(1979). In this work, Ileto endeavored to
recognize the way of thinking of ordinary folks
by using alternative historical sources such as
folk songs and prayers. His other works
spurred new interpretations such as common
topics such as Jose Rizal, Philippine-American
War, and American colonization.
Reynaldo Ileto
There is also Samuel Tan, another prolific historian who is best remembered for
mainstreaming the role and relevance of Filipino Muslims in the country’s national
history. His definitive work, The Filipino Muslim Armed Struggle, 1900-1972
(1978), sought to examine the struggle of Filipino Muslims in the context of 20th
century nation-building dynamics during the American colonial regime and
subsequent postcolonial Filipino administrations. In his book, A History of the
Philippines (1987), Tan attempted to write a national history reflective of the
historical experiences not only of lowland Christianized Filipinos but also of the
other cultural communities in the archipelago.
22
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTEMPORARY PHILIPPINE HISTORIOGRAPHY
a. Political Narratives
Most of our national histories today favour narratives that deal with the political
aspects of nation-building such as the legacies of political leaders and establishment of
different governments.
Questions such as the following are focal points in these narratives: Who was the
first Spanish governor-general vital in implementing the encomienda policy? Who was
the governor-general responsible for the massive employment of Filipinos on the
American colonial bureaucracy? Who served as the last president of the Philippine
Commonwealth and the inaugural chief executive of the Third Republic? The challenge
to the present-day historian is to present a more holistic history that goes beyond politics
by means of integrating other aspects of nation-building such as its economic and cultural
aspects.
b. Colonial Histories in Historical Narratives
Another weakness of most national histories is the importance given to colonial

histories. This continues to breed Filipinos who are more familiar with stories about our
colonial history rather than stories of our precolonial past.
Up to now, some social studies textbooks misrepresent ancient Filipinos as

savages or barbarians by portraying colonizers, especially the Spaniards and Americans,
as liberators of the Filipinos from cultural backwardness. The key to uncover such
cultural prejudices is to examine available historical sources and to write about our past
by understanding the myths and misconceptions that characterize the Filipino culture for
centuries.
c. Elite-centric Perspectives in Historical Narratives
Some historical narratives focus on the contribution of the elite in nation-building

such as what the ilustrados (educated Filipinos) fought for in the 19th century or how
local politicians negotiated with their American counterparts to obtain an independence
law during the first half of the 20th century. Though eminent historians such as
Constantino and Ileto reiterated the importance of a “people’s history” and “history from
23
below,” respectively, so much has to be done in terms of writing about the roles played
by ordinary people in our country.
d. Patriarchal Orientation in Historical Narratives
Most of the country’s historical narratives highlight the heroism of men in

different ways: leading revolts and liberation wars against colonizers, championing the
cause of independence, and spearheading political and economic development. Women,
on the otherhand, are viewed by several historians as merely support to men. Let us take
for example the women leaders such as Gabriela Silang, Tandand Sora, and Corazon
Aquino. Silang assumed the leadership of the Ilocos revolt after her husband was
murdered. Tandang Sora’s decision to offer her barn and farm to revolutionaries was
linked to her son’s involvement in the Katipunan. Aquino rose to prominence as a
martyr’s widow who led a movement to depose a dictatorship. These representations
show women’s roles as consequences of their connection to the men in their lives. With
this bias in mind, it is imperative for contemporary historians to use gender-sensitive
approaches in understanding history to avoid typecasting women as dependent,
emotional, less important, passive, submissive and weak.
e. Emphasis on Lowland Christianized Filipinos
National histories tend to show partially toward lowland Christianized Filipinos at

the expense of other national cultural communities such as Muslim Filipinos and other
indigenous peoples. Celebrated figures of our past are all lowlander Christians and
predominantly Tagalogs including Jose Rizal, the leading propagandist; Andres
Bonifacio, the Katipunan founder; and Emilio Aguinaldo, the revolutionary leader who
declared independence. Non-Christians and highlanders remain unrecognized in
historical narratives. Muslim Filipinos, in particular, have been subjected to negative
characterization by lowland Christians in published works such as history books. This is
caused by the culture of mistrust that developed between Christians and Muslims during
colonial periods. Muslim Filipinos are depicted as brutal, cruel, ferocious, and vicious as
exemplified by their attacks of Christian towns. This narrow-minded view has to be
reevaluated in order to correct misrepresentations of Muslim Filipinos in this age of
political correctness and cultural sensitivity.
Sources: Chronicles in a Changing World, Witnesses to the History of the Filipino People
Gottschalk, Loius. Understading History: A Primer if Historical Method, New York: A.A.Knopf, 1969.
24
LINK IT
Search the internet for online archives and libraries on Philippine history and
culture. Explore ways of getting historical information from varied digital sources.
Present your findings in a powerpoint presentation with profiles of web sites detailing
their collection of sources and providing important information on how to access their
files.
BRING IT ON
1. What are the benefits of using primary sources?

2. Why do you think most history textbooks are secondary sources?
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of accessing online primary sources?
4. What are the challenges of understanding our country’s past mindful of the problems
that characterize the writing of our national history?
LEVEL UP!
1.You work as part of a research team at the National Historical Commission of the
Philippines. The team is composed of four to five researchers who will take part in an
annual conference of Filipino historians aimed to analyze the country’s national symbols
utilizing primary sources. Your group should be able to explain the meaning of the
different symbols and colors of the Philippine flag by showing excerpts of the English
translation of the country’s declarations of independence originally written in Spanish.
Then you are to compare and contrast the past and present meanings that we attach to the
symbols and colors of the Philippine flag. Your presentation will be graded based on
accuracy of information and flow of presentation.
2. You work at a broadcasting company. Your station manager has selected you to
annotate for a video highlighting the recollection of veterans during the administration of
President Ferdinand Marcos. You have to conduct an interview or a series of interviews
with an individual or group of individuals who were witnesses to the changes in
Philippine society between 1965 and 1986. Write your script for a three-minute video
presentation. Your presentation will be graded based on its content, creativity, and
impact.
3. You have been assigned to write a brief history about your family, organization,
school, or village. The objective of the project is to examine the available primary
documents such as letters, minutes of the meeting, pictures, and other memorabilia that
you can use in making a historical account. It is important to identify and explain the
turning points or highlights of your historical narrative. Your paper will be graded based
on extensiveness of the primary documents to be utilized and organization of the
historical account.
25
The Method and Skills of History:

A Practical Guide (Chapter 1 & 2)
Chapter 1. The Uses of History

 History can be influential and shaping human affairs.
 History provides informed perspective about the world.
 History is a guide on making judgments.
 History provides a better understanding about the present situation.
Chapter 2. Nature of History: History as Reconstruction
What is History?
First: History is the sum total of everything that has happened in the past.
 history-as-actuality
Second: History is an account of the past.

 history-as-record
“History is not ‘what happened in the past’; rather, it is the act of

selecting, analyzing, and writing about the past…”
(James Davidson and Mark Lytle, 1982)
Nature of History
History is both the past and the study of the past.

…visualize walking at night…
…a companion turns on a search light.
…the landscape represent the past.
…the one with the search light is the historian.
This analogy may give us an idea of the nature of history….

…but it is IMPERFECT.
NO ONE CAN PRESENT THE PAST AS IT ACTUALLY WAS…

HISTORY is an individualized view…
…an act of creation…
AN ACT OF RE-CREATION.
26
Louis Gottschalk (1950): Only a part of what was observed in the past was
remembered by those who observed it; only a part of what was remembered was
recorded; only a part of what was recorded has survived; only a part of what has survived
has come to the historians’ attention; only a part of what has come to their attention is
credible; only a part of what is credible has been grasped and can be expounded or
narrated by the historian… Before the past is set forth by the historian, it is likely to have
gone through eight separate steps at each of which some of it has been lost; and there is
no guarantee that what remains is the most important, the largest, the most valuable, the
most representative, or the most enduring part. In other words, the “object” that the
historian studies is not only incomplete, it is markedly variable as records are lost or
recovered.
27
Process of History
Historian must rely on surviving records…
Historians are fallible, capable of error, with personal biases, political beliefs, economic
status, and idiosyncrasies.
 There is an element of subjectivity in historical accounts.

 Historians are justified in viewing an event from any perspective they wish.
 Historians could excessively focus on his or her own viewpoint.
Methods of Historical Analysis
1. selection of a subject for investigation

2. collection of probable sources of information on the subject
3. examination of those sources for genuineness (either in whole or in part)
4. extraction of credible particulars from the sources (or parts of sources) proved genuine
The Question of the Truth
 Limited records of past events still constitute a tangible link between past and present.
 History is not fiction. History must be based on available relevant evidence.
 History is dynamic or constantly changing.
Conclusion
 The realization that history involves the study of individual interpretations or versions
of the past is unsettling.
 History is not the lifeless study of the dead past.
 Learning how historians think and sharpening the analytical and communication skills
are essentials for success in college and professional life.
 The methods of history are not especially complicated and confusing… still doing
history is not altogether easy.
Source: Conal Furay and Michael Salevouris, The Methods and Skills of History: A Practical Guide
28
Technical Analysis of Sources
Outline:
• Overview
• Contents of the Chapter
• Discussions of the Chapter/Substance of the Chapter
Overview
The chapter addresses the following concerns:
• Basic matters in analyzing historical sources most specifically written documents;
• Utilization of Tools:
Scientific/Technical and Traditional Instruments in
authenticating historical sources (External Criteria);
• Source Criticism (Internal Criteria):

Focuses on the issues of meaning and valuation of the historical source;
reliability; intentions; credibility of the historical source (genealogy/provenance)
Contents of the Chapter

• Credibility of Historical Sources
• Technical Tools in Identifying and Authenticating Historical Sources (External)
• Criticisms on Historical Sources (Internal)
Credibility of Historical Sources

• Comprehensible
• Provenance: Place, Time, Who composed it, When? Where? Social Setting/Milieu?
Correctness, Appropriateness
• Is it Authentic?
Technical Tools in Identifying and Authenticating Historical Sources
a. Paleography - study of handwritting, evolution of writing, ability to distinguish

the different traditions of writing styles; types of medium utilized; ability to spot
fakes; nuances in writing through different periods.
b. Diplomatics - used primarily for textual analysis; writing styles maybe
determined by its specific time/period wherein there is a set of writing
conventions and formulas.
c. Archaeology
d. Statistics
e. Additional Technical Tools
29
Criticisms on Historical Sources
Chief Elements
a. The Genealogy of the Document
b. Genesis of a Document
c. The Originality of the Document
d. Interpretation of the Document
e. Authorial Authority
f. Competence of the Observer
g. Trustworthiness of the Observer
Source: Martha Howell and Walter Prevenier. From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical
Methods
30
THE SOURCE: THE BASIS OF OUR KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE PAST
Outline
 What is a Source
 Source Typologies, Their Evolution and Complementarity
 Storing and Delivering Information
THE SOURCE & THE HISTORIAN
What are sources?
 Sources are objects that have been left in the past. They exist either as relic…or as
testimonies of witnesses to the past.
 Sources are objects from the past or testimonies concerning the past on which
historians depend in order to create their own depictions of that past.
Relics and Testimonies as Sources
a. Relics - artifacts, ruins, fragments b. Testimonies – oral or written
The Attitude of the Historian towards Sources
1. To consider the conditions under which a source was produced.

2. To consider the intentions that motivated the creation of the source.
3. To always bear in mind that knowledge of the first two items does not reveal
everything about the source’s reliability
4. To read a source, paying attention to both the historical and historiographical contexts
that give it meaning.
5. To distinguish carefully for the readers between info that comes literally out of the
source itself---and that which is a personal interpretation of the material.
31
SOURCE TYPOLOGIES, THEIR EVOLUTION AND COMPLEMENTARITY
Written Archaeological Oral New Sources

• Narrative • articles from • tales and sagas • photos
• diplomatic daily life • folk songs and • films/movies
sources • artistic creations popular rituals • videos
• social documents • fortifications • artistic • ICT generated
performances sources
• interviews
Archaeological Evidences
 provide a glimpse of how people lived in the past and reveals interconnections of the
age.
 Advances in technology have made possible the preservation and accumulation of oral
evidences in historiography.
Oral Evidences
 Oral records have been a major historical source of the pre-historic times.
32
Complementarity of Sources
• Oral sources can complement written sources and can give us clues on the socio-
political, economic and cultural contexts at play in a specific period being studied.
• Oral sources can be trusted so long as they can be verified through external evidence
of another kind (language, material, non-material culture).
• Interviewing as a method in oral history must be handled skillfully. Interviews must be

analyzed with extreme care against threats of biases
C. STORING AND DELIVERING INFORMATION
1. Archives – considered as the historians principal source of information
a. Living archive – if the archive is growing and acquiring new materials

b. Old, Historical Archive – when a collection is separated from the living archive
because it has no value
2. Museums – usual repositories for archaeological finding, artworks and other similar
objects
Reasons why there is a small number of documents in the archives:

1. few events were actually recorded
2. often occurred that the official who produced or originally collected a given
document did not think it worth saving
3. archives are frequently destroyed in catastrophe, fire and war
4. many institutions and individuals simply do not seek aggressively enough to preserve
their records
5. there are basic technical reasons why an archive does not last, namely the quality of
the material on which the record is kept
6. archives can fail scholars because there is too much to collect; overwhelmed by the
task deciding what to save and what to discard
Source: Martha Howell and Walter Prevenier. From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods
33
The Historian’s Task in the Philippines
Political or religious controversy is rarely conducive context for an introduction to

serious history. Such a context, nonetheless, provided my own introduction to the study
of Philippine history. In 1949, Catholic bishops opposed the use of government funds to
publish Rafael Palma’s biography of Rizal because of the book’s anti-Catholicism. One
could easily have gotten caught up in the instrumentalization of history to score debating
points in that controversy and gone no further.
A study of Rizal’s writings led to a sharing of Rizal’s convictions on the centrality

of historical perspective for a real understanding of the problems of the present. For a
young American undergraduate seminarian recently arrived in the Philippines and
anxious to become familiar with Filipino thought, history, and culture, Rizal’s insistence
on the need for Filipinos to understand their own past if they were effectively to shape
their future struck a sympathetic note.
It was Rizal’s consciousness of the need to know his people’s past that made him
interrupt his work on El Filibusterismo, which was to point toward a solution to the
country’s problems exposed in the Noli Me Tangere. Before planning for the future, as he
insisted in the prologue to his edition of Antonio de Morga’s Sucesos de las Islas
Filipinas, one must unveil that history which had been hidden from the eyes of Filipinos
by neglect or distortion. Having acquired an understanding of their past, Filipinos, Rizal
hoped, would be able to “judge the present” so that all together might “dedicate
[themselves] to studying the future.”
Driven by this purpose, he spent long months in London’s British Museum,

copying out painfully by hand Morga’s account as the basis for his picture of the past. He
dug through old missionary chronicles that would help him expand on Morga’s narrative.
Thus he would show his countrymen that, from a Filipino point of view, Spanish rule had
failed to fulfill its promise of progress for Filipinos. Indeed, in some respects they had
been retrogressed under Spanish rule. Thus, in the light of their past, the present
lamentable state of the Filipinos provided moral legitimation for the struggle to come.
But beyond that, the knowledge of their past nurtured a consciousness of being a people
with a common origin and a common experience constituting the national identity around
which the future nation could arise.
But for all the care with which Rizal combed the chronicles and the acuteness
with which he recaptured from a Filipino point of view the events they narrated, he was
ultimately a self-trained historian, and a part-time one at that, as he lamented in letters to
his friend Blumentritt. Despite his care to document his interpretation on individual
points and the illumination he gave to the period, the book as a whole proves too much.
Three centuries of Spanish rule, for all its faults, had not been a complete disaster. Rizal
himself was the best proof of that. But he had succeeded in taking a new look at that
Filipino past and uncovering the roots of what was good and bad in contemporary
Filipino society. Above all, he was able to share with his people a sense of national
identity, which, as he once wrote Blumentritt, “impels nations to do great deeds.”
34
Anyone who first studies Rizal’s historical writings and then reads Andres
Bonifacio’s call to his fellow Filipinos in his “Ang Dapat Mabatid ng mga Tagalog,” will
recognize that Rizal’s hope that his edition of Morga would lay a foundation for the
building of the nation was not in vain. Bonifacio, Jacinto, and other Filipinos of the
Revolutionary generation found much of their literary and nationalist inspiration in
Rizal’s writings.
Every Filipino historian can share the basic goals Rizal thought capable of
achievement by history – understanding of our past, cultivation of our national identity,
and inspiration for the future. Their achievement, however, is not without obstacles.
Recovering the Past
The relevant Filipino past is not merely the pre-Hispanic period Rizal naturally
undertook to illuminate. It will not suffice today, even less than in his time, to skip over
the Spanish colonial period on the grounds that there was no Filipino history before 1872.
Such an allegation, if meant seriously, betrays more a lack of method than a lack of
history. Even with the meager resources at his disposal in the nineteenth century, Rizal
had shown that Spanish chronicles could be mined to get beneath the Hispanocentric
outlook of these sources. With access today to an enormously wider archival
documentation, not to speak of the resources afforded by such cognate disciplines as
archaeology, linguistics, and anthropology, a great deal can be learned about Filipino
society during both the pre-Hispanic and Hispanic periods.
William Henry Scott, the distinguished investigator into so many facets of the
Filipino past, has entitled one of his works, “Cracks in the Parchment Curtain.” There is,
he says, a documentary curtain of parchment which, at first sight, conceals from modern
view the activities and thought of Filipinos and reveals only the activities of the
Spaniards. But many “cracks” in that parchment allow the perceptive investigator to
glimpse Filipinos acting in their own world. Or to change the metaphor, much can be
learned about Filipino life and society by reading between the lines of Spanish
documents. The chronicles may have aimed primarily to narrate the exploits, devotion,
zeal, and hardships of the Spanish missionaries, but they could not help but speak
indirectly of the sixteenth-century Filipinos whom the missionary succeeded in
converting or failed to persuade. Those unintended references are often much more
enlightening to us than any number of explicit analyses of Filipino society. For the latter
often reveal as much of the writer’s point of view and biases as they do of the people he
professes to describe. It is necessary if they are to give us the answers we look for in
them.
35
The Formative Century
The unfortunate disproportionate amount of the total research into Philippine

history has been devoted to the Revolutionary and the American colonial periods. That is
not to say that it has not been fruitful in itself, or that these periods are undeserving of
intensive study.
The problem is not what has been done, but what has not been done – to lay the
necessary foundation for the understanding of the Revolutionary period. For instance,
much attention (though little serious study) has been given to the agitation concerning the
friar lands. But relatively little has been done to explore the much bigger growth of the
nonfriar haciendas – Spanish and Filipino – and the impact on Filipino life of the general
nineteenth-century commercialization of agriculture. To take another example, some
modern historians have pointed to the Negros hacenderos’ quickly embracing American
rule as typical of the elite betrayal of the Revolution. But, even as casual reading of the
history of the Recolecto mission work in Negros during the preceding half-century makes
clear, Negros was one of the most atypical of Philippine regions. The Christianization of
the island mostly took place in second half of the nineteenth-century. Consequently, the
island was only organized into fixed settlements during the same period. Hence, whether
or not the Negros hacenderos were typical of the Filipino elite (and there are good
reasons for doubting it), Negros society as a whole was quite different from other regions,
even nearly Iloilo. And unless history is believed to be made only be elites, then the
whole of a society must be studied. To illustrate the point, most of Iloilo’s socioeconomic
elite were close relatives and associates of their counterparts, and like the Negros
hacenderos, many of Iloilo elite soon went over to the Americans. But the war continued
in Panay well into 1901, long after Negros was flying the American flag. The differences
in response was not due to different elites, but in a different society below them – the
provincial principales, the Filipino clergy, the wider population. Again, the response of
Panay, particularly in its religious aspects, was also different from that of the Tagalog
region. Considerable differences in this respect likewise marked individual Tagalog
provinces among themselves.
A real history of the Revolution, including the war against the Americans, is still
to be written – one that will study the Revolution not just as it took place in Cavite and
Malolos or Luzon, but in all the regions of the Philippines. Such a history will show the
different degrees and kinds of nationalist response in different regions. It will explore the
variations in different socioeconomic classes of regional societies and the political,
economic, religious, cultural reasons for these differences. But, such a history of the
Revolution will not be possible until further research on a regional basis has been done
on the century before the Revolution.
36
Method in History
Can history be objective? Obviously, it is written from a point of view?

Documents are not self-interpreting, and, therefore, need a human interpreter – the
historian. Being human, he brings with him not only his viewpoint, but also his biases
and prejudices. The latter the historian should rid himself of, once he recognizes them.
Sadly, this is often not the case. But that is impossible to write without having a point of
view is certainly a truism.
Few historians today would maintain the nineteenth-century view that history is a
science with laws as rigorous as those of the physical sciences. But if “scientific history”
in that sense is a myth, the valid use of critical historical method is not. This method in its
simplest terms, requires the historian to base himself on documentation and to draw the
evidence for his assertions or interpretations from the facts found in documents. But not
only what constitutes a “fact” but also what constitutes a “document” needs definition.
Arriving at the “facts” demands that the historian should demonstrate in detail how he
bridges the gap between the documentation and the conclusions he draws from it. If that
is so done that other historians are able to verify this process, we can speak of scientific
method through reasoned disagreement may exist on the evaluation of the evidence or
even its selection.
“Documents” on the other hand, need not be limited to those emanating from
government offices or even to memoirs and letters. Other types of documents, though not
relating “historical facts,”
Tell us much about the facts of people’s ways of thinking or their perceptions of
reality. These include literary works, books of prayers, even folk art. Since such
“documents” are even less self-interpreting than more conventional ones, their successful
use depends even more on the historian’s ability to put the proper questions to them.
Though historians may argue about the technicalities of determining the exact meaning of
such manifestations of popular thinking and values, Reynaldo Ileto’s Pasyon and
Revolution and other writings have demonstrated that such “documents” are a fruitful
source for the historian.
It is in knowing how to put questions to a document and knowing what questions

to put that the historian’s point of view makes a difference. One may be convinced that
religion is irrelevant to life. Thus, he will not put his documentation the questions which
might reveal that religious values are stronger than economic factors in moving people to
revolutionary action. Another who sees religious history in terms of apologetics will be
unlikely to perceive the social and economic factors in religious movements. By the same
token, a historian’s nationalist commitment, if not too narrowly conceived, ought to make
him put new questions to the past. History never delivers ready-made answers. But the
historian’s questions may shed new light on his people’s problems of the present.
37
Nationalist History
In one sense, writing history from a nationalist point of view is to be expected

from every Filipino historian who loves his country. Indeed, why should he bother to
research into his country’s history except for the belief that a more profound and exact
knowledge of the past will help him build the future? But various types of “nationalist
history” have obstructed, instead of promoted, the national cause.
The prototype of all these was the eccentric and ingenious lucubrations of Pedro
Paterno at the turn of the century on the supposed pre-Hispanic past. He tried to show
that everything good that he found in nineteenth-century Filipino society, even
Christianity itself, was the fruit of some mythical inborn qualities of the race and had
existed before the coming of the Spaniards. Contemporary Filipinos like Rizal, of course,
laughed privately at Paterno’s so-called history. Unfortunately, his books were not
without influence on latter textbook writers.
Paterno distorted genuine documents. But more harmful were the early twentieth-
century forgeries of Jose Marco on pre-Hispanic Philippines, the Povedano and Pavon
manuscripts, with the infamous Code of Kalantiaw. These products of perversely creative
imagination were not only accepted but also commented on by respectable American and
Filipino historians. The so-called Code of Kalantiaw, in particular, found its way into
history textbooks for generations until it was exposed in 1968 by William Henry Scott in
his Prehispanic Sources for the History of the Philippines. This, however, did not prevent
a popular college textbook from republishing the code in the 1970s, even while adverting
to its dubious (better said, nonexistent) authenticity. Nor did it prevent older studies
based on Marco’s pseudohistory from being republished in 1979, thus perpetuating
further the distortion of the pre-Hispanic past.
Not satisfied with having provided a spurious national past for the pre-Hispanic
period, Marco also wrote a series of supposed works of Fr. Jose Burgs. Among these
were a pseudonovel, La Loba Negra, an alleged account of Burgos’s trial, and more than
two dozen of other pseudohistorical and pseudoethnographic works, all furnished with
forged signatures of Burgos. Though the first Burgos forgeries were already questioned
before the war, these mixtures of undigested misinformation, and anti-Catholic diatribes
continued to be manufactured and published until shortly before the death of Marco.
What is sadder for Philippine historiography is that even after Schumacher published in
1970 a detailed exposure of the forgeries, including photographs of the true and forged
signatures, these falsifications of the beginnings of the nationalist struggle continue to be
used as if genuine.
Such attempts to make history “nationalist” as those of Paterno and Marco, and
their perpetuators, are clearly futile. Reconstructing a Filipino past, however, glorious in
appearance, on false pretenses can do nothing to build a sense of national identity, much
less offer guidance for the present or the future. More persuasive, at least at first glance,
has been the “nationalist history” of the 1970s. The latter rightly rejects the colonialist
and elitist approaches to national history. But it likewise finds inadequate “objective”
38
studies of recent professional historians because these allegedly do not involve

themselves in the total effort to free the Filipino from his colonial mentality. A truly
Filipino history, it is said, cannot be a history of the Filipino masses and their struggles.
Those struggles have been carried on against Spanish oppression and American
exploitation, colonial and neocolonial. They continue against the dominant classes of
Filipinos who collaborate in the imperialist exploitation.
We must indeed investigate the real effects of the colonial experience to free
historiography from colonial myths, such as that which can see in the first half of this
century only American benevolent guidance of the Filipino toward democracy and
progress. This so-called “nationalist” historiography, however, allows only a one-
dimensional consideration of such real and complex issues as Spanish obscurantism and
American imperialism. The deterministic framework its imposes on the history of the
Filipinos, which sees the historian’s task to be merely an analysis of how that history fits
into a presumed general historical process of capitalism and imperialism, creates a new
myth to replace some old ones. For that process has its source in a philosophical construct
rather than in the events themselves. The masses whose story this kind of “people’s
history” professes to unfold, do not always think, feel, and express themselves within this
constricting framework.
To be sure, the historian needs a preliminary hypothesis from which to investigate

the past. But if the contemporary historian is not to fall into the trap of the providentialist
historians who claimed to see the hand of God or the devil in every phase of the historical
process, then the hypothesis must have sufficient breadth of vision to encompass all the
facts. It must be ready, moreover, to alter itself when it does not correspond to the facts.
Only the dogmatist can assert that just one way of looking at reality corresponds to the
genuine consciousness of the people.
A true “people’s history,” therefore, must see the Filipino people as the primary
agents in their history – not just as objects repressed by theocracy or oppressed by
exploitative colonial policies. It will expect to find that the Filipino people, individually
and collectively, have not merely been acted upon, but have creatively responded to the
Spanish and American colonial regimes; that they have assimilated the good as well as
the bad; that they have been moved to action to progress by their creative interaction with
other cultures and not simply been the victims of cultural imperialism. A historiography
which studies the real Filipino people may expect to find that religious values have not
simply led to docility and submission, but also to resistance to injustice and to the
struggle for a better society. It will take seriously people’s movements that articulate their
goals in religious terms, and not merely those that speak in Marxist accents. It will be
able to recognize, and criticize when needed, the role religion – both official and folk
varieties of Christianity and Islam – have played in forming Filipino society. A true
people’s history will refuse to treat the people as an abstraction manipulated by
deterministic forces. A truly nationalist history will try to understand all aspects of the
experience of all the Filipino people, as they themselves understood it. It will
acknowledge what is harmful in the Filipino past.
39
There is valid sense in which Philippine history should be written from the point
of view of the masses. Historical research and writing should aim to undergrid the
formation of a society that provides justice and participation not only to the elites of
power, but to every Filipino. Tough not the task of history alone or even principally,
history’s contribution is to present the Filipino past that really was, in all its variety. Not
all of that past will provide inspiration for a better and more just society. But by depicting
the whole of reality, history will make it possible to reform and reshape that society
toward a better future. The historian as a nationalist can do no less.
Source: John Schumacher, “The Historian’s Task in the Philippines” in The Making of a Nation: Essays on
Nineteenth-Century Filipino Nationalism, 7-15.
40
The Propagandist’s Reconstruction of the Past
The Filipinos had no written history before the Spanish contact, nor is there
evidence of any indigenous account of their past apart from the legends in the orally
transmitted epics that survived long enough to be recorded. There was indeed a system of
writing, more than one early Spanish missionary commented on the almost universal
literacy among the sixteenth-century lowland Filipinos. But usage of the syllabary seems
to have been confined to such practical and ephemeral uses as letters and noting down of
debts. Hence, the only written accounts of the Philippine past before the nineteenth
century are those emanating from Spanish sources.
Though few of the Spanish conquistadores or colonial officials set their hand to
historical writing, there was a vigorous tradition of chronicles among the five religious
orders that undertook the Christianization of the Philippines. By the early seventeenth-
century, the first chronicles had already appeared, Chirino for the Jesuits and
Ribadeneyra for the Franciscans. The other orders soon followed suit, and a series of such
chronicles continued to appear throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. By
definition theses had as their primary focus the activities of the missionaries themselves,
into which the Filipinos entered chiefly as those among whom, and for whose benefit,
these activities were carried on. At their worst, they generated into hagiographical
catalogues. But among the better ones a few, such as Chirino, wrote extensively of the
Filipinos themselves and devoted considerable attention to pre-Hispanic Filipino society,
of which it has then still possible to have firsthand knowledge. Though not precisely a
chronicler, the Franciscan Juan de Plasencia also wrote in the 1580s careful descriptions
of Tagalog and Pampangan customs and laws, which were long accepted as normative on
pre-Hispanic society in these regions. Nonetheless, seventeenth century Spanish
missionary views were strongly colored by their views on the unquestioned superiority of
Hispanic culture and by their conviction that the pre-Hispanic animistic religion was a
manifestation of the Devil, whose hand they seemed to see at work almost as frequently
as they did the hand of God in the work of Christianization.
Though by the nineteenth-century the era of the chronicles had largely died out,
the Spanish disdain for pre-Hispanic Filipino culture reappeared in a much more
offensive form, precisely as Filipinos began to assert themselves as equal to Spaniards
and to ask for their rights. In an effort to inculcate loyalty and submission, Spanish
writers appealed to the Filipino sense of gratitude for the benefits conferred by Spanish
rule, and in so doing pictured in even blacker colors the condition of the Filipinos at the
coming of the Spaniards. As one clerical pamphlet intended for popular consumption put
it through the mouth of a fictitious Filipino character: this society ought not to be called
peculiarly Filipino “because we have contributed nothing of what constitutes civilized
society; it is the Spaniards who have done it all.” Imbued with contemporary European
racist concepts, other writers spoke, sometimes condescendingly, sometimes viciously, of
the superior white race, which had done its best to raise up, in spite of obstacles, the
inferior brown Malay. Against this background a nationalist Filipino historiography
would come into being.
41
Beginnings of the Search for the Filipino Past
An indigenous Filipino historiography became possible through the Western

higher education implanted by the missionaries in the country shortly after their arrival.
Though originally founded for Spaniards, native Filipinos were found in secondary
schools of Manila by the end of the seventeenth-century, and in the universities in the
eighteenth. However, it was only toward mid-nineteenth century that relatively large
numbers of Filipinos sough higher education, first in Manila and then in Spain and
elsewhere in Europe.
Not surprisingly, the relatively widespread access of Filipinos to higher education

coincided with the beginnings of a consciously articulated nationalism. The awakening of
such nationalism can be dated roughly between the years 1880 and 1895. This whole
period, during which increasing numbers of Filipino students arrived in Europe, has come
to be referred to in Philippine historiography as the “Propaganda Movement,” from the
sponsorship given by a Manila organization called the Comite de Propaganda to the
political lobbying and journalism centered in the Filipino newspaper La Solidaridad, first
in Barcelona and then in Madrid. The Spanish word propaganda had none of the
derogatory connotations that its modern English translation has acquired. Hence, the
“Propagandists” dealt with here refer simply to all the activists ilustrados, those
Filipinos possessing higher education, particularly from the universities of Europe.
Imbued with the ideas of nineteenth-century liberalism, their writings prepared the way
for the Revolution of 1896. Though they were often divided over many issues, and not all
belonged to a single organization, all shared in common campaign for Filipino rights that
helped prepare the minds of Filipinos for the Revolution.
The Propagandists shared a common program for programs of reforms and

assimilation – the application to the Philippines of Spanish metropolitan law and rights,
under which all would be recognized equally as Spanish citizens. These common
aspirations, which they presented to the Spanish government and public, represented
those of the majority in the beginning and remained the professed program of the
movement right up to the Revolution. Increasingly, however, these aspirations became a
front behind which a growing number of nationalists prepared the way for more or less
proximate independence. Chief among these was Jose Rizal, and it was he above all who
sought in the Filipino past the pattern for the future.
The search for the Filipino past was both a product of, and a stimulus to
nationalism. Its beginning are to be found in Manila among the first generation of
Filipino nationalists or protonationalists, mostly Catholic priests graduated from the
University of Santo Tomas in the 1860s. Among them the one to articulate in print the
aspirations of his generation, and the chief influence on the next generation, was Fr. Jose
Burgos. The catalyst of early nationalism was the new stage reached in the age-old
controversy between the regular clergy (friars) and the secular clergy. Though mass
ordinations of indigenous priests in the eighteenth century had given some substance to
the Spanish contentions as to Filipino incapacity for the priesthood, the emergence of a
university-trained generation of clergy laid bare the suppositions of racial inferiority and
42
political unreliability, which were the real basis of Spanish opposition to giving
responsible positions to Filipino priests. It was in this context that Burgos’s defense of his
fellow priests looked to history, to the accomplishments of Filipinos of past generations,
as proof of Filipino native capacity. Though the references are relatively brief and not all
accurate, Burgos’s appeal to history is significant principally for the influence it had on
the next generation, most especially on Rizal.
The first systematic attempt by Filipinos to explore their historical past, however,
seems to have been occasioned by the general European interest in history in the late
nineteenth century, as filtered into Manila through Spaniards resident there. Though the
Filipinos displaying historical interests were university-educated, there is little reason to
think that their interest grew out of their academic pursuits, since the version of history
taught in Manila schools were more calculated to inculcate Filipino loyalty and gratitude
to Spain to convey accurate knowledge of the Filipino interest in Philippine folklore and
history that began to manifest itself in Manila in the late 1880s. Spanish journalists like
Wenceslao E. Retana began to publish articles on provincial customs and folklore in
Manila newspapers; unpublished chronicles from earlier centuries were resurrected and
began to be published in serial form in the same newspapers, like the Historia by Juan
Delgado, an eighteenth-century Spanish Jesuit. Soon a group of subscribers initiated the
series Biblioteca Historica Filipina, which in the early 1890s published several other old
chronicles as well. Though the project was Spanish, intended as a “national monument
erected to the glories of Spain,” the list of subscribers shows substantial Filipino
participation.
National Identity and Racial Equality
It is against this background that the historical and ethnographical studies of

Isabelo de los Reyes must be seen. From the pen of this prolific and indefatigable Filipino
journalist came a series of works, generally published first as newspaper articles and later
as books. De los Reyes’ books make little overt attempt to glorify the Filipino precolonial
past; indeed, one of them caused a Spanish opponent of the Filipino nationalists to
comment: “the author. . .scarcely concedes anything praiseworthy to have existed among
the natives of old.” Nonetheless, De los Reyes, as his later career as founder of Iglesia
Filipina Indenpendiente would show, was an ardent nationalist, and his purpose may be
seen in the preface to one of his early works, El Folk-Lore Filipino. He says, “Each one
serves his people according to his own way of thinking, and I, with the Folk-Lore Ilocano
believe that I am contributing to establishment the past of my people.” This desire to
know the Filipino past, to establish a Filipino identity, runs through the writings of De los
Reyes. As scholarly history in the modern sense, these works are of limited value, based
as they are the most part on a few Spanish sources uncritically transcribed. The Filipino
past is a source of identity, not a golden age; nor is it clearly presented as a motive for
seeking independence from Spain. His contemporaries, whether Spaniards or educated
Filipinos, did not hold his historical work in high regard, though they found his
observations on Filipino folklore and customs valuable.
43
A second strain in Filipino historiography, contemporary to that of De los Reyes

but appearing in Madrid instead of Manila, was that represented by Pedro Paterno. In a
series of books published between 1887 and 1892, Paterno concentrates on the condition
of the Filipinos prior to the Spanish contact. But where De los Reyes had been content to
look for Filipino identity in merely recounting their history, Paterno aims at providing the
equality of Filipino to Spaniards by extolling and magnifying the pre-Hispanic
civilization. Not only does he make lengthy extracts from the early chroniclers,
supplementing them with miscellaneous erudite, if often irrelevant, citations of modern
authors; he also employs his ingenuity in extracting from his sources a demonstration of
the high level of Filipino culture at the Spanish contact. His conclusion, however, is not
that colonialism has destroyed a flourishing civilization, a truly Filipino one. Rather,
Paterno accepts Spanish culture as the norm – only to claim that it had all really existed
in the Philippines before the coming of the Spaniards. The burden of his message is that
the Filipinos are Spaniards no less than those born in the Peninsula, and one might almost
say, had been Spaniards at heart even before the Spaniards arrived in the Philippines. Not
only does he attempt in his first historical work, La Antigua civilizacion tagalog, to
parallel the stages of development of the “Luzonic isles” to the corresponding stages of
development of European civilization; in his El cristianismo en la Antigua civilizacion
tagalog he also attempts to show that the ancient Filipinos had been Christian in all but
name long before the coming of the Spanish Catholic missionaries. Bathalismo, the
worship of the Tagalog supreme being, Bathala, had a body doctrine that contained not
only such Christian teachings as the Incarnation and the Atonement, but even the mystery
of the Trinity in inchoate form. It was not then surprising for Paterno that Spanish
missionaries had found evangelization so easy in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
– Christianity was already there in substance. The explanation of this remarkable
coincidence of Bathalismo and Christianity Paterno ingeniously found in a supposed
contact between the Philippines and Indian civilization, itself the product of the preaching
of the Apostles Bartholomew and Thomas in India.
With such a foundation, Paterno’s subsequent works drew expected conclusions.

The moral teachings of Bathalismo exponded in La familia tagalog en la historia
universal turn out to be remarkably coincident with Christian teaching on family and
marital morality. Similarly in El Barangay the pre-Hispanic organization of government
under the barangay system displays a “Tagalog kingdom,” which, though monarchial,
was democratic in organization – thus providentially uniting all the best features of
contemporary Spain!
Such conclusions of courses do not come from the texts cited at great length, but
from the fantastic ingenuity of the author. Perhaps they are best characterized by the
judgment of the Filipino bibliographer T. H. Pardo de Tavera, a contemporary of Paterno,
speaking of his El cristianismo en la Antigua civilizacion tagalog: “A book full of
surprises for history, for science, and for reason!” Other Filipinos in Europe were
privately amused or embarrassed at Paterno’s writings.Though they expressed
nationalism in their rejection of the racial superiority of the colonial masters, and as such
received public commendation from some of the Filipinos in Madrid, their frame of
44
reference is in fact fundamentally colonial, in which the metropolis provided the standard
to measure the cultural achievement of the colonized. Paterno does speak of the Filipinos
as being “ever-free allies” of Spain as a result of the blood compact freely entered into
between the maguinoos (nobility) of the Filipino people and the Spaniards of the
sixteenth century, but it is difficult to believe that he himself places great faith in his
miscellanies of history, irrelevant erudition, and outright plagiarism. Nonetheless, his
writings do represent, however ineptly, one strain of Filipino nationalist thought. For
many conservative Propagandists, the ideal was not a separation from Spain, but Spanish
recognition of Filipino capacity to participate freely in the running of their own affairs
and to share according to ability, not race, in the government of that part of Spain in the
Pacific called the Philippines. This assimilationist ideal did not differ essentially from the
nationalism of the generation of Burgos.
Legitimation of the Nationalist Struggle
If the role of history in seeking national identity was still vague in De los Reyes
and his collaborators, and if its use by Paterno logically submerged rather than
manifested that identity, Jose Rizal had much more clearly defined ideas. For Rizal
history was at the very heart of his nationalism. It served as a weapon to combat the
pretensions to beneficence of the colonial power. It provided an explanation of the
contemporary situation of the Philippines as well as a picture of the glorious past
destroyed by Spanish intrusion. It offered the key to national identity and corresponding
orientations for future national struggle. Finally, it provided a legitimation of the struggle
for freedom and the destruction of colonial rule. Rizal accepted Western historical
research with its vigorous methodology, and wished his work to be judged by those
standards. But at the same time he wrote as a Filipino and an Asian, and worked intensely
to read once more through Asian eyes the accounts that had come from European pens.
European methodology could be used to give a Filipino meaning to the history of his
people.
Rizal’s serious interest in history dated back to his stay in Germany in 1886,
where he was putting the finishing touches to his first novel, Noli Me Tangere. Attracted
by German scholarship on the Philippines, he made contact with various scholars, most
notably Ferdinand Blumentritt. In his correspondence with the latter Rizal expressed his
gratitude to the German scholars who had studies his native land, and his desire to
emulate them. Before long he was plunging himself into these studies, and when
preparing to leave Germany for the Philippines again, spoke sadly of the nostalgia he
would feel at his exile from his “scholarly home” (wissenschaftlichen Heimath). Under
the influence of Blumentritt, Rizal had come to see the need for a scholarly history of the
Philippines. At first he urged Blumentritt himself to write it, in terms that manifest
Rizal’s concept of history’s role in the development of national identity, and the
standards he set for it.
45
The Philippines will be deeply grateful to you if it sees a history of our country, complete and
purged of legend by the critical method. You are, I believe, the only one who can write this history. I have
the boldness to do it, but I do not know enough; I have not read so many books about my homeland; the
libraries of Spain are closed to me; I need time for other things; and my narrative will always be suspect of
partisan spirit.
He lamented the irony that made it necessary for Filipinos to turn to German
scholars so as to know their own country:
If only I might become a professor in my homeland, I would wake to life these studies of our
homeland, this nosei te ipsum (know thyself) which creates a true sense of national identity [Selbstgefuhl]
and impels nations to do great deeds. But I shall never be allowed to open a college in my native land.
When circumstances in 1887 made it impossible for him to remain in the

Philippines, however, he resolved on putting his hand to the task himself. The inclination
had long been there, but earlier he had lamented the harsh necessity by which, “unlike the
youth of happy nations, our youth dare not give itself to love, nor to silent scholarship;
we must all sacrifice something to politics, even though we have no inclination for it . . .”
He spent most of 1888 in London’s British Museum, poring over the old Spanish
chronicles. If he could not write the complete history of the Philippines that he had urged
on Blumentritt, he would try to illuminate the years of the Spanish conquest and the prior
state of Filipino society. The vehicle he chose for his effort was the early-seventeenth-
century chronicle of Antonio de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas. Written only a few
decades after the conquest by a learned member of the Real Audiencia, Morga’s
chronicle gives much attention to ancient Filipino customs. For Rizal, already committed
to the destruction of the prestige and power of the friars in the Philippines, it had the
added attraction of being the only major chronicle not written by a Spanish missionary.
The rare Spanish original had been translated into English and annotated by Lord Henry
Stanley earlier, but Rizal’s edition, though indeed inspired by the canons of German
historical scholarship, was to serve a more pragmatic purpose – to form the foundation
for the new Filipino society. His first novel, the Noli, had been a merciless critique of the
Spanish colonial society and the subservient Filipinos the decadent system bred; his
second novel, already planned but put aside to undertake his edition of Morga, would
complete the critique and point the direction to be taken for the redemption of the race
from the corrupting influence of colonialism. The edition of Morga was to form the link
between these two and lay the foundation for the struggle to come. In his preface, Rizal
makes clear its place in his master plan. The Noli has revealed “the present state of our
Fatherland”; his Morga now attempts to awaken in Filipinos “the consciousness of our
past” in order to be able to “dedicate ourselves to studying the future.
The twofold purpose implied in this program is implemented by copious

annotations, depicting the advanced state of pre-Hispanic Filipino society and portraying
the destructive effects of colonization on the society. Each point Morga makes
concerning the accomplishments of the pre-Hispanic Filipinos, Rizal contrasts with their
subsequent decline. The Filipinos had exported silk to Japan in the sixteenth century;
today the best silk comes from there. The Filipino Panda [y] Pira had forged cannon
before the coming of the Spaniards; with his death, “there were no Spaniards who were
able to do what he had done, nor were his sons as skilled as their father. The shipbuilding
46
industry – the growing of cotton and the weaving of various kinds of cloth, even the
growing of rice, the mining of gold and fashioning it into ornaments – had decayed. The
reason for all these decadence is that the natives,
Seeing that they were molested and exploited by their encomenderos for the sake of the products
of their industry, . . . began to break their looms, abandon their gold mines, their fields, etc., imagining that
their conquerors would leave them alone on seeing them poor, wretched, and unexploitable.
As a result of this exploitation, the population decreased drastically in Mindoro,

Panay, Pampanga, and other formerly flourishing regions.
The moral level of Filipino society “was for that age very advanced:; indeed, in
many respects it was superior to that of Christian Europe. Thus, what the Spaniards called
slavery had none of the degrading aspects of Roman or European slavery; rather, it was
basically a familial relationship and even showed the concern or strict justice among the
early Filipinos by the careful way it was regulated. If nonetheless slavery was to be
deplored, the Spanish conquest had worsened rather than bettered the situation. Unlike
her counterpart in other cultures and even in modern Europe, the Filipina was held in a
dignity she has maintained. If the early chroniclers recorded a lack of appreciation for
virginity before marriage, in this the Filipinas obeyed an instinct of nature; in any case,
the Filipina of today yields to no other race in her chastity, least of all to hypocritical
Europe with its history of fertility cults, prostitution, and other practices. In the past, the
witnessed word sufficed for a binding last will; with Christianity, there is now need of
endless litigation. Theft was unknown in past days; only with Spanish Christian
civilization has it become a major evil.
The Spanish conquest had then been largely a calamity for the Filipinos; the
Spanish pretensions to pacify a province and to entrust (encomendar) it to an
encomendero for its government were cruel sarcasms. “To give a province as an
encomienda really meant: to hand it over to pillage, to cruelty, and to someone’s avarice.
As may be seen from the way the encomenderos later acted.” Pacification meant in
reality to make war on or sow enmities between groups of Filipinos. Rizal saw the
conquest itself partly as the result of the disunion of the Filipinos among themselves. He
also viewed it as a result of force, where the persuasive powers of the missionaries
proved inefficacious. Finally, it represented and acquiescence of Filipinos to alliance with
the Spaniards, deceived by the colonizers’ promises of friendship and loyalty, or won by
Christianity. The Filipino chiefs, themselves tyrannical lords over an unfree society,
“finding neither love nor lofty sentiments in the eslaved masses, found themselves
without strength and force” to resist the Spaniards. In the end, however, the submission to
Spanish rule did not come by means of conquest in the major islands. Rather, it was
effected “by means of agreements, treaties of friendship, and mutual alliances.”
Unfortunately, the Spaniards have not kept their part of the contractual relationship they
entered into. This theme of the pacto de sangre – the blood compact made by Magellan
and Legazpi with early Filipino datus according to the pre-Hispanic custom – would
recur frequently in the thought of the Filipino nationalists of this period. For them it
symbolized the historical fact that for the most part of Spanish sovereignty over the
Philippines had been accepted with little blood-shed – not even a conquest properly so
47
called, as Rizal notes, but an agreement freely entered into, by which Spain had
committed herself to bring the Filipinos along the path of progress and higher
civilization. Though not explicitly expressed, the implications of such a view are visible
throughout Rizal’s book – Spain has failed to carry out her part of the contract; hence, the
Filipinos are now released from their obligations. History now serves as the moral
legitimation of the coming anticolonial struggle.
Rizal felt deeply that it was in understanding the pre-Hispanic Philippines that the
Filipinos would understand themselves, would find the identity on which a new nation
could rise. Earlier he had urged his colleagues in Barcelona to learn Italian so as to
translate the manuscript of Pigafetta, Magellan’s chronicler, “so that people may know in
what state we were in 1520s. He is, moreover, at pains to show links existing before the
coming of the Spaniards, pointing to Morga’s remarks on the similarity of customs
among the different linguistic groups as evidence “that the links of friendship were more
frequent than the wars and differences. Perhaps there existed a consideration. Elsewhere
he points to the ancient tradition indicating Sumatra as the common place of origin of the
Filipinos. “These traditions were completely lost, just like the mythology and genealogies
of which the old historians speak, thanks to the zeal of the religious in extirpating every
remembrance of our nationality, of paganism, or of idolatry. Not only were the traditions
lost, but likewise much of the artistic and cultural heritage. The early Spanish chroniclers
had commented on the Filipino’s musical ability and graceful dances, which had even
been incorporated into Christian religious celebrations. All this skill, which the Filipinos
did not owe to the Spaniards for they possessed it, “thanks to God, to Nature, and to their
own culture,” was now forgotten. It was lost because of the fault “of the Filipinos
themselves, who hastened to abandon what was theirs to take up what was new. “ Rizal’s
concern, therefore, is not solely to downgrade the Spanish contribution, but to make
Filipinos realize what had been their own, which in an ill-conceived moment they had
abandoned.
If Rizal’s history is concerned with leading the Filipinos back to their own
national identity, it does not stop there. In an earlier scientific paper delivered before a
society of German ethnologists, he had pointed out the existence of a common fable of
the monkey and the tortoise, found not only among the various Filipino ethno-linguistic
groups but likewise in Japan, to conclude that “it must be the inheritance of an extinct
civilization, common to all the races which ever lived in that region. Rather remarkably
for the period in which he wrote, he showed concern not only for a Filipino point of view
but for an Asian one. He not only refuted Spanish pretensions to superiority over
Filipinos, but asserted Asian rights and an Asian point of view against that if “Europe, so
satisfied with its own morality.”
Europeans had always applied shifting standards for judging moral conduct of
their own and for that of nations they considered “barbarian” like the Cambodians, the
Ternatans, and the Japanese. Thus, Rizal speaks of the “first piracy of the inhabitants of
the South recorded in the history of the Philippines,” for there had been others before, the
first being those committed by the expedition of Magellan, who captured the ships of
friendly islands, and even of those with which he was not yet acquainted, demanding
48
large ransom from them. When the historians comment unfavorably on faults or crimes of
the natives, whose conduct they interpret always in the worst possible sense,
they forget that in almost all occasions, the motive for the quarrels has always come from those
who claim to civilize them by force of arquebuses and at the price of the territory of the weak
inhabitants. What would they not say if the crimes committed by Portuguese, Spaniards, Dutch,
etc. in the colonies had been committed by the natives?
Though no contacts of Rizal with other Asian nationalists are known, he was
conscious of Filipino links with other Asians, he spent time in Japan studying Japanese
culture and ways, and he increasingly showed signs of his consciousness of Filipino
solidarity with other Malay peoples. Conversely, for all the attraction that European
scientific and technological progress held for him, and his personal nostalgia for the
world of German scholarship, it was not only retrograde and corrupt Spanish colonialism
that he abhorred, but it was Europe’s sense of racial superiority that he likewise rejected.
Though Rizal’s edition of Morga’s Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas was his major
historical work, his view of Philippine history recurs in various pamphlets and essays,
generally first appearing in La Solidaridad. In “Filipinas dentro de cien años,” he
sketches the same themes of how the people had abandoned their tyrannical native rulers
and accepted Spanish sovereignty, hoping to alleviate their lot. But in the process they
had lost their culture, their ethics, their literature, and their customs, though in their
debasement they were now beginning to awake anew. More especially in “Sobre la
indolencia del Filipino,” he draws on the themes he had emphasized in his edition of
Morga to explain the indolence that was the favorite reproach of Spanish colonialists. The
indolence, Rizal says, is not to be denied, though it is needed even more notable among
the colonialists than their subjects. What must be sought out is why it exists among
Filipinos. For “the Filipinos have not always been what they are, witnesses whereto are
all the historians of the first years after the discovery of the Islands.” Drawing not only
from Morga but from the religious chroniclers, he traces the decay of Filipino mining,
agriculture and commerce that were flourishing before the conquest but were gradually
destroyed by Spanish oppression, on the one hand, and Dutch and Moro wars that
devastated the disarmed Filipinos as a result of colonization, on the other. Just as the past
serves as orientation for the future in the first essay, in this it serves to explain the
lamentable present. The themes of Morga’s history are here brought together in a
concentrated and devastating picture.
49
Lineage from Propagandists to Revolutionaries
Certain historians tend to see the Propaganda Movement as an essentially sterile

effort, a misconceived reform movement of the wealthy ilustrado class, whose utopian
dreams the masses impatiently thrusts aside to make the revolution under the leadership
of Andres Bonifacio. Such simplistic class generalizations seem rather unhelpful as a
closer examination of the facts reveals numerous ilustrado revolutionaries inconvenient to
account for, to say nothing of counterrevolutionary masses fighting their revolutionary
fellow peasants. The question is too complex to be examined here, but one area of
undeniable continuity is the role of the Propagandists’ historiography in supplying the
legitimation for the actual protagonists of the people’s revolution.
The first manisfesto to the public by Bonifacio, founder of the revolutionary

Katipunan, in his newspaper Kalayaan reads like a summary of Rizal’s historiography:
In the early times when the Spaniards had not yet set foot in this land, under the government of
our true compatriots, the Filipinos were living in great abundance and prosperity. They lived in harmony
with neighboring countries, especially with the Japanese, with whom they carried on commerce and trade,
and their industry produced extraordinarily abundant fruits. As a result, everyone lived in the fashion of the
wealthy. Young and old, and even women knew how to read and write in our own native writing.
Then came the Spaniards, whom the Filipinos received in peace and friendship
with the blood compact, and ever since it has been the Filipinos who have supported the
Spaniards with their wealth and their blood. In exchange, the Filipinos have received only
treachery and cruelty; the time has come to recognize the source of all their misfortunes
and unite to restore the happiness and prosperity of their native land.
The language is the Tagalog of the people rather than the Spanish of the
ilustrados, and the tone is one of an impassioned cry to action rather than that of scholarly
investigation, but the lineage from Rizal to Bonifacio is unmistakable. Other more
inflammatory pamphlets would appeal to the pre-Hispanic kings and to the knowledge
already possessed by the Filipinos of the true God, as proclaimed in Paterno’s treatises.
The Spanish historiography mandating Filipino loyalty to Spain under moral sanctions
had been supplanted by a Filipino history that had provided a rational and moral
legitimation for the new nation. Such legitimation was not merely for the intellectuals,
but more important, for the ordinary people, indoctrinated with notions of obligation to
Spain, who were actually to fight the Revolution.
Ileto’s essay on popular perceptions of the past has raised the question of how this
moral legitimation of revolution elaborated by the Propagandists “provided the impulse
for breaking of ties of utang na loob to Spain that centuries of colonial rule had
impressed upon the indios. His analysis of the Historia famosa ni Bernardo Carpio,
which served as a model for the new identity to be created among ordinary Tagalogs, has
provided a partial answer. But it took a “marginal man” like the self-educated Bonifacio
or his close associate in the Katipunan, the Manila university student Emilio Jacinto, who
read and comprehend at least the main thrust of the scholarly ilustrado portrayal in
50
Spanish of the Filipino past but still shared in the awit-shared perceptions of the Tagalog-
speaking ordinary folk, to mediate the ilustrado perception into the thought and value-
world of the folk. These factors explain both earlier outbreak of the Revolution among
the Tagalogs and the key role the latter played to the end.
But this very explanation raises the further question as to how the Revolution
extended itself to the Bikol and the Visayan regions. Though a serious study of the
Revolution in the non-Tagalog regions has scarcely begun, the indications are that, unlike
in the Tagalog provinces, there it was generally ilustrados and principales who initiated
and led the Revolution in their regions, and who mobilized the masses to support it.
These Spanish-speaking provincial leaders were acquainted with, and had been
influenced by, the Propagandists writings during their education in Spain or in Manila.
Ileto’s observation that patron-client ties do not sufficiently explain the breaking of the
ties of utang na loob is also valid here. However, I would suggest that especially in these
regions the Filipino clergy proved to be the complementary and deciding factor. For the
remembrance of the past on which the masses’ utang na loob was based was not the
experience of benevolence on the part of the colonial government, which, at least in the
nineteenth century, had offered little motive for such gratitude. Rather, it was religiously
inspired and religiously sanctioned debt of gratitude to the Spain that had brought to the
indios the priceless gift of the Catholic faith and without whose rule Catholicism would
disappear, as inculcated in a multitude of primary school textbooks and pious pamphlets
as well as in the sermons of the Spanish clergy. In the face of this religious sanction
scholarly history was impotent; only a countervailing religious inspiration and sanction
could prevail among the masses. This, the Filipino clergy could, and in many cases did,
provide, even to the extent of transforming the revolutionary struggle into a “holy war”
and a “crusade.” Once the enemy became Protestant America rather than Catholic Spain,
the role of the clergy became even more crucial and effective in encouraging resistance.
Source: “The Propagandists’ Reconstruction of the Philippine Past” in The Making of a Nation: Essays on
51
Chapter II:
Content and Contextual Analysis of

Selected Primary Sources
LAGUNA COPPERPLATE TRANSLITERATION
The Laguna Copperplate Inscription:

An Ancient Text That Changed the Perception of the History of the Philippines
A high-contrast copy of the Laguna Copperplate Inscription.
52
Tagalog Translation
Mabuhay! Taóng Siyaka 822, buwán ng Waisaka, ayon sa aghámtalà. Ang ikaapat na araw ng
pagliít ng buwán, Lunes. Sa pagkakátaóng itó, si Dayang Angkatán sampû ng kaniyáng kapatíd
na nagngangalang Buka, na mga anák ng Kagalang-galang na si Namwarán, ay ginawaran ng
isáng kasulatan ng lubós na kapatawarán mulâ sa Punong Pangkalahatan sa Tundún sa
pagkatawán ng Punong Kagawad ng Pailáh na si Jayadewa.
Sa atas na itó, sa pamamagitan ng Tagasulat, ang Kagalang-galang na si Namwarán ay pinatawad

na sa lahát at inalpasán sa kaniyáng utang at kaniyáng mga náhulíng kabayarán na 1 katî at 8
suwarna sa harapán ng Kagalang-galang na Punong Kagawad ng Puliran na si Ka Sumurán, sa
kapangyarihan ng Kagalang-galang na Punong Kagawad ng Pailáh.
Dahil sa matapát na paglilingkód ni Namwarán bilang isáng sakop ng Punò, kinilala ng

Kagalang-galang at batikáng Punong Kagawad ng Binwangan ang lahát ng nabubuhay pang
kamag-anak ni Namwarán na inangkín ng Punò ng Dewatà, na kinatawán ng Punò ng Medáng.
Samakatwíd, ang mga nabubuhay na inapó ng Kagalang-galang na si Namwarán ay pinatawad sa

anumán at lahát ng utang ng Kagalang-galang na si Namwarán sa Punò ng Dewatà. Itó, kung
sakalì, ay magpapahayag kaninumán na mulâ ngayón kung may taong magsasabing hindî pa alpás
sa utang ang Kagalang-galang...
The Laguna Copperplate Inscription is the name of an inscription written on an artifact that has
great significance for the understanding of the history of the Philippines during the 10th century
AD – a time when many scholars believed that the area was isolated from the rest of Southeast
Asia.
53
Political Entities in Southeast Asia in the 10th Century
During the 10th century, a number of political entities were in existence in Southeast Asia. One of
the most famous of these was the Khmer Empire, which dominated much of the Southeast Asian
mainland. To its east, the modern country of Vietnam was divided between the Chinese in the
north, and the Kingdom of Champa in the south. The seas below the Southeast Asian mainland
were beyond the reach of the Khmers and were largely controlled by a maritime empire known as
Srivijaya.
However, there is little information on the area in the part of this region where the modern
country of the Philippines is now situated. This lack of information led many scholars to believe
that it was isolated from the rest of the region. Thus, the Laguna Copperplate Inscription is an
important artifact, as it has allowed scholars to re-evaluate the situation in this part of Southeast
Asia during the 10th century AD.
Characteristics of the Laguna Copperplate
The Laguna Copperplate is a thin piece of copper sheet measuring about 20 x 20 cm (7.9 x 7.9
inches), which was discovered around 1987. It has been reported that this artifact was found
during dredging activities with a mechanical conveyor in the Lumbang River, which is situated in
the Province of Laguna. This province is located to the east of Manila, the capital of the
Philippines. It is interesting to note that the Laguna Copperplate only came to the attention of
scholars in 1990, when it was offered for sale to the National Museum in Manila, after attempts to
sell it in the antiques market had been met with little interest.
An Incomplete Artifact
Investigations by Antoon Postma, a Dutch anthropologist, have revealed that the inscription on
the Laguna Copperplate is incomplete, and it is highly likely that there was another similar piece
of copperplate with inscriptions on it that has been lost. In an article published in 1992, Postma
wrote that:
“Moreover, certain persons, after viewing a photo of the LCI (Laguna Copperplate Inscription),
alleged, without being asked, that they had seen a similar piece of copperplate with inscriptions
around the same time (1987). Its importance, however, was not realized then, and the possible
second page of the LCI might have ended up in a local junk yard and been irretrievably lost to
posterity.”
Origins of the Inscription on the Laguna Copperplate
The inscription on the surviving copperplate is in itself intriguing, and has provided enough
material for scholars to analyze. For instance, the type of script used in the Laguna Copperplate
Inscription has been identified as the so-called ‘Early Kawi Script,’ a writing system that
originated in the Indonesian island of Java, and was used across much of maritime Southeast Asia
during the 10th century AD.
In fact, this script is said to have been derived from the Pallava script, which has its origins in
India. As for the language of the inscription, it has been found to be heavily influenced
linguistically by Sanskrit, Old Malay, and Old Javanese. Both the type script, and the language of
the Laguna Copperplate Inscription, therefore, shows that this area was not actually isolated from
the rest of Southeast Asia, as had been previously assumed.
54
The Inscription
The inscription begins by providing a date:
“Hail! In the Saka-year 822; the month of March-April; according to the astronomer: the fourth
day of the dark half of the moon; on Monday.”
The Saka era has its origins in India (supposedly marking the ascension of the Kushan emperor
Kanishka), and the year 822 is said to correspond with the year 900 AD in the Gregorian
calendar. The use of this calendrical system is further evidence that there were cultural links
between this area of Southeast Asia and its neighbors, which at that time, were largely under the
cultural influence of India.
As for the subject matter of the Laguna Copperplate Inscription, it has been suggested that the
inscription is a “semi-official certificate of acquittal of a debt incurred by a person in high office,
together with his whole family, all relatives and descendants.”
This acquittal is also said to be confirmed by other officials/leaders, some of whom have been
mentioned by name, along with their area of jurisdiction. These officials include “His Honor the
Leader of Puliran, Kasumuran; His Honor the Leader of Pailah, representing Ganasakti; (and) His
Honor the Leader of Binwangan, representing Bisruta.” The recording of these names suggests
that there was some sort of political and social organization in the Philippines of the 10th century
AD.
To conclude, the Laguna Copperplate, which would probably not attract instant public attention
as gold or silver artifacts would, is in fact an immensely important object. This seemingly
insignificant artifact has sparked a re-assessment of the history of the Philippines prior to the
coming of the Spanish, in particular the 10th century AD, and the archipelago’s relationship with
the rest of Southeast Asia.
Ernesto Legisma Alberto Dealino Alfredo Evangelista

(sand laborer) (Head, Anthropology Div.
(antique dealer)
of the National Museum)
Antoon Postma Dr. Johann de Hector Santos

(Dutch Casparis (Filipino
Anthropologist; (Dutch expert on anthropological
ancient writing scripts Indonesian writing) enthusiast)
in SEA region)
 old Hindu calendar  Monday, April 21,
 ancient Indonesian (900 C.E.) 900 C.E.
writing called Kavi
 Saka year 822
55
Wawa, Lumbang River, Laguna
Map showing
the places
inscribed in LCI
according to
Antoon
Postma
Map showing
the places
inscribed in LCI
according to
Jaime Figueroa
Tiongson
Sources:
Cryer, A. B., 2015. Laguna Copperplate Inscription Explained. [Online]
Available at: http://everything.explained.today/Laguna_Copperplate_Inscription/
Morrow, P., 2006. The Laguna Copperplate Inscription. [Online]
Available at: http://www.mts.net/~pmorrow/lcieng.htm
Postma, A., 1992. The Laguna Copper-Plate Inscription: Text and Commentary. Philippine Studies, 40(2), p.
183–203.
Santos, H., 1996. The Laguna Copperplate Inscription. [Online]
Available at: http://www.bibingka.com/dahon/lci/lci.html
56
History of the Philippine Islands

Dr. Antonio de Morga
Sucesos delas Islas Filipinas

(1609)
One of the important works on the

early history of the Spanish
colonization of the Philippines
published in Mexico in 1609 by
Antonio de Morga later on in
1890, to be reprinted with
anotation by Jose Rizal with a
prologue by Dr. Ferdinand
Blumentritt.
Relación de las Islas Filipinas

(1604)
Father Chirino wrote Relacion de las

Islas Filipinas in 1604 (Rome), which
he later transformed into a longer and
more detailed account of Jesuit work
in the Philippines. Father Chirino's
work is the first history, not just of the
Jesuit missions, but also of the
Catholic missions in the Philippines
and served as the source for later
histories.
57
Antonio de Morga Sanchez Garay

(1159-1636)
• Spanish lawyer
• high-ranking colonial official for 43 years, in the Philippines, New Spain and Peru,
• president of the Royal Audiencia for 20 years.
• Historian
Fr. Pedro Chirino, SJ (1557-1635)

• Spanish priest and historian who served as a Jesuit missionary in the Philippines.
• most remembered for his work, Relación de las Islas Filipinas (1604), one of the
earliest works about the Philippines and its people that was written.
Observations of Antonio de Morga in his Sucesos delas Islas Filipinas (Chapter 8)

• Luzon
 a number of Natives black in color
 woolly hair
 stature is not very great (read: short)
 strong and robust
 barbarians (not trustworthy)
 little capacity
 no permanent residence
 hunters
 plant rice (temporarily)
 attack other settlements
 cannot be stopped in attacking other groups (relentless)
• Clothing
 Men
 Cangan: upper garment short collarless garments (blue/ black); chiefs (red/called
chinanas); below the waist bahaques (bahag); potong; gold necklaces; calombigas
(armlets); unshod; strings of precious stones.
• Leadership
 Succession: male line; father and son
 In the absence: brothers and collateral relatives
 Duties: rule and govern their subjects
 Leaders are held with veneration and respect
 Subjects: they serve their leader in the following areas:
i. Wars/voyages
ii. Tilling/sowing/fishing
iii. Building of the leader’s house
iv. The natives also pay their buiz (tribute) varying quantities; in the crops that they
gathered
v. The relatives of the rulers are given the same regard/respect
58
• Hierarchy
 Principalities/Lordships
 Plebeians (Timawas)
 Slaves: saguiguilires/saguiguilirs (saguiguilid); namamahay
• Slavery
 Whole slaves
 Half slaves: father/mother: free
 One-fourth slaves
• More than one child

 First child (Father’s: free or slave)
 Second child (Mother’s: free or slave)
59
 Odd number of children: the last will be half free and half slave
 Descendants of these children: one-fourth slave
 One-fourth/one-half slaves: serve their master’s during every other moon
 Half-slaves/one-fourth slaves may be emancipated (freed) for a just price
 Whole/full-slave cannot be emancipated
 Price of a sanguiguilir: ten taels* of good gold
 Price of namamahay: half of that sum
 Origin of Slavery: undetermined; with violent and unjust beginnings; most cases are
related to these;
 Presumptions: slavery was made during wars and quarrels
 Certainty: the most powerful made the others slaves through: slight causes/occassions;
loans; usurious contracts-the increase is so much that slaves were made out of the
borrowers
 Slaves: most important wealth and capital of the natives
• Marriages/Family Life
 Chiefs with women chiefs
 Timawas with those of that rank
 Slaves with those of the same class (e.g. Saguiguilir with saguiguilir)
 Ynasaba: legitimate wife
 Children of the first wife: legitimate; whole heirs of the parents
 Children of the succeeding ones: do not inherit; only left with ‘something’
 Dowry: the man provides; woman do not provide dowry
• Marriage and Family Life

 Marriage: Agreement between parents and relatives
 Dowry: agreed to the father of the bride; assembling at the wife’s parent’s house of all
the relative to eat and drink until they all fall down (waray upay);
the couple stay’s at the groom’s house later at night
 There is annulment and marriage may be disolved for slight causes; upon examination
by relatives of both parties (mediators)
 Husband’s dowry will be taken back if the wife was at fault; unless it was the husband
 Conjugal property will be divided into halves (‘hating kapatid’)
 If the other party has no share; the other party keeps everything for him/her
• Adoption
 Adopted person gives everything to the adopting parent; have the same right to inherit
with the other children
• Adulteries
 No corporal punishment, maybe paid by and the injury will be pardoned; would
continue living together (read: move on!)
• Inheritance
 Legitimate (from ynasaba) children gets equal share; no legitimate children: nearest
relatives
60
• Succession
 Eldest son (from the ynasaba)
 Daughters may take the place in the absence of sons
 No direct successor: from the direct lineage of the chief (father or mother side)
• Slaves as concubines
 Children are free; as the slave
 In the absence of children the slave concubine remains a slave
 Illegitimate children (from slave and married women) no right to inheritance and
succession to the power but will be ranked as plebeians or timawas
 Business
 Contracts and negotiations are generally illegal, usually dwelling on how one might
get the better part for his own benefit/interest (read: mapanlamang)
 Usury was the order of the day (read: panunuba)
• Bartering
 Items for bartering: food, cloth, cattle, fowls, lands, houses, fields, slaves, fishing
grounds palm trees
 payment: in gold or metal bells (from China)
61
• Crimes
 Theft: major crime
 Insulting words: major crime
 Wounding: pardonable
 Assault: pardonable
 Concubinage, rape and incest were not regarded unless committed by a timagua
(timawa) to a woman chief
 Concubinage of a man to the sister of his wife (sister-in-law) is an ordinary practice
 Married men can have ‘access’ to his mother-in-law if the bride is very young until
she reaches the right age with the knowledge of the relatives
 Single men: bagontaos; Single women: dalagas
• Seedy side
 Women of Pintados ( some Visayans) are vicious and sensual; perverse
 Sagras (sexual Accoutrement: (creative visualization please) the males make a hole
near the head of his virile member (read: penis) and make an insertion of a serpent’s
head (metal or ivory) and attached to it insert a peg of the same material through the
hole; they have extended copulation because of the inability to quickly withdraw.
Very popular among couples. Christianity eventually made them abandon the
practice. (Oragon Bay!)
serpent’s head (metal or ivory)
 ‘Virgin ravishers’, men paid to de-virginize young girls

 The natives consider virginity among young girls is a “hindrance’ (balakid) in their
married life
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• Religion
 Pagans
 Nature worship
 Anitos: different types
 Crocodiles: nonos (nuno)
 Yellow colored bird : batala
Old men and women: catalonas, uses divinations, etc
Source: Antonio de Morga, History of the Philippine Islands
63
Excerpts from History of the Philippines

Province of the Society of Jesus
Pedro Chirino,S.J.
It will never be possible to write a real history of the Filipino people under Spain because the colonial
government enjoyed a monopoly on the production of source materials. ─ Teodoro A. Agoncillo
There are cracks in that curtain, chinks, as to speak, through which fleeting glimpses of Filipinos and their
reactions to Spanish dominion may be seen.
– William Henry Scott
THE PAGAN FALSE RELIGION, IDOLATRIES, AND SACRIFICES OF THE

FILIPINOS
The Idols to which the Filipinos Attributed Divinity

Bathalang Maykapal = God the Creator
 adored animals, birds, stones, crags, and headlands of seashores and rivers
 venerated crocodiles
Adored individual idols

• Diwata for the Visayans and Anito for the “Tagalogs”
• They also included among their gods all who died by the knife, those devoured by the
crocodile, or killed by some lighting, whose souls they said climbed to heaven by the
rainbow, which they call “Balangao.” Many times during their funerals they
sacrificed slaves to serve them in a paradise of their dreams.
64
The ministries of Their Sacrifices
Priests:
• Catalonan for the Tagalogs
• Babaylan for the Visayans
65
SUMMARY
 Early observations: using foreign lenses:Taga-labas

 Presented early customs and beliefs
 A view of pre-colonial view family life
 Interesting and mundane beliefs
 Written by early Spanish historians/scholars
 Useful reference for analysis of the early pre-colonial behavior of the natives
 Useful in addressing the question of identity prior to western hegemony and other
hegemonies (read: cultural imperialism)
Although on climbing to the dark peak of so much blindness of idolatry, I find so

much confusion of very vile, abominable things characteristic of their creator, and on
digging into the wall of this infernal cave. I uncover something frightful that my hair
stand on end seeing so many beetles, stupid, loathsome, that came only from hell, with
the light of faith as our guide, we shall put them in order so that we may praise before the
all-powerful God all who opened the eyes, found ourselves bathed with the eyes of faith,
and commiserate with those who, blind in their darkness love of it obstinately, miserably
buried in it, unaware of their miserable situation, nor take into account the evil that
oppresses and tyrannizes them. We shall then discuss, first, what pertains to the wrong
belief of the Filipino had of the divinity of their idols, then their priests, the ministers of
their abominable sacrifices, their sacrificial rights, and the excesses and barbaric vulgar
superstitions.
I. The Idols To Which Filipinos Attribute Divinity
Although all these islanders, especially the Tagalogs as the reasonable people,
had, like the ancient philosophers, some hints of a supreme god whom they used
to call “Bathalang Maykapal,” which means God the Creator, or Maker, they
had no knowledge of him, for they imagined him to be enveloped and hidden in
clouds, as he was for them with the black cloud paganism. Like other idolaters,
they had better knowledge of created things, considering them divine, and
offering to them impious sacrifices, according to the role and work which to each
one they assign. As the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans to their Jupiter,
Mercury, Minerva, Venus, Saturn, Mars and the the other false gods, so they
first adored these others, animals and birds, like the Egyptians; the sun and the
moon, like the Assyrians. They attribute its special divinity to the rainbows, as
though learned from the Poets, who made in the messages of the gods
The Tagalogs gave the name “Bathala” to a bluebird as big as a thrush, which in
Cstile we call “avejuruco”. The crow they adored, like the ancients, as the god
Pan or goddess Ceres, but naming it “Maylupa”, which means lord of the soil.
They deeply venerated the crocodile. In all their thinking, whenever they saw him
in water, they addressed it “Nono”, granfather. With tender affection, they prayed
to him not to cause them harm, and for this reason, they offered
something from what they brought in the boat, which they threw in the water.
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There was a catalonan who was so intimate with one of them in the Manila river,
that she treated like a domestic pet, which not only awaited what she gave it
to eat, but allowed it to touch it and be ancinted with her oils. Not difficult for
Aristotle, who says that these beasts can be tamed like the others who eat flesh,
and Strabo affirms that there were tame geese in Egypt adored more than in the
Philippines, and to the surprise of foreigners the priests fed them with their own
hands. There was no old tree to which they attribute divine powers, and it was
sacrilege to think of felling them for any reason—misuse of the eastern
Indios born of their appreciation of the tree’s age or the big size, or, more
correctly, of diabolic astutenes, which in our own beginnings made war against us
with the tree. Pliny in his time affirms people having also made use of this
aberration, in this barbarity exceeding those who were content with raising their
altars and putting their statuettes under the shadow of their very tall and leafy
trees. This matter provided matter for concern of their very saintly prophets,
zealous for God’s honor.
What else? The very stones, peaks, crags, and headlands of seashores and rivers
they adored, going as far as to offer something which they left on the rock or crag
itself when passing by. Both quite ancient idolatrous practices, for we find them
condemned by one of the ancient councils and the most ancient Saints, and
furthermore, by God Himself.
Many times I saw in the river of Manila a rock which for many years was an
idol of this unfortunate people.
It scandalized and gave occasion to serious evils, until the Augustinian Fathers
who lived close by, in their holy zeal broke into pieces and in its place put up a
Cross.
Sailing around Panay Island,I saw on a rock at the point they call “Naso” near
Potol plates and other clay utensils, which navigators were offering. On Mindanao
island, between Canela and the river, a sharp point protrudes above a dangerous
and deep coast. On these points the sea always suddenly becomes agitated, and
risky and hard to round. As it is very high, they used to shoot arrows aimed with
such force that they were embedded on the rock itself, as a sacrificial offering to
the gods to allow them to sail by. With my eyes I saw that engaged at such a
cursed superstition, the Spaniards set them on fire, and burned an uncounted
number; but in less than a year there were embedded again more than 4,000
arrows—so they appeared to us who were sailing by—hence, they called it “Punta
de las Flechas” [Arrow Point].
Only the rivers they failed to adore, like the Parthians and Persians, who in
reverence refrained from spitting in them or washing their hands in their waters.
Filipinos, on the other hand, do not drink from the river, although it water is very
good, repelled both by the number of persons without exception bathing in it and
the numberless and various services to which it is applied. For drinking, they
67
make use of the various holes they dig on the riverbank itself, which at a shallow
depth provides the water they need, like the Egyptians when their river turned into
blood.
They also used to adore individual idols inherited from their elders, which the
Visayans used to call “diwata”, the Tagalogs “anito”. They had idol for their
fields, whose permission they asked when crossing without risk; an anito for
the crops, to whom they recommended that they be fertile, and besides sacrifices,
left there food to eat; anito for water, from whom they ask for rain for their crops;
anito for the sea, to whom they recommended their fishing and navigation anito
for their palm trees, from whom they ask protection from rats and birds which
destroyed their crops; anito for infants, to whom they offered at birth; and anito
when these began to suck. Among these they include their ancestors, men and
women, whom they invoked first in their toils and dangers. They kept small idols
as souvenirs, rather badly sculpted of stone, wood, gold, bone, or ivory, which
called “likha” or “larawan” just as the devil propagated the false worship of his
Pluto, Pan, Neptune, Nundina, and the other infernal monsters, with which he
tyrannized the world, though with change names.
They also included among their gods all who died by the knife, those devoured by
crocodile, or killed by some lightning, whose souls they said climbed to heaven
by the rainbow, which they call “Balangao”. Many times during their funerals
they sacrificed slaves to serve them in a paradise of their dreams, a
superstition which seems similar to that of the Greeks and Romans, and even of
the ancient Scots and other nations, who deeply honors those who died in war, of
whom Cicero wrote much.
As the beginning of the earth, they had only the sky and water, and a kingfisher
between the two. Tired of flying and finding nowhere to perch, he decided to
provoke war between the sky and the water. It ended with the victory of heaven,
which kept the water at a distance allowing it to reach only to the shoulders, and
filled it with islands and rocks, thus allowing the kingfisher to satisfy its desire for
a perch to build its nest like Estatius producing his arcades from ashen and laurel
trunks, the Filipinos drew the first man from bamboo, which we said grow all
over the east. It was only for two nodes, but floating on the water, it reached the
feet of the kingfisher standing on the shore. Irritated that it should touch its
feet, for even the kingfisher have the sense of their own dignity and could
avenge insults, it cracked [the bamboo] open with its beak. From on node a man
came out, from the other a woman. A serious controversy followed recognized by
many arbiters, for the woman refused to be married to the man, her brother. So
natural the women’s decency that even the diabolic fables of the barbarians make
the man an aggressor, the woman modest and shy. These people strictly hold on to
this when arranging marriages, considering it the greatest insult for a woman to
initiate the discussion, or anyone or her behalf, even if she dies unmarried.
Anyway, since the council of the fishes and the birds, which affirmed they were
married without dispensation, was unsatisfactory, they appealed to one of the
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gods, namely, the earthquake, on whose advice they married and had several
children from these several brothers descended the various races of peoples and
states. They said that angered at having so many idle and profitless sons in the
house, like the eagles, the two agreed that, pretending anger, the father, intending
to punish them with a stick in his hand, something they never had known,
drove them away. Some escaped to the clothes room, others to the closet in the
house, and from these they say the chiefs descend; other fled outside, and these
are the freemen, whom they call “timawa”; still others to the kitchen and under
the house, and these are the slaves, and finally others to other points, and these are
the different nations. A story to entertain, not badly put together and spread
around. They had their own versions of the flood, glory, punishment, and the
other life, hostile demons before whom they trembled and trembled very much.
All quite erroneous, in none with verisimilitude, just as an ancient gentiles with
theirs, for some describe them in one way, others another, such that one can see
they are all lies and legends without beginning or end. I shall add only one
example here as a brief chapter of one which Fr. Cristobal Jimenez sent me from
the Visayas on April 1560.
It says:
I have collected important matters of the errors of these pagans spread in 130
islands, where they say their dead proceed. There they laugh and sing, the old
become young and live a special life. The trees, whose roots are chains, bear
already ripe fruits, utensils, bells, “panicas” are of gold; the sand on the riverbank
is unhusked rice; there is a sea of milk for the children and another of “linugao”
for the old. They lived and died, returned to life, and they died so many times as
to become like very tiny ants. There is a sea of blood, on whose shore are
rosebushes, which for that reason are called colored. There are islands so thick
with bores that these are the only firewood used, and the pots used for cooking
are skulls. Our race they say descends from a bamboo. The monkey came out of a
second bamboo or node, and so is quite like a man. And as the bamboo grew, they
developed and other animals appeared. All men die because they disobeyed
Laon, the greatest of the gods, by killing the fish which entertained him. And all,
young and old, die, because when they shook the tree of delicious fruit, the small
and big fruits fell.
What else shall I add? I will never end. Let this suffice, that Your Reverence may
laugh, when your task allow you.
Thus far, Father Jimenez, who adds words of the region,assuming that he was
writing to someone who would understand them. I want to mention them for the
pleasure of whoever may read this; isines are pieces of cotton cloth; panicas,
golden earrings; linugao, rice with milk or oil; tacerongas are flowers similar to
colored marshmallow plants. Their tale of the small size to which the soul is
reduced at the end of so many Phythagorean transmigrations corresponds
to the error of the Japanese who offer viaticum to the souls because they are small
and delicate, otherwise they will die of exhaustion before reaching Paradise, a
69
three days’ hike. And while we mention it once, it reappears in all of these
errors.
It will be clear that, in their time, Saint Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria,
Tertullian, Eusebius of Caesarea, and in or time, the Mexicans and Peruvians, the
learned Father Jose de Acosta of our Society, mentioned it, all of whom agree
in a certain way with our Catholic truth, covered and darkened by falsehood, like
an erased image of which nothing remains except some outlines and traces. Their
errors then, for some are predispositions towards the faith, for others are blocks.
Some are based on the truth shining and brightening their dark shadows; others
are blinded with so much lights after keeping their eyes on the darkness of their
lies, like the stubborn pharaoh with the lights of his magicians
They had no special temples, like Parthians and Persians, no public days of
general festivities common among the ordinary people. We saw in Tanay only
that houses had another smaller one, like a small bamboo tower, a bit quaintly
built. From the main house they pass to it through a short bridge, also of bamboo.
Here they kept their clothes and other handicrafts, to cover the mystery of the
infamous outhouse. But as some converts informed me, they are really dedicated
to the anito, even if they did not sacrifice there, and it served only to make them
claim it as their own, like the rest of their possessions. For that reason they
maintained in it something they valued, particularly a rooster, like the ancient
pagans.
They then have an outhouse, out of their need to pass by it when going on a
journey, as Elias said of the others. We had them taken down, until not one has
left. The Visayans, too, had at the entrance to their villages a rather bad small
bamboo outhouse, which served as a place for sacrifice. In other places, these are
scattered in the forests, hidden from the ministers of justice, especially after the
Faith arrived. In general, however, it was rare to have a common temple, unlike
the ancient pagans, nor did they come together for celebrations by law of
tradition. They had no special place for sacrifice which they offered for the entire
community; but each one individually offered a sacrifice for his intention or whim
in the village or on fields. They elected for it a minister, male or female—there
were a number of them out of devotion or desire. They invited all from their
village and others from around according to the solemnity of the sacrifice and the
resources of the one offering it. I saw in Mindanao in one placed attached outside
of houses bamboo galleries wrought not badly; but, yes, inside, badly sculpted
idols of spongy pole, like wrought bamboo. In front I saw an earthen pot with
some embers and a little smoke, which must have been of the sacrifice.
Source: Pedro Chirino, History of the Philippine Province of the Society of Jesus
70
An Historical View of the Philippine Islands

Exhibiting Their Discovery, Population, Language,
Government, Manners, Customs, Production and Commerce
Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga y Díaz de Ilarraza
 He studied at the Royal College of Missionaries Augustinians of Valladolid, where he

professed in 1779.
 After a year's stay in Mexico, he embarked in Acapulco to the Philippines, arriving in
Manila in August 1786, being sent to Batangas to study the Tagalog language.
 History of the Philippine Islands was wrote and published in Sampaloc in 1803 and
translated into English by John Maver in 1814 with the title An Historical View of the
Philippine Islands and her two editions were made.
 The work consists of 37 chapters and covers since the discovery of the Philippines by
Ferdinand Magellan to the entrance of Manila Anda being delivered by the British in
1764.
Contributions to Understanding Philippine History (Content)
Classifications and conflict of inhabitants

 Negroes
 Indians
Language and writings

 Similarities of Tagala from other languages and dialects
 Similarities in writing with Arabians, Persians, etc.
Socio-political structure
 Rajah
 Punishments (for adultery, murder)
Beliefs and Traditions

 Marriage practices
 Religious ceremonies: sacrifices, dancing and drinking
 Curing illness
 Spirits and dieties
 Death
71
Importance of the Text

 supported previously known facts about Philippines from other sources like Morga and
Chirino
 mention of theories the ancestry of the early settlers, Negroes and Indians, in the
Philippines (through basis language and physical appearance)
Analysis of the Document
Ethnocentricity through derogatory terms

 Negroes have no idea of religion or civilized habits
 Negroes are like beasts than human beings
 “domesticating”
 “Ridiculous” gestures of the babailanas or catalonas
 “Infernal dieties”
 “Cowardly and timorous” nature of Indians
 “silly”, “absurdities”… (in beliefs)
Possible mistranslation by John Maver

 Negroes for Negritos
Inaccuracies
 Philippines have temperate climate
Unsupported (not expounded) theories

 Negroes came from Angola
 Ygorrotes of Ylocos descended from the companions of Limahon
 Southeast Asians descended from Native Americans
72
A HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE PHILIPPINES ISLANDS EXHIBITING THEIR

DISCOVERY, POPULATION, LANGUAGE, GOVERNMENT, MANNERS
CUSTOMS, PRODUCTIONS AND COMMERCE
Of the Inhabitants the Spaniards Found in the Philippines – Their Language,

Customs, and Religion
Our Historical, affecting always the marvelous, divide, into different classes, the
inhabitants the Spaniards found, on their first arrival in Philippines. They denominate
them satyrs, men with tails, sea monsters, and whatever else of the fabulous, is calculated
to raise wonder in the human mind. In reality, however, they found only two classes, that
which we know by the appellation of Negroes, and that of the Guinea, with soft hair and
flat shoes. They lived in the mountains, almost in a state of nature, merely covering the
forepart of the body, with a piece of the bark of a tree; and they subsisted upon roots, and
such deer, as in hunting, they could kill with the bow and arrow, at which they were very
dexterous. They slept where night overtook them, and they possessed no idea of religion
or civilized habits, rather, indeed, ranking with beasts than as human begins. The
Spaniards, have at length succeeded, in domesticating many of them, and converting
them to Christianity, to which they give no opposition, so long as they get subsistence,
but if they are obliged to labor, for the maintenance of their family, they return again to
the mountains. The Negroes, without doubt, were the primitive inhabitants of these
islands, and they retired to the mountains, on the arrival of the Indians. These latter,
settling on the sea shore, continual hostility prevailed between them, but the Indians
were never able, to establish themselves sufficiently, to be permitted, even to cut wood in
the mountains, without paying a tribute for it. At present, the influence of the Negroes is
very limited, but their antipathy to their first invaders, continues unabated; for, if a Negro
is killed or dies suddenly, it is customary for another, to bind himself to his countrymen
by an oath, that he will disappear from among them, and that he will not return, until he
has avenged the death of his friend, by killing tree or four Indians, to accomplish which
he watches their villages, and the passes in the mountains, and if any unfortunately stray
from their companions, he murders them. The origin of these Negroes, some believe to
be, from Angola, though they are not so black as their ancestor, which it is pretend,
process from the temperature of these islands being milder, and less scorching than that
Africa. This possibly may be so, for it is well known, that by changing, from a sultry to a
temperature climate, the blackness of the Negro may be diminished, in the course of a
long series of generations; yet, the flat nose, and using a dialect of the same language,
which the Indians of these isles speak, appears to prove satisfactory enough, that the
origin of the other, is nearly the same. The reason assigned, for their not being more
numerous is the influence of the other of the rain, wind, sun, and all those inclemency
natural to the climate, to which they are exposed; the errors of the government having
73
reduced them to the condition, almost, of wild beasts, in which we now see them. The
Indians whom the Spaniards found here, were of regular stature, and of an olive
complexion, with flat nose, large eyes, and long hair. They all possessed some description
of government better or worse, and each nation was distinguished by a different name;
but the similarity of their dress and manners, proves that the origin of all them is the
same. They had chiefs, who held their situations, either on account of personal velour, or
by succession to their fathers, where they had abilities to retain it. Their dominion
extended over one or two villages, or villages or more according to the means they
possessed, of extending protection. They were continually at war with the neighboring
villages, and continually making each other slaves. Out of these wars, arose tree classes
of people; the chiefs or masters of the villages, the slaves, and those whom the chiefs had
enfranchised, with their descendant, and who, to this day are called Timavas, properly
signifying children of liberty. In some places, were found Indians whiter than others,
descended, without doubt, from Chinese or Japanese, who had been shipwrecked on these
coasts, and whom the Indians, naturally hospitable, received, and allowed to intermarry
with them; and it is generally believed that the Ygorrotes of Ylocos, whose eyes resemble
the Chinise, must have originated from the companions of Limahon, who fled to those
mountains, when Juan de Salcedo compelled him to his disgraceful retreat, from the
province of Pangasinan. It is not, however, after all, easy to ascertain the origin of these
people, but their idiom throws some degree of light on the subject. Although the language
these Indians speak, are many and different, they have so much intercourse one with
another that it may clearly be discovered, they are dialect of the same language, as the
Spanish, French, Italian, are derivatives from the Latin. The preposition and pronouns,
are nearly the same in all of them; the numeral characters, differ very little, and they have
many words in common, and of one and the same structure. No doubt can be entertained,
that the radical language, from which all those dialect spring, prevails from Madagascar
to the Philippines with local shades of different. It is spoken too in New Guinea, and in
all the islands to the southward, in the Marianas, in the islands of San Duisk, in those of
Otaheite, and in almost all the islands in the South Sea. In one collection of voyages,
there are given various vocabularies, with such corresponding terminations, as the
respective travellers, were able to distinguish among these islands. It is remarkable, that
in these almost all the pronouns, are the same with those of the nation Tagala; the
numerals, are common to all dialect, used in these islands, and most of the words are the
same and with the same significant, as in the language Tagala. But, I am the more
inclined to believe the identity of the dialects, from a conversations which I had with Don
Juan Hovel, an Englishman, who spoke that of San Duisk, and who had a slave, a native
of one of those islands. The structure, appeared to be the same, as that of the language
spoken in the Philippines; and on the whole, I feel confident in the opinion, that they are
all dialects of the same language, so widely diffused over so large a portion of the earth.
It is ascertained, that this Language, as in common use for many thousand leagues,
74
extending from Madagascar to the Isles of San Duisk , Otaheite, and the isle of Pasquas,
which latter, is not more than six hundred leagues distant, from the coast of South
America. Yet, the Indians of the Philippines, do not understand the people of these last
mentioned Islands, when they occasional intercourse with them; nor even in these islands,
do the inhabitants of one province, understands those of another. So neither does the
Spaniards understands the Frenchman, nor the Frenchman the Italian. In the same
collection of voyages, already referred to, we find a vocabulary of only five terminations,
which the Spaniards have distinguished on the coast of Patagonia, and one of these is the
have been able to assimilate to the language of these islands, and one of those is the word
balay, which in that country signifies a house; and by this same word they designated a
house among the Pampangos, and the inhabitants of the Bisayas in general. This may be
more matter of accidents than of proof, that the languages of one and the other is the
same; but on observing besides this, that the proper names of places about the middle of
the continent of South America are very similar to those of the Philippines, I endeavored
to procure a vocabulary of this country, and did not fail to examine, with great diligence
and attention, the few words of the language of Chili which Ercilla mentions in his
Araucana and which I found perfectly comformable to the language Tagala. The name
Chili is a derivation from this language: the Cormorant is called Cachile, and this is a
name which the Malays give to the sons of their king. Chilian, which is a town, of chili,
compound from the language of Tagala, in which language the terminations an gives the
signification town. Thus from Cachile we draw Chacilian, meaning a town, where there
are cormorants. Mapochio, which is the situation where the city of Santiago stands, is
another word of Tagalic compositions, signifying a town, and Pocquiot being a kind of
herb, we form the name Mapocquiot, a town in which there is abundance of this herb. In
Chili they frequently double the syllables in forming a word, as ytayta, Biobío lemolemo
colocolo and this occurs in the Tagala language; for instance, we say ataata, Bilobilo,
lebomlebom, colocolo. A great many other words are either actually of Tagala derivation
or assimilate closely to that language. In examining the structure of these two language
we are compelled to conclude that they flow from and the same source, and I dare affirm
that the Indians being of the Philippines are descended from the aborigines of Chili and
Peru, and that the language of these islands derives immediately from the parent source,
those of the neighboring islands being dialects of this. Many will urge the absurdity of
this supposition, on the plea that the more immediate vicinity of the Philippines to
Malacca must have occasioned them to be colonized by the Malays, as our historians
generally assert. I do not deny that these islands could easily have been peopled by then
Malays but how could they colonize the Isles have the same language, the same manners
and customs, and consequently the same origin as our Indians. There is, my opinion, this
other reason for supposing these latter islands could not be people from the westward, viz
that in all the torrid zone the east wind generally prevails which, being in direct
opposition to the course from Malacca and the adjacent islands, it is fair to conclude that
75
the inhabitants of all the islands of the South Sea came from the east, sailing before the
wind; for we have seen it often happen, that the Indians from the the Palaos have arrived
at the Philippines, precisely under those circumstance. On the contrary, we have no
instance on record, of any of the Philippines Indians having been, even by accident,
carried by the winds to the islands to the eastward. Indeed we know the reverse of this to
be true, since at times the most experienced pilots, in attempting this navigation, have
been compelled to return, without falling in with the islands they went in search of, from
the necessity there is in the voyage of being provided with proper nautical instrument.
Here, therefore, we appear to have found the most probable solution of our difficulties,
that is the first settlers came out of the east, we may presume from the coast of South
America, and proceeding gradually to the westward through the Pacific Ocean, studded
as we find it with islands, and cluster of islands at no very great distance from the each
other, and of course of easy access before the wind, it follows that to whatever point, in
an eastern direction, we can trace the Tagalog language, we may conclude that at that
point emigration must have commenced. Some however dissent from this, on the ground,
that the mode of writing in use among the Malays is similar to that practiced by the
inhabitants of the Philippines. This consist in forming the lines from the right to the left,
like the Arabians, Persians, and not like the Chinese, Tartars, and Japanese from top to
bottom. Their characters are totally different from ours; they have only tree vowels, a, e,
u, and by placing a point, either above or below the consonant, or leaving it without one,
the corresponding vowel is readily known, and equal facility given as if the vowels were
specifically inserted. Although they can write, they have no written laws; decisions are
made on traditionally law generally, but too often by the right of the strongest. The Rajah,
or chief, with the assistance of some of the elders, decides in all civil cases; but in
criminal cases, the kinsmen are accustomed to compound with the aggressor, for a sum in
gold, unless in cases of murder, when the only atonement admitted, is retaliation; and if
the murderer is of a different tribe or villages, all the community of which the deceased
was a member, make a common cause, against the tribe or community of the murderer,
and numbers are generally made slaves on both sides. When it is obliged to draw a stone,
from the bottom of a cauldron fell of boiling water, and if he does not accomplish this
which is the vulgar test, he is fined in a certain quantity of gold, the greater part of which
goes to the Rajah or chief. Adultery is likewise punished with a pecuniary, fine, as is the
crime of disrespect to the elders but for fraud, and cheating in their dealings, there is no
punishment, and usury is very general among them. Their matrimonial customs are
peculiar; they are allowed to marry only one woman, and although the principal people
have several concubines, yet they commonly are slaves. They are accustomed marry a
relation (not a sister) with whom if they find themselves unable to live, or if they become
tired of her, they return her to her parents without their being required to assign a cause
for the divorce. The dowry given on the day of marriage is merely restored: this dowry is
of two kinds, and which the bridegroom always pays. The one is called bigay suso, and is
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paid to the mother, as compensation for the milk, with which she nourished her daughter.
The other is called bigay caya, or green dowry, which is set apart for the maintenance of
the newly married couple, although very often by the expenses of the wedding and
apparel, there remains little or nothing for this desirable end. Besides these dowries paid
by the bridegroom, he is obliged for some years, to serve the parents of the bride, and
assist them on certain days, particularly at the sowing of the rice, and getting in the
harvest. It is incumbent likewise, on all the relations of the bridegroom, to behave with
courtesy and respect to the bride, and her parent and family, during these years of service,
and if they are guilty of any lapse in this respect, the marriage is declared to be annulled,
which is always very agreeable to the parents of the woman, as a new suitor presents
himself, and they reap the benefit of a new service. The bridegroom, to console himself
for his sufferings, as soon as term closes, and his service is at an end, treats his wife as a
slave; she is obliged to work for the maintenance of the family, whilst the husband is
quite idle, and thinks herself having; if after having done this she is not beaten. Then
interest which the parents of the girl, thus have in her disposal, is highly pernicious to
morals, and we have not succeeded to this hour, in the abolition of it, either by the
influence of royal edicts, or the regulations of the bishops, by the both of which, it is
discouraged and prohibited. The ceremony of marriage is performed, by sacrificing a hog,
which a priestess slays with a thousand grimaces; after which, she bestows many
benedictions on the parents, and an old woman presenting them with some food, the
ceremony is closed by many obscenities. Dancing, according to their fashion, succeeds,
and drinking the rest of the day ends the feats, which is always proportionate to the
circumstances of the newly married pair. The principal contributions to his feats, arise
from presents made to the bride and bridegroom by their friends, which particular notice
is taken, on order that similar present may be returned to the parties on a like occasions.
In their religious ceremonies, they use neither idols nor temples; their sacrifices are
offered in arbors, which they raise for that purpose. They have priestesses, whom they
call babailanas or catalonas, to whose functions it belongs, to perform the sacrifices. The
priestess, taking a lance in her hand, with extravagant and ridiculous gestures, works
herself up to apparent frenzy, accompanied by foaming at the mouth, when uttering
something, which is received as properly, she pieces the hog with the lance, and
immediately distributions the car case among those present: the ceremony, us usual, is
closed by dancing and drinking. These sacrifices are offered to the internal deities, as
well as to the souls of their ancestors, who they are taught to believe inhabit very large
trees, rocks of uncommon appearance, or any natural object which, in a point of
magnitude or form, varies from the usual course. They are so fully persuaded of this, that
they never pass any object of this description, without first asking the permission of its
visionary inhabitant, and to his hour the customs prevails. When any person was the
given to the sick person, and which they were of opinion would effect his cure, a customs
even yet followed by some people. They have many other superstitions, as that of that
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patianac a spirit or ideal being whose employment or amusement consists in preventing,

by certain means peculiar to itself, the delivery of a woman in labor. To counteract the
malignity of his spirit, the husband, fastening the door, reduces himself to a state of
complete nudity, lights a fire, and arming himself with his sword, continues to flourish it
furiously, until the woman is delivered. The tigbalang is another object of which they
stand is great awe. It is described its authority, to prevent their performing the duties,
prescribed our religion. These and other superstitious, formerly had extensive influence, and
are still resorted to by impostors, who find their account in persuading those, who are
silly enough to listen to them than they are able to cure them of dangerous illness, or to
recover any thing they have lost, by having recourse to such absurdities; and so much do
the of life, and our own individual interests prevail, that although they believe these
customs sinful, and although they do not entirely give credit to their favor: this is a proof
that they as yet they are very superficial Christians. Indeed, all their religious
impressions, seem rather the result of a slavish dread, than the effect of rational piety.
The practice no external adoration other on and have no other form of address to
their gods, than what has been mentioned. They do not believe, that the good will be
rewarded, or the wicked punished, but they acknowledge the immortality of the souls of
the deceased, and that they are capable of doing them mischief. They persuade
themselves, that these retain all the natural wants incident to the mortal state, and
accordingly, place on their tombs clothes, arms, and food, and on the day, when the
funeral ceremony is performed a vacant seat is left at the table for the deceased, whom
they believed to be actually present, though not obvious to sight. To prove this, sand is
strewed on the floor, on which the prints of the feet of the deceased are often found. This
may be presumed to be actual presence of the party; and in order to deprecate the injury
he may do, offerings of eatable are made to him and which ceremony, is perfectly
conformable, to the cowardly and timorous nature of the Indians.
THE MINISTERS OF THEIR SACRIFICES
Although they had no temples or feast days, they had priests, male and female,
whom the Tagalogs call “catalonan”, the Visayans “babaylan”. He, or she, was one who
with greater shrewdness yielded to the devil to be fooled by him, or deceive the blinded
people. Fr. Antonio sedeno related that when he was in Florida, be exposed before the
natives one of these cheats who had been deceiving them, by claiming he could cure them
by placing reed on the most painful spot the patient felt and through the mouth drew out
from the opposite part the air inside.
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In Eastern India there were some beans the Portuguese say are from Malacca, and
are the physicians Anacard. One of these, cut by a knife point and brought near the flame
of a candle, throws off sparks, ashes, and flames when it starts burning. These leading
cheats need nothing more to make them believe that in those flames they see the spirits
which tell them as much as they lie which, since they are barbarians, people easily
believe.
By this scheme, others used to concoct a thousand tricks on the simple Filipinos
especially in times of sickness, which afflict and worry them very much. Then, they
would want to cure, and the one who brings or promises it they esteem, trust, adore, and
give all they have. Actually, there are, however, some who have a special link with the
devil, who assists and provides with a very special help, speaks to them through their
idols or anitos pretending they are their dead whom they adore.
More than twenty years after writing this, it came to my notice around 1616, that
on the island of Bohol some poor women used to deceive sick people, in order to earn
some pay, by telling them a particular leaf of a tree or a reed inside them was causing the
sickness, which they would remove to cure them.
They carry it hidden, and touching the sick, they showed it, telling them they had
removed it from the body. This happened to someone with an injured foot. After saying
what caused it, the woman soon showed a piece of bamboo which she claimed she had
taken out and after paying her, the patient could be cured
THE BARBIRITY OF THEIR SACRIFICES
Human sacrifice was a religious practice of the pre-Columbian Aztec civilization,

as well as other Mesoamerican civilizations such as the Maya and the Zapotec. The
extent of such practices is debated by modern scholars.
Spanish explorers, soldiers and clergy who had contact with the Aztecs between
1517, when an expedition from Cuba first explored the Yucatan, and 1521, when Hernan
Cortes conquered the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, made observations of and wrote
reports about the practice of human sacrifices.
For example, Bernal Diaz’s the conquest of new Spain includes eyewitness
accounts of human sacrifices, as well as descriptions of the sacrifices, as well as
descriptions of the remains of sacrificial victims. In addition, there are a number of
second-hand accounts of human sacrifices written by Spanish friars that relate the
testimony of native eyewitnesses. The literary accounts have been supported by
archaeological research. Since the late 1970s, excavations of the offerings in the Great
Pyramid of Tenochtitlan, Teotihuacan’s Pyramid of the Moon, and other archaeological
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sites, have provided physical evidence of human sacrifice among the Mesoamerican
peoples.
A wide variety of explanations and interpretations of the Aztec practice of human

sacrifice have been proposed by modern scholars. Most scholars of Pre-Columbian
civilization see human sacrifice among the Aztecs as a part of the long cultural tradition
of human sacrifice in Mesoamerica.
USURY AND SLAVERY AMONG THE FILIPINOS
Slavery had been present in the Philippine islands even before the archipelago
was integrated into the Spanish Empire following the conquest. Policies that the Spanish
crown established for its empire in the Americas were extended to its colony in the
Philippines.
The viceroyalty of New Spain oversaw the Philippine administratively, and the
terminus of the Manila galleon in Acapulco saw the importation of Philippine slaves, who
were labelled chinos. Crown policies regarding slavery were not always adhered to in
practice.
THE SOCIETY GOES TO IBABAO
Ibabao is the first island the discoverers knew, then with the name “Ibabao,”
which must be among the natives a place name there. It is the first spot one reaches after
sailing past the Landrones Island’s during the crossing of the vast Mar del Sur in the
voyage from New Spain. Hence, it was the first good sign of the end of this lengthy
navigation.
The circumference they consider 160 leagues. It is between 15 degree and 12

degree east-west its figure like a headlers body, without legs from the knees down, a
rather unusual shape.
Likewise, it has a narrow strait with Leyte island on the south. That is why many
Castilian ships which have entered through it on arrival had, with strong winds, turned
around, seeking the port of Cebu for safety. The first Jesuit to evangelize this island was
Fr. Francisco de Otazo, from Alocer of the kingdom of Toledo. As we said, with six
companions, Father Ramon reached it from Western Ibabao on 19 October 1596. one of
them was this Jesuit, left there with two other companions one a young priest called
Bartolome Martes, who did not remain long.
Source: Joaquin Martinez de Zuniga, A Historical View of the Philippines Islands Exhibiting their Discovery,
Population, Language, Government, Manners Customs, Productions and Commerce
80
Barangay :
Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and Society
Parameters
Long before the Spaniards came to the Philippines, the inhabitants of the islands
had a civilization of their own. This civilization partly came from Malay and Borneo
interactions and partly from their response to the environment. Many of these customs
and traditions are still practice in certain communities. Hence it is possible to know about
our distance past by observing some customs and practices that have resisted change and
modernization.
Tagalog Culture and Technology
Tagalogs descended not to a seacoast but to the riverine plains of Bulacan, Laguna and
Manila Bay.
ilaya – higher ground

laot – high sea
hilaga – as north wind
balas – as northeast
amihan – east
habagat – west
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Borneo Connection
Borneo Connection – The chiefdom of Manila located in the present Intramuros there
were claims that it was probably founded as a Bornean trading colony.
Chinese Records – Mindoro (Ma-i) as a dependency of Brunei in the 14th century
Raja Matanda – the grandson of Sultan Bulkeiah of Brunei
Bulkeiah – in folk history of Brunei he was identified as Nakhoda Ragam known as the
refuted conqueror of the Philippines
Recognized Rulers of Manila

 Ache or Raja Matanda
 Raja Soliman
 Banaw Lakandula
Malay Connection
Malay – trade language of Malacca during the 16th century

Portuguese – spelled Lucoes for Luzones
Tome Pires in his book Summa Oriental
Mentioned that Borneans and Tagalogs “were almost one people”
Minjam – west coast of Malay Peninsula were it was claimed that there was a Tagalog
colony of some five hundred residents.
Basic Goods - fish, wax, salt, gold
Tinguianes or mountaineers who could gather quantities of honey and wax would trade
them for the products of the lowlanders.
Suluans who made salt from sea water.
Malay Loan Words
Lako peddle
utang debt
mamayar slave dealer
bayar payment
karabaw buffalo
Alak spirits
atsara pickles
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16th Century Filipino Culture is evident in various dimensions
1. The Physical appearance exhibits the practices of the Filipinos in 16th century in the
following forms:
– chiefs wear putong made distinct for leaders leaders.
– fumigated clothes with incense
– clothing: G-string; Skirt; short-sleeved colarless jacket; long-sleeved gown
83
2. Technology displays SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE & ABILITY to apply tools for

various functions in the following:
– logs rollers
– paddle-and-anvil technique
– boat construction
3. The BREADTH OF TRADING speaks of the network of goods in the region of Asia
and the Pacific*.
- Exported resources including gold, carabao horns, raw cotton, cotton cloth, timber
and live civet cats reached the market of the enterprising partners including but not
limited to the following: Chinese, Japanese, Thai, Malaysians and Indonesians
*The Austronesian concept of the vast region of enterprising venture among Asian and
the Pacific inhabitants.
Henry Scott’s cited reference include Antonio de Morga on the use of pants from bahag;
Juan de Salcedo on Inter-island Trading (1572); San Buenaventura on Debt Slavery
(1613).
Relevance: Substantiates Capability of Independence
84
Value: Highlights Distinct Filipino Culture and Society towards the 16th Century
Conclusion: The 16th Century Filipinos had a civilization rooted of their being persons
with dignity and integrity as a People in the region.
lies in a strategic trading market location that continental and insular Asians engaged in
the grand exchange of resources and culture.
16Th century – 17th century Literacy of the Filipino
Primary source describe the reading and writing skill of the natives during that
period
Scott’s claim
– Perhaps these exaggerated claims were occasioned by Spanish surprise that ordinary
Filipino could read and write when there were no professional scribes
Literacy was high enough to induce the friars to publish Tagalog books in Baybayin
– Doctrina Christiana en Lengua Española y Tagala
– Libro de Nuestra Señora del Rosario
Tagalogs communicated in writing
– Send Filipino ambassadors to Borneo 1578 bearing letter in their own script
– Tagalog and Borneans communicated through writings conspiring to expel the
Spaniards
– Sent letter to Japan
Spanish translation of a Bikolano letter “en letras tagala” (Franciscan archived in Madrid)
Doctrina Christiana – only known example of Babayin
85
One of about a dozen of indigenous alphabet from Southeast Asia
Derived from ancient India
Sanskrit characteristic – consonant is pronounced with the vowel a
Diacritical marks is added to express the vowel
Contains 17 letters
– Vowels (a, e-i, o- u) preceded Glottal stops – used to begin syllables
– Other fourteen- radical signs representing the consonants (b, d, g, h, k, l, m, n, ng, p,
s, t, w and y
No set of direction of the writing
Local developments share some common ancestor in Southern India but not directly
ancestral to one another
Perhaps derived from some intermediary script which no longer exist
Similar to alphabet of Sulawesi – recommends them as the intermediate source of

baybayin
“Whatever the source of the first Philippine alphabet and wherever it came from, there
is no reason why Tagalog merchants should not have brought it back from their
trading voyages themselves” Scott,
Source: William Henry Scott, Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture And Society
86
EXERCISES ON EXAMINING PRIMARY DOCUMENTS:
A. MANUNGGUL JAR
The Manunggul Jar dated back to around 710-890 BCE. It was discovered in 1964 in Manunggul
Cave in Palawan. The jar’s cover has two human figures riding on a boat. The human figure at the
back is holding a paddle with both hands while the one in front has its two arms crossed against
the chest. The boat also has eyes and mouth. The upper portion of the jar has curved scrolls.
Archaeological findings show that this jar was used for secondary burial, a prehistoric burial
practice wherein only the bones were put in a jar within a year after the death of a person. The
bones were washed and painted with a red hematite as part of the preparatory practices for
secondary burial. The jar was then placed in the most lighted and attractive part inside the cave.
Source: http://philmuseaum.tripod.com/archaeo.html (last accessed on 16 January 2013)
Task at Hand: Complete the following concept map about the Manunggul Jar.
Prehistoric
Belief
Discovery of
represented
the Jar
by the Jar
Make a
Make a
timeline of
timeline of
what
what
happened
happened
on 27 April
on 27 April
1521 from
1521 from
the point of
the point of
view of the
Description view of the
Purpose
Spaniards.
of the Jar Spaniards.
what
Make a happened
timeline of on 27 April
what 1521 from
happened the point of
on 27 April view of the
1521 from Spaniards.
the point of
view of the
Spaniards.
87
B. BATTLE OF MACTAN
Read the narrative of Antonio Pigafetta about the events that occurred on that fateful day of April
27, 1521.
Carlos V. Francisco Watercolor Stock
On Friday, April 26, Zula, a chief of the island of Matan, sent one of his sons to present
two goats to the captain-general, and to say that he would send him all that he had
promised, but that he had not been able to send it to him because of the other chief
Cilapulapu, who refused to obey the king of Spagnia. He requested the captain to send
him only one boatload of men on the next night, so that they might help him and fight
against the other chief. The captain-general decided to go thither with three boatloads.
We begged him repeatedly not to go, but he, like a good shepherd, refused to abandon his
flock. At midnight, 60 men of us set out armed with corselets and helmets, together with .
. .some of the chief men. . .We reached Matan three hours before dawn. The captain did
not wish to fight then, but sent a message to the natives. . .to the effect that if they would
obey the king of Spagnia, recognize the Christian king as their sovereign, and pay us our
tribute, he would be their friend; but if they wish otherwise, they should wait to see our
lances wounded. They replied that if we had our lances they had lances of bamboo and
stakes hardened with fire. [They asked us] not to proceed to attack them at once; but to
wait until morning, so that they might have more men. They said that in order to induce
us to go in search of them; for they had dug certain pitholes between the houses in order
that we might fall into them. When morning came, 49 of us leaped into the water up to
our thighs and walked through water for more that two crossbow flights before we could
reach the shore. The boats could not approach thereafter because of certain rocks in the
water. The other eleven men remained behind to guard the boats. When we reached land,
those men had formed in three divisions to the number of more than 1500 persons. When
88
they saw us, they charged down upon us with exceeding loud cries, two divisions on our
flanks and the other on our front. When the captain saw that, he formed us into two
divisions, and thus did we begin to fight. The musketeers and crossbowmen shot from a
distance for about half-hour, but uselessly, for the shots only passed through the shields
which were made of thin wood and the arms (of the bearers.) The captain cried to
them,”Cease firing! Cease firing! But his order was not at all heeded. When the natives
saw that we were shooting our muskets to no purpose, crying out they determined to
stand firm, but they redoubled their shouts. When our muskets were discharged, the
natives would never stand still, but leaped hither and thither, covering themselves with
their shields. They shot so many arrows at us and hurled so many bamboo spears (some
of them tipped with iron) at the captain-general, besides pointed stakes hardened with
fire, stones and mud, that we could scarcely defend ourselves. Seeing that, the captain-
general sent some men to burn their houses in order to terrify them. When they saw their
houses burning, they were roused to greater fury. Two of our men were killed near the
houses, while we burned 20 or 30 houses. So many of them charged down upon us that
they shot the captain through the right leg with a poisoned arrow. On that account, he
ordered us to retire slowly, but the men took to flight, except 6 or 8 of us who remained
with the captain. The natives shot only at our legs, for the latter were bare; and so many
were the spears and stones that they hurled at us, that we could offer no resistance. The
mortars in the boats could not aid us as they were too far away. . .The natives continued
to pursue us, and picking up the same spear four or six times, hurled it at us again and
again. Recognizing the captain, so many turned upon him that they knocked his helmet
off his head twice, but he always stood firmly like a good knight, together with some
others. . .An Indian hurled a bamboo spear into the captain’s face, but the latter
immediately killed him with his lance, which he left in the Indian’s body. Then, trying to
lay hand on sword, he could draw it out but halfway, because he had been wounded in the
arm with a bamboo spear. When the natives saw that, they all hurled themselves upon
him. One of them wounded him on the leg with a large cutlass. . .That caused the captain
to fall face downward, when immediately they rushed upon him with iron and bamboo
spears and with their cutlasses, until they killed our mirror, our light, our comfort, and
our true guide. When they wounded him, he turned back many times to see whether we
were all in the boats. Thereupon, beholding him dead, we, wounded, retreated, as best we
could, to the boats, which were already pulling off.
Source: Pigafetta, Antonio. “First Voyage Around the World.” In the Philippine Islands, Vol. 33, edited by
E. Blair and J. Robertson, 175, 177, 179, 181. Cleveland: A.H. Clark, 1909. Reprinted by Cacho Hermanos,
1973.
Task at Hand
Your teacher will divide you into two groups and assign you the following tasks:
Group 1: Make a timeline of what happened on 27 April 1521 from the point of view of
the Spaniards.
Group 2: Make a timeline of what happened on 27 April 1521 from the point of view of
the natives.
Then present your timelines in class. Together, compare the two timelines.
89
C. ACT OF DECLARATION OF PHILIPPINE INDEPENDENCE
Read the Act of Declaration of Philippine Independence written and read by Ambrocio
Rianzares-Bautista on June 12, 1898 at Cavite el Viejo (Kawit).
Ambrocio Rianzares-
Proclamation of Philippine Independence in Kawit, Cavite on June 12, 1898 Bautista
In the town of Cavite-Viejo, Province of Cavite, this 12th day of June 1898:
BEFORE ME, Ambrocio Rianzares-Bautista, War Counsellor and Special Delegate
designated to proclaim and solemnize this Declaration of Independence by the Dictatorial
Government of the Philippines, pursuant to, and by virtue of, a Decree issued by the
Egregious Dictator Don Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy. . .
And having as witness to the rectitude of our intentions the Supreme Judge of the
Universe, and under the protection of the Powerful and Humanitarian Nation, the United
States of America, we do hereby proclaim and declare solemnly, in the name and by
authority of the people of those Philippine Islands. That they are and have the right to be
free and independent; that they have ceased to have any allegiance to the Crown of Spain;
that all political ties between them are and should be completely severed and annulled;
and that, like other free and independent States, they enjoy the full power to make War
and Peace, conclude commercial treaties, enter into alliances, regulate commerce, and do
all other acts and things which an independent State has a right to do. . .And imbued with
firm confidence in Divine Providence, we hereby mutually bind ourselves to support this
Declaration with our lives, our fortunes, and with our most sacred possession, our Honor.
We recognize, approve, and ratify, with all the orders emanating from the same,
the Dictatorship established by Don Emilio Aguinaldo whom we revere as the Supreme
90
Head of this Nation, which today begins to have a life of its own, in the conviction that he
has been the instrument chosen by God inspite of his humble origin, to effectuate the
redemption of this unfortunate country as foretold by Dr. Don Jose Rizal in his
magnificent verses which he composed in his prison cell prior to his execution, liberating
it from the Yoke of Spanish domination. .
Moreover, we confer upon our famous Dictator Don Emilio Aguinaldo all the
powers necessary to enable him to discharge the duties of Government, including the
prerogatives of granting pardon and amnesty.
And lastly, it was resolved unanimously that this Nation, already free and
independent as of this day, must use the same flag which up to now is being used, whose
design and colors are found described in the attached drawing, the white triangle
signifying the distinctive emblem of the famous Society of the Katipunan which by
means of blood compact inspired the masses to rise in revolution; the three stars,
signifying the three principal islands of this Archipelago – Luzon, Mindanao and Panay
where this revolutionary movement started; the sun representing the gigantic steps made
by the sons of the country along the path of Progress and Civilization; the eight rays,
signifying the eight provinces – Manila, Cavite, Bulacan, Pampanga, Nueva Ecija,
Bataan, Laguna, and Batangas – which declared themselves in a state of war as soon as
the first revolt was initiated; and the colors of Blue, Red, and White, commemorating the
flag of the United States of America, as a manifestation of our profound gratitude
towards this Great Nation for its disinterested protection which it lent us and continues
lending us. . .
In witness thereof, I certify that this Act of Declaration of Independence was

signed by me and by all people here as assembled including the only stranger who
attended those proceedings, a citizen of the U.S.A., Mr. L. M. Johnson, a Colonel of
Artillery.
Source: “Declaration of Philippine Independence.” In The Laws of the First Philippine Republic (The Laws of
Malolos), edited by Sulpicio Guevara, 203-206. Manila: National Historical Commission, 1972
Task at Hand
1. What does the document want to convey?

2. How did the revolutionaries regard Aguinaldo based on this document?
3. According to the document, what do the symbols in the Philippine flag represent?
4. How did the Filipinos regard the United States of America based on the
document?
5. What is the importance of this document in the history of our country?
91
Chapter III:
CONTROVERSIES AND CONFLICTING VIEWS

IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY
ANDRES BONIFACIO and the 1896 REVOLUTION
On August 24, 1896, Andres Bonifacio convened the Kataastaasang Kapisanan or

National Assembly of the Katipunan in Melchora Aquino’s barn in barrio Banlat, then
part of Kalookan. Assembled were the members of the Kataastaasang Kapulungan
(Supreme Council), as well as the pangulo (heads) of the sangunian (supra-national) and
balangay (chapter) units. There they made three major decisions.
Katipunan’s 3 Major Decisions:
1. declaration of the nationwide armed revolution to win freedom from Spain

2. establishment of the national government
3. election of officials who would lead the nation and the army
The revolution and the establishment of a democratic national government was

the logical culmination of the founding of the Katipunan in 1892. Bonifacio was the first
president of the Philippines, from August 24, 1896 to May 10, 1897.
THE FOUNDING OF THE KATIPUNAN
The ilustrado-initiated propaganda movement had failed to persuade the Madrid

government to effect urgent reforms in its distant Asian colony. The Filipino activists in
Europe eventually realized that change had to come about from within the archipelago
itself.
With this in mind, Jose Rizal came home to the Philippines on June 26, 1892.
After meetings with local activists, Rizal established a civic society called the Liga
Filipina. On July 3, a week after he arrived in Manila, Rizal launched the organization in
Doroteo Ongjunco’s house on Ilaya Street, Tondo. The aims of the society were national
unity, mutual aid, common defense, the encouragement of education, agriculture and
commerce, and the study and application of reforms.
The Liga Filipina was short-lived. On July 6, Rizal was arrested and detained
upon the orders of Governor-General Eulogio Despujol. Two weeks later, he was sent to
Dapitan, Zamboanga del Norte, Mindanao, where he lived in exile for four years.
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Jose Rizal La Liga Filipina
One of the founding members of the league was Andres Bonifacio. On July 6-7,
when it had become apparent that an open pro-Filipino organization like the Liga Filipina
would be suppressed by the colonial government, Bonifacio and some friends formed a
secret society. Among them were Deodato Arellano, Ladislao Diwa, Valentin Diaz, Jose
Dizon, and Teodoro Plata. The organization was called the Kataastaasan Kagalang-
galang na Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan. The aims of the Katipunan were to unite
the country and to win independence from Spain by means of revolution.
Bonifacio, however, continued to work with the Liga, which its other prominent
members had resurrected in April 1893. Because of his personality and communication
skills, the Supreme Council of the Liga appointed him chief of Propaganda. Bonifacio’s
success in recruiting members unnerved the more conservative elements of the Liga who
did not agree with his revolutionary ideas. The Liga ceased to exist as of October 1894.
Bonifacio did not become president of the Katipunan until 1895, although ha had
been an officer. Under his guidance, the Katipunan prepared for revolution. Emilio
Jacinto, Bonifacio’s trusted friend and adviser, wrote the Cartilla or primer, which
embodied the teachings of the organization. The Katipunan operated a clandestine
printing press and published a newspaper, Kalayaan. By 1896, on the eve of the
revolution, the membership of the society had expanded dramatically.
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Andres Bonifacio KKK Flag
Kataastaasan Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan

(Highest and Most Respectable Society of the Sons of the People)
Anthem: “Marangal na Dalit ng Katagalugan”
AIMS:
1. To unite the Filipinos into one solid nation
2. To fight for Philippine independence from Spain.
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MEMBERS OF THE KATIPUNAN
1896 - 30, 000- 400,000 members.
Famous Katipuneros include Bonifacio, Arellano, Emilio Jacinto (Brains of the

Katipunan), Dr.Pio Valenzuela, Valentin Diaz, Jose Dizon and Teodoro Plata
Women joined the Katipunan and served as guards of the documents of the society.
KATIPUNAN LITERATURE
Three writers of the Katipunan were:
2. Andres Bonifacio – wrote Decalogue of the Katipunan (a collection of wise sayings

for Katipuneros and Pag – ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa (Love for Country).
2. Emilio Jacinto – wrote the Kartilla (collection of teachings of Katipunan) and A La

Patria.
3. Dr. Pio Valenzuela – helped Bonifacio and Jacinto to edit the Katipunan newspaper
(Kalayaan) and wrote an essay Catwiran (Is it Fair?)
DISCOVERY OF THE KATIPUNAN
The Spanish secreta or secret police knew of the existence of a dangerous

clandestine organization by early 1896. The Governor-General believed the government
was still on top of the situation, but there was no let-up in the surveillance of suspect
personalities. By April 1896, the rebels were reported to have cut railroad lines in
Kalookan and environs. By May, the general assembly of pangulo and representatives
from all the balangay (chapters) of the Katipunan were locked in heated discussions on
the timing of the revolution. To many, the time had come; but some, like Rizal, balked
the idea.
By April or May 1896, the existence of the Katipunan was already known to the
Guardia Civil Veterana. In August, the confession of Teodoro Patiήo’s sister to Fray
Mariano Gil, the Augustinian curate of Tondo, merely confirmed what the government
already knew. The priest persuaded the authorities of the grave danger the society posed
to the Spanish community. Reacting to the ensuing hysteria and acting on information
collated over a long period of time, the government had numerous prominent residents
arrested and detained; houses were raided and searched. Governor-General Ramon
Blanco was urged to apply “juez de cuchillo” or total annihilation of the Filipino
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population in a prescribed zone within the area of uprising. There was no holding back
the revolution. Many Filipinos were arrested but many Katipuneros also escaped
including Bonifacio.
A NATION IS BORN
The historian Manuel Sastron describes the revolution as a “rebellion of the

tagalogs against Spanish domination”; he also refers to “the tagalog insurrection” and
“the tagalog rebels.” But it is clear that the 1896 revolution was a national endeavour.
Written and published in 1896, the Katipunan’s Cartilla defined its major
objectives:
The objective pursued by this association is noble and worthy; to unite the inner being
and thoughts of the tagalogs through a binding pledge, so that through this unity they
may gain the strength to destroy the dense shroud that benights the mind and to discover
the Path of Reason and Enlightenment.
The word Tagalog means all those born in this archipelago; therefore, though
Visayan, Ilocano, Kapangpangan, etc. they are all Tagalogs. At the time, the term
“Filipino” applied solely to Spaniards born in the archipelago. Bonifacio and Jacinto
made “Tagalog” a term applicable to all indios or natives.
“This is what the readers must understand by what we refer to as Tagalog, a term which
may be found on almost every page of this account, we do not mean, as some believe,
those born in Manila, Cavite, and Bulacan, etc. No, we wish to refer to the
Philippines…. Because in our opinion, this term should apply to all the children of the
Filipino nation. Tagalog, or stated more clearly, the name “Tagalog” has no other
meaning but “taga-ilog” [from the river] which, traced directly to its root, refers to those
who prefer to settle along rivers, truly a trait, it cannot be denied of all those born in the
Philippines, in whatever island or town.”
- Carlos Ronquillo (The Revolution of 1896-1897)
FIRST FILIPINO GOVERNMENT
From August 24, 1896, the Katipunan became an open de facto government. The
society had been organized as a secret organization with its own laws, bureaucratic
structure and an elective leadership. But a working government was imperative once the
August 1896 revolution had begun.
Bonifacio when questioned at Tejeros, Cavite, defined the letter “K” in the flag to mean
“kalayaan” or freedom and explained:
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...na mula sa Ktt. Pamunuan ng Katipunan, hanggan sa kababa-babaan, ay

nagkakaisang gumagalang sa pagkakapatiran at pagkakapantay-pantay; namuhunan
ng dugo at buhay laban sa Hari, upang makapagtatag ng sarili at malayang
Pamahalaan, na samakatwid, ay mamahala ang Bayan sa Bayan, at hindi ang isa o
dalawang tao lamang.
…that from the Highest Officials of the Katipunan to the lowest members, all are one
in their respect for the brotherhood and equality; they risk blood and life in the
struggle against the King, in order to institute our own free Government, so that, in
short the People, and not only one or two people, shall govern the country.
“The archipelago is governed by the KKK ng mga Anak ng Bayan, which initiated the
Revolution; with laws and regulations which it enforces; followed and respected by
all for defending Freedom, fraternal love, constituting and consolidating the
leadership.”
- Jacinto Lumbreras
“We of the Katipunan…. are true Revolutionaries in defending the Freedom of our
Nation.”
- Santiago Alvarez
“The Katipunan came out from cover of secret designs, threw off the cloak of any
other purpose, and stood openly for the independence of the Philippines. Bonifacio
turned his lodges into battalions, his grandmasters into captains, and the supreme
council of the Katipunan into the insurgent government of the Philippines.”
- John R.M. Taylor
“The Katipunan was more than a secret revolutionary society; it was withal, a
government. It was the intention of Bonifacio to have the Katipunan govern the whole
Philippines after the overthrow of Spanish rule.”
- Gregorio Zaide
“Immediately before the outbreak of the revolution, therefore, Bonifacio organized

the Katipunan into a government revolving around a ‘cabinet’ composed of men of his
confidence.”
- Teodoro Agoncillo
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THE FIRST PRESIDENT
Katagalugan Government
A clearer idea of Bonifacio’s Katagalugan government emerged in the late 1890s, when
letters and other important documents signed by Bonifacio became accessible.
Three letters and one appointment paper written by Bonifacio on printed letterheads dated
from March 8- April 24, 1897 and all addressed to Emilio Jacinto, prove that Bonifacio
was the first president of a national government. These letters contain the following titles
and designations:
 President of the Supreme Council

 The Supreme President
 The President of the Sovereign Nation Founder of the Katipunan, Initiator of the
Revolution
 Office of the Supreme President, Government of the Revolution
Jose P. Bantug referred to Bonifacio as “Kataastaasang Pangulo” and “General No. 1”
Jose P. Santos and Zaide also recognized the Bonifacio presidency…but misread
“HARING BAYAN”
BONIFACIO vs. AGUINALDO
The government headed by Bonifacio prior to March 22, 1897 was democratic in
nature and national in scope, contrary to some postwar historian’s contention that
Bonifacio attempted to establish a government separate from Aguinaldo’s only after the
Tejeros Assembly, and was therefore guilty of treason.
An article on the Philippine revolution appeared in the Feb 8, 1897 issue of the La
Ilustracion Espanola y Americana. It was accompanied by an engraved portrait of
Bonifacio wearing a black suit and white tie, with the caption, “Andres Bonifacio,
Titulado Presidente de la Republica Tagala” and described him as the head of the native
government. The reporter, G. Reparaz, referred to Aguinaldo only as generalissimo. The
key officers in the Bonifacio government, according to Reparaz, were as follows:
Teodoro Plata (War)

Emilio Jacinto (State)
Aguedo del Rosario (Interior)
Briccio Pantas (Justice)
Enrique Pacheco (Finance)
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EXISTENCE OF KATIPUNAN GOVERNMENT
 The results of the first Philippine national elections was reiterated by Jose M. del
Castillo
 The August 1896 transformation of the Katipunan into a revolutionary government
and Bonifacio’s elections to presidency was confirmed by Pio Valenzuela
KATIPUNAN DEMOCRACY
Bonifacio set in place mechanicisms for popular participation from the national to
the local levels. The government established by the Katipunan was run by concensus.
 Kataastaasang Kapulungan
 Kataastaasang Sangunian
 Sanguniang Bayan
Earliest dated Katipunan document 1892
At the founding assembly in Kalookan on 24 August 1896, the revolutionary

government made the following decisions:
1) the revolution would begin with attack on Manila at midnight of Saturday, 29

August;
2) a revolutionary was established with the appointment of Aguelo del Rosario,
Vicente Fernandez, Ramon Bernardo and Gregorio Coronel as brigadiers
general;
3) the four generals were tasked with strategic planning for the occupation of
Manila;
4) the military situation was to be constantly appraised so that an uprising could
be started earlier than 29 August;
5) assigned routes for three commanders were laid out through Tondo, San
Marcelino and the Sampaloc rotunda (now part of Sta. Mesa).
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COMMAND RESPONSIBILITY
As commander-in-chief, Bonifacio supervised the planning of military strategies

and the preparation of orders, manifests, decrees, adjudicated offenses against the nation,
as well as mediated in political disputes. He directed generals and positioned troops in the
fronts. On the basis of command responsibility, all victories and defeats all over the
archipelago during his term should be attributed to Bonifacio.
The claim that “Bonifacio lost all his battles” is ridiculous.
FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Prior to the outbreak of the revolution, some Filipinos based in Hongkong acted
on behalf of the nationalist movement in the Philippines such as:
 Doroteo Cortes and other Filipinos solicited funds from various sources,
especially from wealthy businessmen and companies;
 Jose Maria Basa served as disbursing officer in Hongkong;
 Doroteo Cortes, Isabelo Artacho and Jose A. Ramos arranged with Japanese
politicians to acquire 100,000 rifles and an unspecified amount of ammunition.
 They also petitioned Japan to send a military squadron to aid the revolutionary
forces and, after independence was won, to recognize the Filipino state.
Although Japan was not at war in 1896, she looked at her Asian neighbours with a
keen expansionary eye. Around the middle of May 1896, the Japanese cruiser Kongo
visited Manila.
Bonifacio and some Katipunan members immediately sought a meeting with

Japanese Admiral Kanimura, while Jacinto drafted a message addressed to the Emperor
of Japan. It read:
“The Filipino people greet the Emperor of Japan and the entire Japanese nation,
with the hope that the light of liberty in Japan will also shed its rays in the
Philippines…”
Cortes continued to represent the revolutionaries before foreign entities. Together

with Basa and A.G. Medina, Cortes sent a petition to the Consul of the United States of
America in Hong Kong on 29 January 1897. The request implored the “Gefe Supremo
desu Nacion” for protection of the Filipinos and recognition of their right to self-
government.
Grover Cleveland lost the presidential elections; his successor, William

McKinley, declared a national policy focused on “domestic business conditions and
100
economic recovery from the continuing depression of 1893 and therefore (he tried) to
avoid conflict with Spain.”
In January 1897, The Philippine Commission in Hong Kong addressed a petition

to Henry Hannoteaux, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, which enumerated 50
grievances of the Philippines against Spain and called for assistance. However, France
remained strictly neutral because she feared that such anticolonialism would contaminate
neighbouring French Indochina, and also because France had no means for practicable
intervention.
SIGNIFICANCE OF 1896 REVOLUTION
 Katipunan launched the first anti-colonial revolution in Asia in August 1896.

 It led to the formation of the first national government
 Katagalugan government was democratic in principle, orientation and form.
 Bonifacio and the Katipunan sought to define a national identity.
 The Katagalugan government commanded the loyalty of a significant portion of
the population.
Filipinos should recognize Andres Bonifacio not only the founder of the
Katipunan and leader of the revolution of 1896, but as the first Filipino president: the
father of the nation and founder of our democracy.
Source: Milagros Guerrero, Emmanuel Encarnacion and Ramon Villegas. “Andres Bonifacio and the 1896
Revolution”, Sulyap Kultura
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Katipunan
• Insignia
• Admission
• Decree of Gen. Ramon Blanco
• Declaring Martial Law
Gen. Ramon Blanco
 He was a Spanish brigadier and colonial administrator.
 He served as a governor of Cuba and Sto. Domingo, and as governor-general of the

Philippines from December 9, 1893 to December 13, 186.
 In the year 1893, Spanish Prime Minister Antonio Canovas del Castillo has sent
Blanco in the Philippines.
August 30, 1896 – publication of the decree
 Acts of rebellion and disturbance public peace demand a most severe and exemplary
Punishment
From the date of the publication of this decree there shall be declared in a state in a state
of war all the territory comprised in the provinces of Manila, Bulacan, Pampanga, Nueva
Ecija, Tarlac, Laguna, Cavite and Batangas.
102
Rutherford B. Hayes Presidential Center Minnesota Historical Society #1983.4.86
Souvenir of Maj.Harry Bandholtz Rutherford B. Hayes Pres. Center
Ricarte’s Insignia: Regimiento Maniola de Vibora
Makario Sakay’s Insignia Government of the Tagalog Archipelago
103
All persons accused of crimes against the public order, of treason, all those who endanger
the peace and independence of the state or the form of government; those who defy or
show contempt of the authorities, and those guilty of crimes common in all rebellions and
seditious movements, shall be submitted to the jurisdiction of the military courts.
All persons found on a battlefield shall be treated as suspects
All those who refuse to surrender shall be arrested and delivered into the custody of the
military authorities.
All crimes committed shall be tried by summary courts-martial.
Courts-martial are established to become competent courts to try those accused of the
crimes.
Who shall be exempted?
 Article 7: The rebels who shall surrender to the authorities within 48 hours of the
publication of his decree shall be exempted from the penalties prescribed for rebellion.
 The chiefs shall be pardoned of their crimes provided they surrender within the period
of time prescribed.
Decree extending the period of time (Amnesty)
 There shall be included in the benefits of Article 7 of the first mentioned decree the
rebels who shall surrender to the authorities within six (6) days from the date of
publication of this decree in their respective provinces which, in accordance with
Article 1, are now under martial law. (Manila, September 21, 1896)
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ANG DISKURSO NG KAISIPAN AT LAYUNIN NG KATIPUNAN
“Huwag kang gagawa ng anumang magbibigay bahid sa iyong pangalan. Katakutan ang kasaysayan,
dahil wala kang gawaing maitatago rito.” – Andres Bonifacio
Panimula
Panahon nang pagbalikang-suriin ang Katipunan (Kataastaasan Kagalang-galang

na Katipunan nang manga Anak nang Bayan, o KKK) at ang kapaligiran nito, ngayong
sumapit na ang isandaang taong anibersaryo nito upang liwanagin ang ilang
mahahalagang bagay at matugunan ang mga bagong pangangailangan. Tungo rito, ilang
katanungan ang dapat na sagutin. Bakit nagpapatuloy, halimbawa, ang ispiritu ng
Katipunan? Bakit pag may nais na magkaroon ng reporma o baguhin ang lipunan, ay
binabanggit ang Katipunan na parang humihingi ng bendisyon o pagpapatibay sa atas
nito? Ano ang tunay na kahulugan ng Katipunan sa ating nakaraan at kasalukuyan?
Harapin natin ang mga tanong na ito sa pamamagitan ng pagtalakay sa diskurso ng
pilosopiya at layunin ng Katipunan.
Ang diskuro ay paggamit ng tao ng anuman at lahat ng wika upang magkaroon ng

pamamaraan nang pagsasaayos at artikulasyon ng realidad na material o simbolikal.
Produkto at proseso ang diskurso ng pagharap ng tao sa kanyang sarili, kalikasan, at
lipunan habang binabago niya ang sarili kapara nang ginagawa niyang pagbabago sa
kalikasan at lipunan. Diskurso ang isang sangkap panlipunan ng kapangyarihan ng tao –
ipinapakita ang kapabilidad para sa aksyong nais niyang isagawa, pagtugmain at
pagtulungan; ang kapabilidad na mag-isip tungkol sa kalikasan; ang kapabilidad na
obserbahan ang sarili at ibang tao sa kapaligirang likas o panlipunan; ang kapabilidad na
magproseso, mag-imbak, magbawi at makipaghati ng bungang-isip bilang datos sa
pagbuo at pagpapalaman ng kamalayang pantao; at ang kapabilidad na gumawa at
magbigay ng senyas at tumanggap nito bilang pangangailangan o kaya’y bagay na
ninanais.
Ang karanasan ng tao, kung gayon, ay pinamamagitan ng diskurso. Ipinupusisyon

ang indibidwal ng dominanteng diskurso na pagmasdan ang daigdig sa isang particular na
paraan, o ng kakontrang diskurso na bakahin ang ehemonyang nagpapatuloy ng
eskpresyon ng pananaw pandaigdig – larawan ng kamalayang historikal ng mga
pagpapahalagang-istruktura (values structures) ng realidad, na nagbibigay ng halaga sa
mga bagay na paksa ng kamalayan (objects of consciousness). Inoorganisa ng diskurso
ang realidad at mga simbolo nito ayon sa gayong mga pagpapahalaga.
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Sa loob ng mahigit 300 taong pananakop, namayani rito ang diskursong

monarkiyal-monastiko ng kolonyalistang Espanyol. Sa ikalawang hati ng ika-19 dantaon,
niyanig ito ng mga bagong ideyang liberal na umiinog sa prinsipyo ng Kalayaan-
Pagkakapantay-pantay-at-Pagkakapatiran. Kalakip ng mga pagbabagong material, unti-
unti nitong tinibag ang hirarkiya ng tradisyunal na kapangyarihan, na nagpusisyon sa mga
kolonisador sa taluktok ng lipunan upang makapangyari sila sa pamamagitan ng
paggamit ng lakas-estado at kultura sa mga kolonisadong Indio/Pilipino upang patuloy
itong maglingkod at sumunod sa kanilang naisin sa lipunan.
Unti-unting nakita ng mga Pilipino na ang pormasyong kolonyal, na nakasandig

sa soberanyang monastiko, ay sistemang ipinagdiriwang ang kapangyarihan at yaman sa
pamamagitan ng pagsasamantala sa paggawa, paggugol ng buhay at pagsupil sa kalayaan
ng mayorya upang mabuhay ng maalwan ang iilang namamayani sa halaga ng dangal ng
mga Pilipino.
Namulat ang mga Pilipino at nagkaisa dahil sa paglaganap ng diskurso ng

kalayaan at kabansaan. Di nagtagal ang katatagan ng gayong kaayusan dahil nakita nila
ang higit na magandang alternatibong maaari nilang pamayanan. Pinangalanan nila itong
sariing Bayan, o Inang Bayan, o Bayang Pilipinas o Bansang Pilipinas. Pinanday nila ang
sandatang gagamitin, sa daigdig ng diwa at aksyon, upang malaman ang mga prinsipyo at
pundasyon ng kanilang malayang komunidad: ang Katipunan.
Isalin natin ang sanaysay na pinamagatang, “Manifesto”, na alegorya ni Emilio

Jacinto sa pagsilang nito:
Nagpakita ang Kalayaan sa isang kabataan na lubhang naapektuhan ng mga

kasawiampalad ng kanyang bayan. Nakilala siya ng kabataan at inilahad nito ang
makatarungang sakit ng loob ng kanyang mga kababayan, na ngayon, sa ilalim ng
rehimeng Kastila, ay nagugutom, nauuhaw, nakahubad, sinira and dangal at sakmal ng
inhustisya. Sa dami ng kaapihang ito, tila nawawalan ng lakas ng loob ang kabataan, na
nahirati na mula sa sinapupunan ng kanyang ina na magdusa ng lahat ng uri ng salaghati,
pag-aalipusta at pagtataboy.
Nagwika ang Kalayaan:
Sa nagdaang matagal nang panahon, nang ang karuwagan at pagpapakumbaba ay

di pa pinapalitan ang mabuting katangian ng mga ninuno mo, ang bayang Pilipas ay nasa
pangangalaga ko at maligaya, at lumalanghap ng hanging nagbibigay-buhay, lakas at
kalusugan. Ang liwanag ko’y tinatanglawan ang kanilang mga isip at iginagalang sila ng
mga kalapitbayan. Subalit dumatal ang isang araw, na dapat kasuklaman at sumpain,
nang ang kaalipinan ay dumating, at sinabi sa kanilang siya ang kabutihan, katwiran at
katarungan, nangangako ng luwalhati sa mga maniniwala sa kanila. . . Dumating siyang
nakabalatkayo ng kariktan at kabaitan: mahinahon at magiliw ang pag-uugali. . . at ang
106
mga kapatid mo ay naniwala at sumamba sa kanya . . . at ako ay nilimot nila at halos

kasuklaman.
Sa puntong ito, tinangka ng Kalayaan na lumisan. Subalit nagsumamo ang

kabataan na pangalagaan niya ito. Huminto ang Kalayaan at nagwika sa kanya:
“Walang taong karapat-dapat sa aking pangangalaga at pagtataguyod na di

mairugin sa akin at di ako minamahal, at di magbubuwis ng buhay para sa aking layon.
Ipahayag mo ito sa iyong mga kababayan.”
Naglaho ang Kalayaan.
Pagbukang-liwayway, lumantad sa mga mata ng kabataan ang tila nagbabagang

bagay: Ang mabalasik at apokaliptikal na Katipunan.
Di kasindali ng alegoryang ito ang pagsilang ng Katipunan, na susi sa mga

katangian ng Rebolusyon at pagtatatag ng bangsang Pilipino.
I. Bansang Pilipino: Konsepto at Realisasyon
Konsepto ng Bansa:
* kamalayan ng sariling identidad

* malinaw na teritoryo
* nagkakaisang kasaysayan
*magkahawig na kultura
Ang bansang ito, na pinangarap nina Bonifacio ay di komunidad na larawang-

diwa lamang kundi isang katunayang sumibol sa lumalawak na pambansang integrasyon
ng produksyon, kalakal, komersyo at pamilihang panloob at panlabas. Umusbong ang
konsepto ng bansa bilang tugon dito ng mga palaisip; nagkaroon sila ng kamalayan ng
sariling identidad nang sumibol ang damdamin ng lomunidad sanhi ng lahi, malinaw na
teritoryo, nagkakaisang kasaysayan at magkakahawig na kultura. Sa pagdaraan ng
panahon, nalirip na bahagi sila ng isang malaking kabuuan, ang bansa, habang ang
bansang ito ay unti-unting naging bahagi rin ng pang-araw-araw nilang pamumuhay.
Ito’y di bunga nang biglaang silakbo ng pag-iisip kundi isang mahabang proseso
ng pag-unlad – ng pagbabago ng nabago ng mga Kastila sa loob ng 300 taon.
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A. Isinilang ng Reporma ang La Liga Filipina
 Ehemonyang monarkiyal-monastiko ng mga Espanyol

 La Liga Filipina
 Pamahalaang Espanyol
 Simbahan
 Bagong Komunidad (pambansa at Pilipino ang karakter)
Ang pamamayani ng diskurso ng ehemonyang Espanyol ay nakasandig sa

kanyang kapangyarihang pang-estado, istrukturang pang-ekonomiya at institusyong
panrelihiyon. Ginawang pwersang material ang kulturang monastiko sa pagmamantini ng
reproduksyon ng pormasyong panlipunang kolonyal. Itinuro ng mga prayle na walang
hangganan ang di pantay na relasyong ito dahil atas ng Langit. Ngunit lumabas na
kataliwas ito ng katotohanan dahil unti-unting nakita ng mga nasasakupan na walang
permanente sa daigdig, kasama na ang pormasyong kolonyal at ang ehemonya ng may
hawak nito. Ang ehemonyal monarkikal-monastiko ay buhay na sistema ng mga
kahulugan at pagpapahalaga na binuo ng namamayaning relasyon ng kapangyarihan. Di
basta pasibong porma ng pangingibabaw ang ehemonya sapagkat upang manatili ay
kailangan nito ang patuloy na pagbabago, reproduksyon at pagtatanggol.
Subalit sa mga huling dekada ng ika-19 na dantaon, sa pag-unlad ng pagkakahati

ng paggawa sa daigdig at sa Pilipinas, ng relasyon ng mga kolonisador sa bawat isa sa
loob ng kanilang kampo, at ng relasyon ng mga kolonisador sa kanilang mga kolonisado,
ay unti-unting namulat ang mga Pilipino sa pangangailangang dapat was akin ang gayong
di-pantay na relasyon at bumuo ng isang bagong pormasyong panlipunan sa
pamamagitan ng ibang kaparaanan. Nang di na nila mabata ang paghahari ng kasamaan
nito “sa loob at labas ng bayan kong sawi”, at makita ang maaaring ipamalit dito,
nagkampanya ang mga repormista sa Espanya upang magkaroon ng higit na mahusay na
alternatibo para sa mga mamamayang Pilipino. Ang kilusang ito’y nagluwal, mula sa
sinapupunan ng namamayaning pormasyong panlipunan, ng bagong kontra-ehemonya.
Ang mga ideyal ng Rebolusyong Pranses tungkol sa Kalayaan-Pagkakapantay-

pantay-at-Pagkakapatiran ay ibinandila ng organong repormista, ang La Solidaridad, sa
paghingi nila ng mga pagbabago sa pamahalaang Espanyol. Ang pinakamataas na
ekspresyong pang-organisasyong ng kilusan ay ang La Liga Filipina na itinatag noong
Hulyo 3, 1892 ni Jose Rizal.
Mahalaga ang ibig sabihin ng mga layunin ng La Liga Filipina lalo na ang
implikasyong di isinulat na siyang talang punto ng Liga. Sa pag-aaral ni Cesar Majul,
ipinakita niyang ang mga layuning ito ay batay sa ebolusyon ng diskurso ng kabansaan
108
ng panahong iyon. Paano? Ang kolonya kasi’y nasa ilalim ng dalawang namamayaning
kapangyarihan na bagamat magkasama ay magkahiwalay rin sa ibang pagkakataon.
Binunuo ito, una ng pamahalaang Espanyol at pangalawa na kalakip nito, ng Simbahan
na simbolo ng mga ideyal at istilo ng pamumuhay ng komunidad na Katoliko.
Sa loob ng pormasyong kolonyal, kung gayon, dalawa nga namamayaning

komunidad. Nilayon ng Liga, ayon kay Majul, na magkaroon ng pangatlong komunidad,
isang bagong lipunan na nabubuhay na kaalinsabay ng dalawa. Ito’y lumalabas na karibal
na komunidad na di sakop ng Espanya o nakapailalim sa Simbahan. Ang layon ng Liga,
samakatwid, ay magtatag sa pamamagitan ng reporma ng isang bagong komunidad na
pambansa at Pilipino ang karakter.
Ang Liga ay mapagtuwid at mapagturo dahil sa kunteksto ng kolonyal na relasyon

ay magbibigay ito ng proteksyon sa mga kasapi at pasisiglahin ang instruksyon,
agrikultura at komersyo. Sa malalim na pagtingin, lumilinaw na ang Liga ay pamalit ng
mga Pilipino sa dalawang banyagang komunidad. Kasapi si Bonifacio at ilang naging
Katipunero nang itatag ang Liga, na ititnuring na subersibo ng mga Kastila. Dahil
sinarhan ng mga maykapangyarihan ang ligal at publikong pamamaraan tungo sa
pagbabago – ipinatapon nila si Rizal sa Dapitan – itinatag ni Bonifacio ang lihim at
alternatibong samahan, ang Katipunan.
B. Pinamumunuan ng Katipunan ang Himagsikan
 Liga Katipunan
 armadong pakikibaka kasarinlan
Naging higit na malinaw ang pinakamataas na layunin ng Liga pagsilang ng

Katipunan. Pangunahing layunin nito sa larangan ng pulitika ay patalsikin ang
pamahalaang Espanyol sa pamamagitan ng armadong pakikibaka upang makamit ang
pambansang kasarinlan. Sa panig ng komunidad ay idiniin ang pagtutulungan. At sa pag-
uugali at ang pagbabagong-isip upang maituwid ang maling pagsampalataya, maging
malinis at maayos ang pamumuhay ng mga kasapi. Istratehiya ng pagbabagong-internal
na mapalakas ang pagkakapatiran at mausig at makamit ng Katipunan ang layong
kasarinlan.
Ang balangkas ng KKK mula sa taluktok ng Kataastaasang Sanggunian hanggang

sa Sangguniang Bayan at Sangguniang Balangay ay hawig sa La Liga. Ang mga ritwal ay
itinulad naman sa nakuha sa Masoneriya.
109
Lumaganap ang kasapian ng Katipunan sa maraming pook ng kapuluan.

Napipintong matuklasan ito kahit na di pa handa upang mag-alsa. Kaya noong Mayo 1,
1896 sa Pangkalahatang Asemblea, bilang paghahanda sa napipintong pagsabog ng
rebolusyon ay pinagtibay ng mga kapulungan ang sumusunod na mga resolusyon:
1. Akitin sa Katipunan ang marurunong at mayayamang Pilipino;

2. Mangolekta ng pondo para ipamili ng mga armas at lahat ng kakailanganin sa
rebolusyon;
3. Magpadala ng kumisyon ng marurunong na Pilipino sa Hapon na mamahala ng
pagbili ng mga armas at munisyon at hihingi ng tulong at proteksyon ng
gobyernong Hapon para sa mga rebolusyonistang Pilipino;
4. Isagawa ang paghihiwalay ng Pilipinas mula sa Espanya sa pamamagitan ng
dahas, ang tanging nalalabing paraan upang makamit ang kasarinlan ng
Pilipinas sa proteksyon at tulong ng Hapon;
5. Iharap ang mga resolusyong ito para sa pagsang-ayon ni Dr. Jose Rizal sa
pagpapadala roon kay Dr. Pio Valenzuela, at hintayin ang kasagutan;
6. Kapag ang mayayamang Pilipino ay di nagbigay ng kooperasyon sa dakilang
gawaing ito, bawat kasapi ng Katipunan ay mag-aambag ng lahat ng kanyang
makakayanan.
Isinagawa man ng Katipunan ang apropriyasyon ng maraming ideya at patakaran

ng Liga, malinaw na kaiba ang istratehiya ng Katipunan, ayon sa kunteskto at
kakayahang pang-intelektwal at pangmateryal ng panahong yaon, sa pagtatag ng isang
bansang Pilipino na malaya at nagsasarili.
Anong mga kaisipan ang naging gabay nito?
II. Ang Batayang Kaisipan ng Katipunan
A. Mga Pundamental ng Paniniwala
1. Ang Katotohanan
 Ang isang bansang Malaya ay dapat masandig sa itinuturing nilang ideyal na mga
katangian ng tao, paggawa, lipunan at bayan, edukasyon at kultura, pinuno at
pamahalaan at kalayaan.
 Walang katapusan ang katotohanan
 Kung ang ilaw ay nagpapaliwanag, magpahanggang kalian man ay magpapaliwanag
Ito
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3. Ang Tao
 Ang katutubong katangian ng tao ay naka sandigan sa pagkakapantay-pantay ng lahat.
 “Ang lahat ng tawo’y magkakapantay sapagkat iisa ang pagkatawo ng lahat.”
 “ang lahat ng tawo ay magkakapatid.”
4. Ang Paggawa
 Ang paggawa ang pinagmulan ng sibilisasyon at lipunan.
 Ang lahat ng pinakikinabangan, ang balang ikinabubuhay at ikinaiiba sa hayup ay
siyang kinakatawan at ibinubunga ng paggawa na nararapat ng kapagalang hindi
nasisinsay na matuid.
 Ang gumagawa ay nalalayu sa buhalhal na kasalanan, maruruming gawi at kayamutan;
nagtatamo ng aliw, tibay, ginhawa at kasayahan.
4. Ang Lipunan at ang Bayan

 Ang pagsasama sama ng mga tao, na may pag-ibig sa isa’t isa, ang bumubuo ng
lipunan.
 Ang tanging sanhi ng pagibig ay ang katwiran, katotohanan, kabutihan, kagandahan,
Maykapal, kapwa tao.
5. Ang Edukasyon at Kultura

 “ningning” ng relihiyon at kaluwalhatian ng monarkiya
malupit na rehimen
 “Ang bagong pamumuhay ay nangangailangan ng bagong ugali.”

 “Upang magkaroon ng rebolusyong external, kailangan munang magkaroon ng
rebolusyong internal – upang ang mga alipin ngayon ay huwag maging pinunong
malulupit sa kinabukasan.” – J.P. Rizal
 Turo ng Katipunan: “pagliliwanag ng isip ng Bayan at ang bagong pag-uugali”
6. Ang Pinuno at Pamahalaan
Pinuno at Pamahalaan
Pagkakapantay-pantay ng lahat ng tao
 “Ang kagalingan at kaginhawaan ay siyang dapat tunguhin ng lahat ng gawa at

kautusan ng mga pinuno…” – E. Jacinto
 “Ang mga Pinuno ay hindi panginoon ng Bayan”
 Ang kapangyarihan ng pinuno ay mula sa kapangyarihan ng bawat isa
 Pamahalaang representantibo
111
 Ang buwis o ambag ng Bayan ay sa tangi at lubos na kapakinabangan ng lahat dapat

gamitin
7. Ang Kalayaan
 “Ang kalayaan ng tao ay ang katwirang tinataglay na talaga ng pagkatao na umisip
at gumawa ng ano mang ibigin kung ito’y di nalalabanan sa katwiran ng iba…”
-E. Jacinto
 Makatarungan ang mag-alsa at magtayo ng bagong kaayusan ng lipunan
C. Ang Kasunduang Historikal: Pagbuo, Pagsira at Pagtatakwil
Ang pagbuo ng SANDUGO sa pagitan ng dalawang bayan

Ang pagsira sa kasunduan SANDUGO
Ang pagtakwil sa pamahalaan Espanyol
Ang diskurso ng Katipunan ay kailangan ng rasyonal upang tumibay ang batayan

sa pagtatakwil ng rehimeng Espanyol. Dito inilahad ni Bonifacio, sa sanaysay na “Ang
Dapat Mabatid ng mga Tagalog” ang kahulugan ng “Sandugo” na isinagawa nina Haring
Sikatuna at Miguel Lopez de Legazpi noong nagdaang panahon na nag-uugnay sa
dalawang bayan. Ano ang nangyari sa ugnayang iyan?
Sumama ang kalagayan ng mga katutubo dahil sa ehemonya ng Espanya. Bago

ang Sandugo, ani Bonifacio, ang mga katutubo ay “nabubuhay sa lubos na kasaganaan at
kaguinhawahan” – kasundo ang mga kalapitbayan, malakas ang kita, at “mayaman ang
kaasalan ng lahat – marunong bumasa at sumulat”. Ano ang nangyari paglunsad dito ng
mga Kastila? Sinabihan nila na “tayo’y aakuin sa lalung kagalingan at lalong imumulat
ang ating Kaisipan” – at naniwala. Sumunod kunwa ang mga Kastila sa kostumbre ng
mga katutubo na ang napagkayarian ay pagtibayin ng pag-inom ng dugong galing sa
kanilang ugat, “tanda ng tunay at lubos na pagtatapat na di magtataksil sa pinagkayarian.”
Nang namayani ang estadong Espanyol, binuhay natin sila sa kasaganaan kahit
abutin natin ang kasalatan at kadayukdukan. Tinulungan pa natin sila na lumaban sa mga
puwersa ng mga Intsik at Olandes na ibig sumakop sa Pilipinas. Sa kabila ng lahat na ito,
ano ang iginanti ng mga Kastila? Pawang kataksilan, pagpapahirap, at pagsasamantala –
lahat ng krimen ay nagawa nila laban sa mga katutubo. Nawalang saysay ang Sandugo.
 “Tayo’y magkaisang-loob, magkaisang-isip at akala upang makahanap ng lunas laban

sa naghaharing kasamaan sa ating Bayan” (Andres Bonifacio)
112
D. Ang Papel ng Katipunan sa Pagbabago
Ano ang paraan para matubos ang kalayaan ng Bayan?

 Mag-aral, magbago, sumapi sa Katipunan, mag-organisa, palaganapin ang
mapaghimasik na layunin at paghandaan ang pag-aalsa
 “Ang kamatayan sa gitna ng digma, sa pagtatanggol ng kalayaan ng ating Bayan ay

kapurihang maipamana sa ating Bayan, Lahi at sa ating Angkan”
E. Ang Kahulugan ng Rebolusyon
Ano para sa Katipunan ang halaga ng Rebolusyon?

 Sariling Pamahalaan na nagsasarili
 Sariling Bayan
 Sariling wika
 “Hinahangad naming ang makamit ang Kalayaan.na may isang pamahalaang

magpapakilala ng mga buhay na lakas ng isang bayan…mayaman man o mahirap.”
(E. Jacinto)
Source: Vivencio Jose, “Ang Diskurso ng Kaisipan at Layunin ng Katipunan” in Pagbabalik sa bayan: mga
lektura sa kasaysayan ng historiograpiya at pagkabansang Pilipino
113
THE LIGHT OF LIBERTY:

DOCUMENTS AND STUDIES ON THE KATIPUNAN
KxxxKxxxKxxx
Katungkulang gagawin ng mga

ZxxxLlxxxBxxx
1. Sumampalataya sa MayKapal ng taimtim sa puso.
2. Gunamgunamin sa sarili tuina, na ang matapat na pag sampalataya sa Kanya ay ang

pag ibig sa lupang tinubuan, sa pagkat ito ang tunay na pag ibig sa kapwa.
3. Ykintal sa puso ang pag asa na malabis na kapurihan at kapalaran na kung ikamamatay
ng tawoy mag bubuhat sa pagliligtas sa kaalipinan ng bayan.
5. Sa kalamigan ng loob, katiagaan, katuiran at pag asa sa ano mang gagawin

nagbubuhat ang ikagaganap ng mabuting ninanais.
6. Paingat ingatang gaya ng puri ang mga bilin at balak ng K... K... K....
7. Sa isang na sa sapanganib sa pag tupat ng kanyang tungkol, idadamay ng lahat, ang

buhay at yaman upang maligtas yaon.
8. Hangarin na ang kalagayan ng isatisa, maging fuaran ng kanyang kapwa sa mabuting

pagpapasunod at pag tupad ng kanyang tungkol.
9. Bahaginan ng makakaya ang alin mang nagdaralita.
10. Ang kasipagan sa pag hahanap-buhay ay siyang tunay na pag ibig at pag mamahal
sa sarili sa asawa, anak at kapatid o kabayan.
11. Lubos na pag sampalataya sa parusang ilinalaang sa balang sowail at magtaksil,

gayon din sa pala na kakamtan ukol sa mabuting gawa. Sampalatayanan din naman
na ang mga layong tinutungo ng K... K... K... ay kaloob ng Maykapal, sa makatwid ang
hangad ng bayan ay hangad din Nya.
114
KxxxKxxxKxxx
Duties of the Sons of the People
1. Believe with a fervent heart in the Creator.
2. Reflect always that a sincere faith in Him involves love of one’s native land, because
this shows true love for one’s fellows.
3. Engrave on the heart the conviction that to die for the liberation of the country from
enslavement is the highest honor and fortune.
4. In any endeavor, the realization of good aspirations depends on calmness,

perseverance, reason and hope.
5. Guard the instructions and plans of the K... K... K... as you would guard your own honor.
6. Anyone who falls into danger whilst carrying out their duties should be supported by
all, and rescued even at the cost of life and riches.
7. Let each of us strive in the performance of our duty to set a good example for others to
follow.
8. Share whatever you can with whoever is needy.
9. Diligence in earning a livelihood is a true expression of love and affection for self,
spouse, children and brothers or compatriots.
10. Believe absolutely that scoundrels and traitors will be punished and good deeds will
be rewarded. Believe, likewise, that the aims of the K... K... K... are blessed by the
Creator, for the will of the people is also His will.
115
MGA ARAL NG KATIPUNAN NG MGA ANAK NG BAYAN

ni Emilio Jacinto
1. Ang buhay na hindi ginugugol sa isang malaki at banal na kadahilanan ay kahoy

(puno) na walang lilim, kundi (man) damong makamandag.
2. Ang gawang magaling na nagbubuhat sa paghahambog o papipita sa sarili

(paghahangad na makasarili), at hindi talagang nasang gumawa ng kagalingan, ay di
kabaitan.
3. Ang tunay na kabanalan ay ang pagkakawang-gawa, ang pag-ibig sa kapwa at ang

isukat ang bawat kilos, gawa't pangungusap sa talagang Katuwiran.
4. Maitim man o maputi ang kulay ng balat, lahat ng tao'y magkakapantay;

mangyayaring ang isa'y hihigitan sa dunong, sa yaman, sa ganda; ngunit di
mahihigitan sa pagkatao.
5. Ang may mataas na kalooban, inuuna ang (dangal o) puri kaysa pagpipita sa sarili;
ang may hamak na kalooban, inuuna ang pagpipita sa sarili sa puri.
6. Sa taong may hiya, salita'y panunumpa.
7. Huwag mong sayangin ang panahon; ang yamang nawala'y mangyayaring magbalik;
ngunit panahong nagdaan nay di na muli pang magdadaan.
8. Ipagtanggol mo ang inaapi; kabakahin (labanan) ang umaapi.
9. Ang taong matalino'y ang may pag-iingat sa bawat sasabihin; matutong ipaglihim ang
dapat ipaglihim.
10. Sa daang matinik ng buhay, lalaki ang siyang patnugot ng asawa at mga anak; kung
ang umaakay ay tungo sa sama, patutunguhan ng inaakay ay kasamaan din. (Ang
simula nito ay obserbasyon sa ugnayan ng babae at lalaki sa panahon ng Katipunan;
para sa kasalukuyan, iminumungkahing ipalit ang sumusunod: "Sa daang matinik ng
buhay, ang mga magulang ang patnugot ng mag-anak; kung ang umaakay ay tungo sa
sama, and patutunguhan ng inaakay ay kasamaan din.)
11. Ang babae ay huwag mong tingnang isang bagay na libangan lamang, kundi isnag
katuwang at karamay (ng lalaki) sa mga kahirapan nitong buhay; gamitin mo nang
buong pagpipitagan ang kanyang (pisikal na) kahinaan, alalahanin ang inang
pinagbuhatan at nag-iwi sa iyong kasanggulan.
116
12. Ang di mo ibig gawin sa asawa mo, anak at kapatid, ay huwag mong gagawin sa
asawa, anak at kapatid ng iba.
13. Ang kamahalan ng tao'y wala sa pagkahari, wala sa tangos ng ilong at puti ng mukha,
wala sa pagkaparing kahalili ng Diyos, wala sa mataas na kalagayan sa balat ng lupa:
wagas at tunay na mahal na tao, kahit laking gubat at walang nababatid kundi sariling
wika, yaong may magandang asal, may isang pangungusap, may dangal at puri,
yaong di nagpaaapi't di nakikiapi; yaong marunong magdam-dam at marunong
lumingap sa bayang tinubuan.
14. Paglaganap ng mga aral na ito, at maningning na sisikat ang araw ng mahal na
kalayaan dito sa kaaba-abang Sangkapuluan at sabungan ng matamis niyang liwanag
ang nangagkaisang magkakalahi't magkakapatid, ng liwanag ng walang katapusan,
ang mga ginugol na buhay, pagod, at mga tiniis na kahirapa'y labis nang
matutumbasan.
117
CARTILLA (ENGLISH VERSION by Paula Carolina Malay

1. A life that is not dedicated to a noble cause is like a tree without a shade or a poisonous
weed.
2. A deed lacks nobility if it is motivated by self-interest and not be a sincere desire to

help.
3. True piety consists of being charitable, loving one's fellowmen, and being judicious in
behavior, speech and deed.
4. All persons are equal, regardless of the color of their skin. While one could have more
schooling, wealth or beauty than another, all that does not make one more human than
anybody else.
5. A person with a noble character values honor above self-interest, while a person with a
base character values self-interest above honor.
6. To a person of honor, his/her word is a pledge.
7. Don't waste time; lost wealth can be retrieved, but time lost is lost forever.
8. Defend the oppressed and fight the oppressor.
9. The wise man is careful in all he has to say and is discreet about things that need to be
kept secret.
10. In the thorny path of life, the man leads the way and his wife and children follow. If
the leader goes the way of perdition, so do the followers.
11. Never regard a woman as an object for you to trifle with; rather you should consider
her as a partner and helpmate. Give proper considerations to a woman's frailty and never
forget that your own mother, who brought you forth and nurtured you from infancy, is
herself such a person.
12. Don't do to the wife, children and brothers and sisters of others what you do not want
done to your wife, children and brothers and sisters.
13. A (person's) worth is not measured by his/her station in life, neither by the height of
his nose nor the fairness of skin, and certainly not by whether he is a priest claiming to be
God's deputy. Even if he is a tribesman/tribeswoman from the hills and speaks only
his/her own tongue, a (person) is honorable if he/she possesses a good character, is true to
his/her word, has fine perceptions and is loyal to his/her native land.
14. When these teachings shall have been propagated and the glorious sun of freedom
begins to shine on these poor islands to enlighten a united race and people, then all the
loves lost, all the struggle and sacrifices shall not have been in vain.
118
ANG DAPAT MABATID NG MGA TAGALOG

Andres Bonifacio
Itong Katagalugan, na pinamamahalaan nang unang panahon ng ating tunay na

mga kababayan niyaong hindi pa tumutulong sa mga lupaing ito ang mga Kastila, ay
nabubuhay sa lubos na kasaganaan, at kaginhawaaan. Kasundo niya ang mga kapit-bayan
at lalung-lalo na ang mga taga-Hapon, sila’y kabilihan at kapalitan ng mga kalakal,
malabis ang pagyabong ng lahat ng pinagkakakitaan, kaya’t dahil dito’y mayaman ang
kaasalan ng lahat, bata’t matanda at sampung mga babae ay marunong bumasa at sumulat
ng talagang pagsulat nating mga Tagalog.
Dumating ang mga Kastila at dumulog na nakipagkaibigan. Sa mabuti nilang

hikayat na diumano, tayo’y aakayin sa lalong kagalingan at lalong imumulat ang ating
kaisipan, ang nasabing nagsisipamahala ay nangyaring nalamuyot sa tamis ng kanilang
dila sa paghibo. Gayon man sila’y ipinailalim sa talagang kaugaliang pinagkayarian sa
pamamagitan ng isang panunumpa na kumuha ng kaunting dugo sa kani-kanilang mga
ugat, at yao’y inihalo’t ininom nila kapwa tanda ng tunay at lubos na pagtatapat na di
magtataksil sa pinagkayarian. Ito’y siyang tinatawag na "Pacto de Sangre" ng
haring Sikatuna at ni Legaspi na pinakakatawanan ng hari sa Espana. Buhat nang ito’y
mangyari ay bumubilang na ngayon sa tatlong daang taon mahigit na ang lahi ni Legaspi
ay ating binubuhay sa lubos na kasaganaan, ating pinagtatamasa at binubusog, kahit
abutin natin ang kasalatan at kadayukdukan; iginugugol natin ang yaman, dugo at sampu
ng tunay na mga kababayan na aayaw pumayag na sa kanila’y pasakop, at gayon din
naman nakipagbaka tayo sa mga Insik at taga-Holandang nagbalang umagaw sa kanila
nitong Katagalugan.
Ngayon sa lahat ng ito’y ano ang sa mga ginawa nating paggugugol ang
nakikitang kaginhawahang ibinigay sa ating Bayan? Ano ang nakikita nating pagtupad sa
kanilang kapangakuan na siyang naging dahil ng ating paggugugol! Wala kudi pawang
kataksilan ang ganti sa ating mga pagpapala at mga pagtupad sa kanilang ipinangakong
tayo’y lalong gigisingin sa kagalingan ay bagkus tayong binulag, inihawa tayo sa
kanilang hamak na asal, pinilt na sinira ang mahal at magandang ugali ng ating Bayan;
iminulat tayo sa isang maling pagsampalataya at isinadlak sa lubak ng kasamaan ang
kapurihan ng ating Bayan; at kung tayo’y mangahas humingi ng kahit gabahid na lingap,
ang nagiging kasagutan ay ang tayo’y itapon at ilayo sa piling ng ating minamahal ng
anak, asawa at matandang magulang. Ang bawat isang himutok na pumulas sa ating
dibdib ay itinuturing na isang malaking pagkakasala at karakarakang nilalapatan ng sa
hayop na kabangisan. Ngayon wala nang maituturing na kapanatagan sa ating
pamamayan; ngayon lagi nang gingambala ang ating katahimikan ng umaalingawngaw
na daing at pananambitan, buntong-hininga at hinagpis ng makapal na ulila, bao’t mga
magulang ng mga kababayang ipinanganyaya ng mga manlulupig na Kastila; ngayon
tayo’y nalulunod na sa nagbabahang luha ng Ina sa nakitil na buhay ng anak, sa
pananangis ng sanggol na pinangulila ng kalupitan na ang bawat patak ay katulad ng
isang kumukulong tinga, na sumasalang sa mahapding sugat ng ating pusong
nagdaramdam; ngayon lalo’t lalo tayong nabibiliran ng tanikalang nakalalait sa bawat
lalaking may iniingatang kapurihan.
119
Ano ang nararapat nating gawin?
Ang araw ng katuwiran na sumisikat sa Silanganan, ay malinaw na itinuturo sa

ating mga matang malaong nabulagan, ang landas na dapat nating tunguhin, ang liwanag
niya’y tanaw sa ting mga mata, ang kukong nag-akma ng kamatayang alay sa atin ng mga
ganid na asal. Itinuturo ng katuwiran, na wala tayong iba pang maaantay kundi lalo’t
lalong kaalipinan. Itinuturo ng katuwiran, lalo’t lalong kaalipustaan at lalo’t lalong
kaalipinan. Itinuturo ng katuwiran, na huwag nating sayangin ang panahon sa pag-asa sa
ipinangakong kaginhawahan na hindi darating at hindi mangyayari. Itinuturo ng
katuwiran ang tayo’y umasa sa ating at huwag antayin sa iba ang ating kabuhayan.
Itinuturo na katuwiran ang tayo’y magkaisang-loob, magkaisang isip at akala at nang
tayo’y magkaisa na maihanap ng lunas ang naghaharing kasamaan sa ating Bayan.
Panahon na ngayong dapat na lumitaw ang liwanag ng katotohanan; panahon

nang dapat nating ipakilala n tayo’y may sariling pagdaramdam, may puri, may hiya at
pagdadamayan. Ngayon panahon nang dapat simulan ang pagsisiwalat ng mga mahal at
dakilang ani na magwawasak sa masinsing tabing na bumubulag sa ating kaisipan;
panahon na ngayong dapat makilala ng mga Tagalog ang pinagbuhatan ng kanilang
mga kahirapan. Araw na itong dapat kilalanin na sa bawat isang hakbang natin y
tumutuntong tayo at nabibingit sa malalim na hukay ng kamatayan na sa ati’y inuumang
ng mga kaaway.
Kaya, O mga kababayan, ating idilat ang bulag na kaisipan at kusang igugol sa
kagalingan ang ating lakas sa tunay at lubos na pag-asa na magtagumpay sa nilalayong
kaginhawahan ng bayan tinubuan.
Source: http://www.filipiniana.net/publication/ang-dapat-mabatid-ng-mgatagalog/12791881588022/1/0
120
ANDRES BONIFACIO
The efforts of a determined few to honor the memory of Andres Bonifacio at a

way that befits his true stature have been deterred somewhat by the supercilious
conviction which prevails in the upper classes that Rizal cannot be replaced as the
hero of the Filipinos.
This conviction has even acquired the nature of an official one, a fact that can
easily be seen in the almost complete indifference of the national government to the City
of Manila's determination to impart a more substantial meaning to the celebration of
Bonifacio's centenary.
And yet, nothing could be more harmful than the cultivation of an artificial
rivalry between Rizal and Bonifacio. Nothing could be more revealing of the ignorance
of social and revolutionary action on the part of the so-called Filipino educated class
than the insidious campaign it is waging that the man from Calamba and the man
from Tondo were poles apart in their aims and purposes.
The simple truth, we believe, is that like the famous bow and arrow of
longfellow, Bonifacio and Rizal were useless each without the other. They
complemented each other, although they identified themselves with the use of
apparently divergent means. There was, to be sure, a difference in view asto the future of
the Philippines, but this difference was dictated by the difference in their character and in
their basic orientation.
All this may sound paradoxical, even contradictory. But not when it is considered
that in the Philippine revolution, as well as in all the classic revolutions which have
shaped human institutions, there was always a division of labor instinctively arrived
at.
Rizal and his group in the Propaganda Movement were the men who laid down
the theoretical foundations, the justifications and the morality of the Filipino grievance
against Spain. It was they who, by the power of the written word or by the urgency of
vocal appeal, opened the eyes of their countrymen to their own plight and who inspired
them to aspire for dignity. Rizal then was essentially a man of thought. He was the
encyclopedist, the pamphleteer, the philosopher, the poet who wrote and sang of love of
country. He was the theorist, immersed in thought and rendered incapable of action,
not only by the corrosive effects of "thinking too precisely on the events," but also by his
implacably safe and middle-class background.
But after he has achieved his assigned task --after, in other words, the man of
thought had reached the end of the tether -- the man of action had to take over and give
reality to what had been said and discussed before.
121
The man of action in Philippine history was Andres Bonifacio. here was a man
who could not boast of the profundity of learning and of the eloquence of the men of the
propaganda Movement. But here, also, was a man who had been endowed with the gift of
action.
Bonifacio saw the situation steadily and he saw the whole, and he acted on what
he saw. he acted, not by propounding more theories or indulging in more
philosophical vacillations, but in laying the foundation of the Katipunan the one and
only purpose of which was to fight a necessary and timely revolution. (12-01-1963)
BONIFACIO AND RIZAL
Bonifacio Day and Rizal Day are separated by barely a month, and yet no two
days in Philippine hisotry could be more apt, more distinct from each other in
ideological content and significance.
The difference has not been sufficiently appreciated by a vast majority of the
Filipinos, but by celebrating the birth of the revolutionist and the death of the reformer,
they display something like fortuitous wisdom which does them more credit than they
usually deserve.
A number of them who feel the tragedy of being grooved have realized the
terrible blunder of acceding to the systematic propaganda of relegating Andres Bonifacio
to the status of a second-class hero. And some of them, with a prescience that comes
along with time, are beginning to understand the meaning of the fact that when
Rizal was hard at work laying the foundation of La Liga Filipina and preaching the
notion that the Philippines should not separate from Spain and that the Filipino
should be contented with reforms, Bonifacio was organizing a secret society aimed
at the overthrow of Spanish domination.
While the intellectual middle class awaited confidently the reforms asked for and
promised," Teodoro M. Kalaw, one of the nation's real historians, wrote 28 years ago in
the Philippine free Fress, "Bonifacio, with the instinct and discernment of the masses, had
already lost faith in Spain, and while many of his countrymen were satisfied to lead a life
of ease in the Oriental fashion, without giving a thought to their position as slaves or to
the future of their country, he prepared the masses for a moral revolution by describing
to them their sad plight and speaking to them of a new day which, he said, would come
only through union, discipline and sacrifice."
But the tremedous truth in these phrases and clauses have fallen on the ears
of Filipinos who have been subjected from birth to senility to the propaganda about
the greatness, courage and wisodm of Rizal.
122
The Rizal cult has grown to such proportions that an execrable word --Rizalist--
had been coined to describe thae fatuous boobs who are still shouting at the international
conferences that the Martyr of Bagungbayan "spoke 19 languages," as if proficiency in
languages had any relevance to the grim business of changing society.
But it has become the truism to say that Rizal is a safe hero, particularly in those
places in the suburbs where time does not seem to move. And the inhabitants of suburbia
have not stopped thanking the Americans for their choice of Rizal as the national hero,
for even today, despite a heresy here and a heresy there, Rizal fulfills the need for
permanence.
The almost secure position of Rizal in the national pantheon, however, is

more a reflection of the deterrirating character of the Filipinos than a tribute to his
greatness. For there was a time, not so long after the coming of the Americans in 1898,
when the Filipino intellectuals --the professionals mostly --looked up to Bonifacio rather
than Rizal for the inspiration of their nationalism.
One of them and perhaps one of the most eloquent of them was Fernando Ma.
Guerrero. He came from Ermita, not Tondo, but he knew what Bonifacio stood for, and
for what it was worth, he sang the man's praises. Teodoro Kalaw was another, and the
whole membership of Philippine masonry during the era when being a mason meant
something, worshipped at the shrine of Bonifacio.
But the replacement of these people by a race of middle men, by a race of jaycees
and Rotarians seem to have doomed the Founder of the Katipunan to an inferior category.
The relegation, it is becoming increasingly clear, will not last forever. Already the
rising generation of Filipinos has begun to see more than the symbolism of Bonifacio
Day and Rizal Day, and seeing, they might learn that the choice of heroes is their
exclusive prerogative.
123
PAG-IBIG SA TINUBUANG BAYAN

Ni Andres Bonifacio
1 6
Aling pag-ibig pa ang hihigit kaya Bakit? Alin ito na sakdal nang laki
Sa pagkadalisay at pagkadakila Na hinahandugan ng buong pagkasi?
Gaya ng pag-ibig sa tinub’ang lupa? Na sa lalong mahal nakapangyayari
Aling pag-ibig pa? Wala na nga, At ginugugulan ng buhay na iwi?
wala.
7
2 Ay! Ito’y ang Inang Bayang
Ulit-ulitin mang basahin ng isip tinubuan,
At isa-isahing talastasing pilit Siya’y ina’t tangi na kinamulatan
Ang salita’t buhay na limbag at titik Ng kawili-wiling liwanag ng araw
Ng sangkatauhan ito’y namamasid. Na nagbigay-init sa lunong katawan.
3 8
Banal na Pag-ibig! Pag ikaw ang Sa kaniya’y utang ang unang
nukal pagtanggap
Sa tapat na puso ng sino’t alinman, Ng simoy ng hanging nagbibigay-
Imbi’t taong-gubat, maralita’t lunas
mangmang, Sa inis na puso na sisinghap-singhap
Nagiging dakila at iginagalang. Sa balong malalim ng siphayo’t
hirap.
4
Pagpupuring lubos ang palaging 9
hangad Kalakip din nito’y pag-ibig sa Bayan
Sa bayan ng taong may dangal na Ang lahat ng lalong sa gunita’y
ingat; mahal
Umawit, tumula, kumatha’t sumulat, Mula sa masaya’t gasong
Kalakhan din niya’y isinisiwalat. kasanggulan
Hanggang sa katawa’y
5 mapasalibingan.
Walang mahalagang hindi inihandog
Ng may pusong mahal sa Bayang 10
nagkupkop: Ang nangakaraang panahon ng aliw,
Dugo, yaman, dunong, katiisa’t Ang inaasahang araw na darating
pagod, Ng pagkatimawa ng mga alipin,
Buhay ma’y abuting magkalagot- Liban pa sa Bayan saan tatanghalin?
lagot.
124
11 16
At ang balang kahoy at ang balang Dapwat kung ang bayan ng
sanga Katagalugan
Ng parang n’ya’t gubat na kaaya- Ay nilapastangan at niyuyurakan
aya, Katuwiran, puri niya’t kamahalan
Sukat ang makita’t sasaalaala Ng sama ng lilong taga-ibang bayan.
Ang ina’t ang giliw, lumipas na saya.
12
Tubig n’yang malinaw na anaki’y 17
bubog, Di gaano kaya ang paghihinagpis
Bukal sa batisang nagkalat sa Ng pusong Tagalog sa puring nilait?
bundok, Aling kalooban na lalong tahimik
Malambot na huni ng matuling agos, Ang di pupukawin sa
Na nakaaaliw sa pusong may paghihimagsik?
lungkot.
13 18
Sa aba ng abang mawalay sa Bayan! Saan magbubuhat ang paghinay-
Gunita ma’y laging sakbibi ng hinay
lumbay, Sa paghihiganti’t gumugol ng buhay
Walang alaala’t inaasam-asam Kung wala ding iba na kasasadlakan
Kundi ang makita’y lupang tinubuan. Kundi ang lugami sa kaalipinan?
14 19
Pati ng magdusa’t sampung Kung ang pagkabaon n’ya’t
kamatayan pagkabusabos
Wari ay masarap kung dahil sa Sa lusak ng saya’t tunay na pag-
Bayan ayop,
At lalong maghirap, O! himalang Supil ng panghampas, tanikalang
bagay, gapos
Lalong pag-irog pa ang sa kanya’y At luha na lamang ang pinaaagos?
alay.
15 20
Kung ang Bayang ito’y Sa kaniyang anyo’y sino ang
nasasapanganib tutunghay
At siya ay dapat na ipagtangkilik, Na di aakayin sa gawang
Ang anak, asawa, magulang, kapatid magdamdam?
Isang tawag niya’y tatalikdang pilit. Pusong naglilipak sa pagkasukaban
Ang hindi gumugol ng dugo at
buhay.
125
21 lumiyag.
Mangyayari kaya na ito’y masulyap
Ng mga Tagalog at hindi lumingap 26
Sa naghihingalong Inang nasa yapak Kayong mga pusong kusang
Na kasuklam-suklam sa Kastilang napapagal
hamak? Ng daya at bagsik ng ganid na asal,
Ngayon ay magbango’t Bayan ay
22 itanghal
Nasaan ang dangal ng mga Tagalog? Agawin sa kuko ng mga sukaban.
Nasaan ang dugong dapat na ibuhos?
Baya’y inaapi, bakit di kumilos 27
At natitilihang ito’y mapanuod? Kayong mga dukhang walang
tanging lasap
23 Kundi ang mabuhay sa dalita’t hirap,
Hayo na nga kayo, kayong Ampunin ang Bayan kung nasa ay
nangabuhay lunas
Sa pag-asang lubos na kaginhawahan Pagkat ang ginhawa niya ay sa lahat.
At walang tinamo kundi kapaitan
Hayo na’t ibigin ang naabang Bayan. 28
Ipaghandog-handog ang buong pag-
24 ibig,
Kayong natuy’an na sa kapapasakit At hanggang may dugo’y ubusang
Ng dakilang hangad sa batis ng itigis
dibdib, Kung sa pagtatanggol, buhay ay
Muling pabalungi’t tunay na pag-ibig mapatid
Kusang ibulalas sa Bayang piniit. Ito’y kapalaran at tunay na langit.
25
Kayong nalagasan ng bunga’t
bulaklak,
Kahoy nyaring buhay na nilanta’t
sukat
Ng bala-balaki’t makapal na hirap,
Muling manariwa’t sa Baya’y
Source: Jim Richardson, The light of liberty: documents and studies on the Katipunan, 1892-1897
126
Chapter IV.
Social, Political, Economic and Cultural Issues

in Philippine history
A. Agrarian Reform
THE PHILIPPINE RICE SHARE TENANCY ACT OF 1933 (ACT 4045)
ACT NO. 4054 - AN ACT TO PROMOTE THE WELL-BEING OF TENANTS (APARCEROS) IN

AGRICULTURAL LANDS DEVOTED TO THE PRODUCTION OF RICE AND TO REGULATE THE
RELATIONS BETWEEN THEM AND THE LANDLORDS OF SAID LANDS, AND FOR OTHER
PURPOSES.
PART I
Share tenancy contract in general
Section 1. Title of Act. — This Act shall be known as "The Philippine Rice Share
Tenancy Act."
Sec. 2. Share tenancy Contracts defined. — A contract of share of tenancy is one

whereby a partnership between a landlord and a tenant is entered into, for a joint pursuit
of rice agricultural work with common interest in which both parties divide between them
the resulting profits as well as the losses.
Sec. 3. Landlord and tenant interpreted. — For the purposes of this Act, the word
"landlord" shall mean and includes either a natural or juridical person who is the real
owner of the land which is the subject-matter of the contract, as well as a lessee, a
usufructuary or any other legitimate possessor of agricultural land cultivated by another;
and the word "tenant" shall mean a farmer or farm laborer who undertakes to work and
cultivate land for another or a person who furnishes the labor.
Sec. 4. Form of contract. — The contract on share tenancy, in order to be valid and
binding, shall be drawn in triplicate in the language or dialect known to all the parties
thereto, to be signed or thumb-marked both by the landlord or his authorized
representative and by the tenant, before two witnesses, one to be chosen by each party.
The party who does not know how to read and write may request one of the witnesses to
read the contents of the document. Each of the contracting parties shall retain a copy of
the contract and the third copy shall be filed with, and registered in the office of the
municipal treasurer of the municipality, where the land, which is the subject-matter of the
contract, is located: Provided, however, That in order that a contract may be considered
registered, both the copy of the landlord and that of the tenant shall contain an annotation
127
made by the municipal treasurer to the effect that same is registered in his office.
Sec. 5. Registry of tenancy contract. — For the purposes of this Act, the municipal
treasurer of the municipality wherein the land, which is the subject-matter of a contract, is
situated, shall keep a record of all contracts made within his jurisdiction, to be known as
Registry of Tenancy Contracts. He shall keep this registry together with a copy of each
contract entered therein, and make annotations on said registry in connection with the
outcome of a particular contract, such as the way same is extinguished: Provided,
however, That the municipal treasurer shall not charge fees for the registration of said
contract which shall be exempt from the documentary stamp tax.
Sec. 6. Duration of contract. — Any contract on rice tenancy entered into between
landlord and tenant or farm laborer according to this Act shall last in accordance with the
stipulation of the parties: Provided, however, That in the absence of stipulation, same
shall be understood to last only during one agricultural year: Provided, further, That
unless the contract is renewed in writing and registered as provided in section four hereof
within thirty days after the expiration of the original period, the same shall be presumed
to be extinguished: Provided, finally, That in case of renewing the contract without
changing the stipulations therein it is sufficient that the municipal treasurer shall annotate
the word "renewed" in the three copies of the contract and in the Registry of Tenancy
Contracts.
For the purposes of this section, one agricultural year shall mean the length of time
necessary for the preparation of the land, sowing, planting and harvesting a crop,
although it may be shorter or longer than a calendar year.
Sec. 7. Rules governing tenancy contracts. — In any contract of tenancy mentioned in

this Act, the contracting parties shall be free to enter into any or all kinds of agreement or
stipulations so long as they are not contrary to existing laws, customs, morals and public
policy: Provided, That such contract shall be conclusive evidence of what has been
agreed upon between the contracting parties, if their stipulations are not denounced or
impugned within thirty days from its registration in the office of the municipal treasurer,
as provided in section five of this Act.
Sec. 8. Share basis. — In the absence of any written agreement to the contrary and when
the necessary implements and the work animals are furnished by the tenant; and the
expenses for planting, harvesting, threshing, irrigation and fertilizer, if any, as well as
other expenses incident to the proper cultivation of the land, are born equally by both the
landlord and tenant, the crop shall be divided equally. The division shall be made in the
same place where the crop has been threshed and each party shall transport his share to
his warehouse, unless the contrary is stipulated by the parties: Provided, however, That
when the landlord furnishes the work animal gratuitously it shall be deemed as a special
consideration, and the tenant shall be obliged to transport the share of the landlord to his
warehouse if it is within the municipality where the land cultivated is situated.
128
“AGRICULTURAL TENANCY ACT OF THE PHILIPPINES IN 1954” (RA 1199)
AN ACT TO GOVERN THE RELATIONS BETWEEN LANDHOLDERS AND

TENANTS OF AGRICULTURAL LANDS
(LEASEHOLDS AND SHARE TENANCY)
PART I
GENERAL PROVISIONS
SECTION 1. Title. - This Act shall be known as the "Agricultural Tenancy Act
of the Philippines."
Section 2. Purposes. - It is the purpose of this Act to establish agricultural

tenancy relations between landholders and tenants upon the principle of school
justice; to afford adequate protection to the rights of both tenants and landholders;
to insure an equitable division of the produce and income derived from the land;
to provide tenant- farmers with incentives to greater and more efficient
agricultural production; to bolster their economic position and to encourage their
participation in the development of peaceful, vigorous and democratic rural
communities.
Section 3. Agricultural Tenancy Defined. - Agricultural tenancy is the physical

possession by a person of land devoted to agriculture belonging to, or legally
possessed by, another for the purpose of production through the labor of the
former and of the members of his immediate farm household, in consideration of
which the former agrees to share the harvest with the latter, or to pay a price
certain or ascertainable, either in produce or in money, or in both.
Section 4. Systems of Agricultural Tenancy; Their Definitions. - Agricultural

tenancy is classified into leasehold tenancy and share tenancy.
Share tenancy exists whenever two persons agree on a joint undertaking for
agricultural production wherein one party furnishes the land and the other his
labor, with either or both contributing any one or several of the items of
production, the tenant cultivating the land personally with the aid of labor
available from members of his immediate farm household, and the produce
thereof to be divided between the landholder and the tenant in proportion to their
respective contributions.
Leasehold tenancy exists when a person who, either personally or with the aid of
labor available from members of his immediate farm household, undertakes to
cultivate a piece of agricultural land susceptible of cultivation by a single person
together with members of his immediate farm household, belonging to or legally
possessed by, another in consideration of a price certain or ascertainable to be
129
paid by the person cultivating the land either in percentage of the production or in
a fixed amount in money, or in both.
Section 6. Tenancy Relationship; Its Definition. - Tenancy relationship is a

juridical tie which arises between a landholder and a tenant once they agree,
expressly or impliedly, to undertake jointly the cultivation of land belonging to
the former, either under the share tenancy or leasehold tenancy system, as a result
of which relationship the tenant acquires the right to continue working on and
cultivating the land, until and unless he is dispossessed of his holdings for any of
the just causes enumerated in Section fifty or the relationship is terminated in
accordance with Section nine.
Section 7. Tenancy Relationship; How established; Security of Tenure. -

Tenancy relationship may be established either verbally or in writing, expressly or
impliedly. Once such relationship is established, the tenant shall be entitled to
security of tenure as hereinafter provided.
Section 8. Limitations of Relation. - The relation of landholder and tenant shall

be limited to the person who furnishes land, either as owner, lessee, usufructuary,
or legal possessor, and to the person who actually works the land himself with the
aid of labor available from within his immediate farm household.
Section 9. Severance of Relationship. - The tenancy relationship is extinguished

by the voluntary surrender of the land by, or the death or incapacity of, the tenant,
but his heirs or the members of his immediate farm household may continue to
work the land until the close of the agricultural year. The expiration of the period
of the contract as fixed by the parties, and the sale or alienation of the land do not
of themselves extinguish the relationship. In the latter case, the purchaser or
transferee shall assume the rights and obligations of the former landholder in
relation to the tenant. In case of death of the landholder, his heir or heirs shall
likewise assume his rights and obligations.
Section 10. Contracts; Nature and Continuity of Conditions. - The terms and
conditions of tenancy contracts, as stipulated by the parties or as provided by law,
shall be understood to continue until modified by the parties. Modifications of the
terms and conditions of contracts shall not prejudice the right of the tenant to the
security of his tenure on the land as determined in Section six, seven, and forty-
nine.
Section 11. Freedom to Contract in General. - The landholder and the tenant
shall be free to enter into any or all kinds of tenancy contract, as long as they are
not contrary to law, morals or public policy. Except in case of fraud, error, force,
intimidation or undue influence, when such contract is reduced to writing and
registered as hereinafter provided, the latter shall be conclusive evidence of what
has been agreed upon between the contracting parties, if not denounced or
impugned within thirty days after its registration.
130
Said contract shall be contrary to law, morals and public policy;
A. In Share Tenancy
(a) If the tenant is to receive less than the corresponding share for the different
contributions be made to the production of the farm as hereinafter provided.
(b) If it is stipulated that the tenant or any member or his immediate farm
household shall without compensation perform any work or render any service
not connected with the tenant's duties and obligations provided under this Act.
B. In Leasehold Tenancy
(a) If the tenant-lessee is to pay to the landholder, lessor, as a consideration for the
use of the land, an amount in excess of that hereinafter provided for the kind and
class of land involved.
(b) If the tenant-lessee is to pay the landholder-lessor a consideration in excess of

the amount prescribed as fair rental value, as determined pursuant to the
provisions of this Act, for the use of work animals, services and/or farm
implements belonging to the landholder-lessor, in case it is agreed between the
parties that the latter shall furnish any or all of these items of production.
(c) If it is stipulated that, as a condition precedent to the commencement or

continuance of the lease, the tenant-lessee shall rent work animals, services or
farm implements, or shall make use of any store or services operated by the
landholder-lessor or any other person, or that the landholder-lessor may impose
fines, deductions and/or assessments, or that the tenant-lessee shall, without
compensation, perform any work or render any service not connected with the
tenant's duties and obligations provided under this Act.
CHAPTER II - Rice Share Tenancy
SECTION 32. Share Basis. - The parties shall, on ricelands which produces a
normal average of more than forty cavanes per hectare for the three agricultural
years next preceding the current harvest, receive as shares in the gross produce,
after setting aside the same amount of palay used as seed, and after deducting the
cost of fertilizer, pest and weed control, reaping and threshing, the amount
corresponding to the total equivalent of their individual contributions, computed
as follows;
131
Contribution Participation
1. Land 30%
2. Labor 30%
Farm
3. implements 5%
Work
4. Animals 5%
Final harrowing
of the field immediately
5. before transplanting 5%
6. Transplanting 25%
Section 33. Share basis on Second Class Land. - On ricelands, which produce a normal
average of forty cavans or less per hectare for the three agricultural years next preceding
the current harvest, the participation for the contribution of the land shall be twenty-five
per centum and that of labor, thirty-five per centum.
Section 34. Reimbursement Not Allowed. - Contributions or shares in the contribution to

the production of the crop in the form of cash, grain or services, once shouldered or
rendered alone by one party may not be reimbursed by the other party after the phase or
phases of work required in the joint undertaking shall have been completed.
Section 35. Sharing of Expenses. - In case the landholder and the tenant agree to share
equally in the expenses of final harrowing of field and transplanting, the latter may
engage the services of persons or helpers to perform these phases of farm work, provided
the rates for each shall have been previously determined and agreed upon between the
landholder and the tenant. In case of disagreement upon said rates, the party who
undertakes to the corresponding share in the harvest, after deducting the expenses of
reaping.
Source: http://www.lawphil.net/
132
AGRICULTURAL LAND REFORM CODE OF 1963 (RA 3844)
AN ACT TO ORDAIN THE AGRICULTURAL LAND REFORM CODE AND TO INSTITUTE

LAND REFORMS IN THE PHILIPPINES, INCLUDING THE ABOLITION OF TENANCY AND
THE CHANNELING OF CAPITAL INTO INDUSTRY, PROVIDE FOR THE NECESSARY
IMPLEMENTING AGENCIES, APPROPRIATE FUNDS THEREFOR AND FOR OTHER
PURPOSES
PRELIMINARY CHAPTER
TITLE
DECLARATION OF POLICY AND COMPOSITION OF CODE
Section 1. Title - This Act shall be known as the Agricultural Land Reform Code.
Composition of Code - In pursuance of the policy enunciated in Section two, the

following are established under this Code:
(1) An agricultural leasehold system to replace all existing share tenancy systems in
agriculture;
(2) A declaration of rights for agricultural labor;
(3) An authority for the acquisition and equitable distribution of agricultural land;
(4) An institution to finance the acquisition and distribution of agricultural land;
(5) A machinery to extend credit and similar assistance to agriculture;
(6) A machinery to provide marketing, management, and other technical services to
agriculture;
(7) A unified administration for formulating and implementing projects of land reform;
(8) An expanded program of land capability survey, classification, and registration; and
(9) A judicial system to decide issues arising under this Code and other related laws and
regulations.
CHAPTER I
AGRICULTURAL LEASEHOLD SYSTEM
Abolition of Agricultural Share Tenancy - Agricultural share tenancy, as herein defined,

is hereby declared to be contrary to public policy and shall be abolished: Provided, That
existing share tenancy contracts may continue in force and effect in any region or
locality, to be governed in the meantime by the pertinent provisions of Republic Act
Numbered Eleven hundred and ninety-nine, as amended, until the end of the agricultural
year when the National Land Reform Council proclaims that all the government
machineries and agencies in that region or locality relating to leasehold envisioned in this
Code are operating, unless such contracts provide for a shorter period or the tenant sooner
exercise his option to elect the leasehold system: Provided, further, That in order not to
jeopardize international commitments, lands devoted to crops covered by marketing
allotments shall be made the subject of a separate proclamation that adequate provisions,
such as the organization of cooperatives, marketing agreements, or other similar
workable arrangements, have been made to insure efficient management on all matters
133
requiring synchronization of the agricultural with the processing phases of such crops:
Provided, furthermore, That where the agricultural share tenancy contract has ceased to
be operative by virtue of this Code, or where such a tenancy contract has been entered
into in violation of the provisions of this Code and is, therefore, null and void, and the
tenant continues in possession of the land for cultivation, there shall be presumed to exist
a leasehold relationship under the provisions of this Code, without prejudice to the right
of the landowner and the former tenant to enter into any other lawful contract in relation
to the land formerly under tenancy contract, as long as in the interim the security of
tenure of the former tenant under Republic Act Numbered Eleven hundred and ninety-
nine, as amended, and as provided in this Code, is not impaired: Provided, finally, That if
a lawful leasehold tenancy contract was entered into prior to the effectivity of this Code,
the rights and obligations arising therefrom shall continue to subsist until modified by the
parties in accordance with the provisions of this Code.
Establishment of Agricultural Leasehold Relation - The agricultural leasehold relation

shall be established by operation of law in accordance with Section four of this Code and,
in other cases, either orally or in writing, expressly or impliedly.
Parties to Agricultural Leasehold Relation - The agricultural leasehold relation shall be

limited to the person who furnishes the landholding, either as owner, civil law lessee,
usufructuary, or legal possessor, and the person who personally cultivates the same.
Tenure of Agricultural Leasehold Relation - The agricultural leasehold relation once

established shall confer upon the agricultural lessee the right to continue working on the
landholding until such leasehold relation is extinguished. The agricultural lessee shall be
entitled to security of tenure on his landholding and cannot be ejected therefrom unless
authorized by the Court for causes herein provided.
Extinguishment of Agricultural Leasehold Relation - The agricultural leasehold relation

established under this Code shall be extinguished by:
(1) Abandonment of the landholding without the knowledge of the agricultural lessor;
(2) Voluntary surrender of the landholding by the agricultural lessee, written notice of
which shall be served three months in advance; or
(3) Absence of the persons under Section nine to succeed to the lessee, in the event of
death or permanent incapacity of the lessee.
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The Agricultural Land Reform Code (RA 3844) was a major advancement
of land reform in the Philippines and was enacted in 1963 under President Diosdado
Macapagal. It abolished tenancy and established a leasehold system in which farmers
paid fixed rentals to landlords, rather than a percentage of harvest. In agriculutral
leasehold, the farmer cultivates the land belonging to, or possessed by, another with the
latter's consent for a price certain in money or in produce or both. It also established
the Land Bank of the Philippines to help with land reform, particularly the purchase of
agricultural estates for division and resale to small landholders, and the purchase of land
by the agricultural lessee.
While the law was a significant advance over previous legislation, though the bill
was weakened by numerous amendments imposed by Congress, which was dominated
by landlords. It was also weakened by the failure of Congress to allocate necessary funds
for effective implementation of the law. The act has been further amended several times
subsequent to becoming law by later legislation.
The main provisions of the Agricultural Land Reform Code were:

 To establish and encourage the formation of family-sized farms as the basis for
Philippine agriculture
 To improve the lives of farmers by liberating them from harmful practices such as
illegal interest rates
 To encourage greater productivity and increase income of small farmers
 To apply labor laws equally regardless of status
 To provide a land settlement program and promote equitable distribution of land
 To make poor farmers self-reliant, responsible citizens to strengthen society
Source: http://www.lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra1963/ra_3844_1963.html
135
PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No. 27

October 21, 1972
DECREEING THE EMANCIPATION OF TENANTS FROM THE BONDAGE OF THE SOIL,

TRANSFERRING TO THEM THE OWNERSHIP OF THE LAND THEY TILL AND PROVIDING
THE INSTRUMENTS AND MECHANISM THEREFOR
In as much as the old concept of land ownership by a few has spawned valid and
legitimate grievances that gave rise to violent conflict and social tension,
The redress of such legitimate grievances being one of the fundamental objectives of the
New Society,
Since Reformation must start with the emancipation of the tiller of the soil from his
bondage,
NOW, THEREFORE, I, FERDINAND E. MARCOS, President of the Philippines, by

virtue of the powers vested in me by the Constitution as Commander-in-Chief of all the
Armed Forces of the Philippines, and pursuant to Proclamation No. 1081, dated
September 21, 1972, and General Order No. 1 dated September 22, 1972, as amended do
hereby decree and order the emancipation of all tenant farmers as of this day, October 21,
1972:
This shall apply to tenant farmers of private agricultural lands primarily devoted to rice
and corn under a system of sharecrop or lease-tenancy, whether classified as landed estate
or not;
The tenant farmer, whether in land classified as landed estate or not, shall be deemed
owner of a portion constituting a family-size farm of five (5) hectares if not irrigated and
three (3) hectares if irrigated;
In all cases, the landowner may retain an area of not more than seven (7) hectares if such
landowner is cultivating such area or will now cultivate it;
For the purpose of determining the cost of the land to be transferred to the tenant-farmer
pursuant to this Decree, the value of the land shall be equivalent to two and one-half (2
1/2) times the average harvest of three normal crop years immediately preceding the
promulgation of this Decree;
The total cost of the land, including interest at the rate of six (6) per centum per annum,
shall be paid by the tenant in fifteen (15) years of fifteen (15) equal annual amortizations;
In case of default, the amortization due shall be paid by the farmers' cooperative in which
the defaulting tenant-farmer is a member, with the cooperative having a right of recourse
against him;
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The government shall guaranty such amortizations with shares of stock in government-
owned and government-controlled corporations;
No title to the land owned by the tenant-farmers under this Decree shall be actually
issued to a tenant-farmer unless and until the tenant-farmer has become a full-fledged
member of a duly recognized farmer's cooperative;
Title to land acquired pursuant to this Decree or the Land Reform Program of the
Government shall not be transferable except by hereditary succession or to the
Government in accordance with the provisions of this Decree, the Code of Agrarian
Reforms and other existing laws and regulations;
The Department of Agrarian Reform through its Secretary is hereby empowered to

promulgate rules and regulations for the implementation of this Decree.
All laws, executive orders, decrees and rules and regulations, or parts thereof,
inconsistent with this Decree are hereby repealed and or modified accordingly.
Source: http://www.lawphil.net/statutes/presdecs/pd1972/pd_27_1972.html
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COMPREHENSIVE AGRARIAN REFORM PROGRAM OF 1988

RA 6657
CARP, or the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program, is the redistribution of

public and private agricultural lands to farmers and farmworkers who are landless,
irrespective of tenurial arrangement. CARP’s vision is to have an equitable land
ownership with empowered agrarian reform beneficiaries who can effectively manage
their economic and social development to have a better quality of life.
One of the major programs of CARP is Land Tenure Improvement, which seeks
to hasten distribution of lands to landless farmers. Similarly, the Department offers
Support Services to the beneficiaries such as infrastructure facilities, marketing assistance
program, credit assistance program, and technical support programs. Furthermore, the
department seeks to facilitate, resolve cases and deliver Agrarian Justice.
The legal basis for CARP is the Republic Act No. 6657 otherwise known as
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL) signed by President Corazon C. Aquino
on June 10, 1988. It is an act which aims to promote social justice and industrialization,
providing the mechanism for its implementation, and for other purposes.
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 6657

(June 10, 1988)
AN ACT INSTITUTING A COMPREHENSIVE AGRARIAN REFORM PROGRAM TO
PROMOTE SOCIAL JUSTICE AND INDUSTRIALIZATION, PROVIDING THE MECHANISM
FOR ITS IMPLEMENTATION, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES
CHAPTER I
Preliminary Chapter
SECTION 1. Title. — This Act shall be known as the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform
Law of 1988.
Definition. —For the purpose of this Act, unless the context indicates otherwise:
(a) Agrarian Reform means redistribution of lands, regardless of crops or fruits

produced, to farmers and regular farmworkers who are landless, irrespective of
tenurial arrangement, to include the totality of factors and support services designed to
lift the economic status of the beneficiaries and all other arrangements alternative to the
physical redistribution of lands, such as production or profit-sharing, labor
administration, and the distribution of shares of stocks, which will allow beneficiaries to
receive a just share of the fruits of the lands they work.
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CHAPTER II
Coverage
SECTION 4. Scope. — The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law of 1989 shall cover,
regardless of tenurial arrangement and commodity produced, all public and private
agricultural lands, as provided in Proclamation No. 131 and Executive Order No. 229,
including other lands of the public domain suitable for agriculture.
More specifically the following lands are covered by the Comprehensive Agrarian
Reform Program:
(a) All alienable and disposable lands of the public domain devoted to or suitable for
agriculture. No reclassification of forest or mineral lands to agricultural lands shall be
undertaken after the approval of this Act until Congress, taking into account ecological,
developmental and equity considerations, shall have determined by law, the specific
limits of the public domain.
(b) All lands of the public domain in excess of the specific limits as determined by
Congress in the preceding paragraph;
(c) All other lands owned by the Government devoted to or suitable for agriculture; and
(d) All private lands devoted to or suitable for agriculture regardless of the agricultural
products raised or that can be raised thereon.
Schedule of Implementation. — The distribution of all lands covered by this Act shall be
implemented immediately and completed within ten (10) years from the effectivity
thereof.
Retention Limits. — Except as otherwise provided in this Act, no person may own or
retain, directly or indirectly, any public or private agricultural land, the size of which
shall vary according to factors governing a viable family-size farm, such as commodity
produced, terrain, infrastructure, and soil fertility as determined by the Presidential
Agrarian Reform Council (PARC) created hereunder, but in no case shall retention by the
landowner exceed five (5) hectares.
Three (3) hectares may be awarded to each child of the landowner, subject to
the following qualifications: (1) that he is at least fifteen (15) years of age; and (2) that
he is actually tilling the land or directly managing the farm: Provided, That
landowners whose lands have been covered by Presidential Decree No. 27 shall be
allowed to keep the areas originally retained by them thereunder: Provided, further, That
original homestead grantees or their direct compulsory heirs who still own the
original homestead at the time of the approval of this Act shall retain the same areas as
long as they continue to cultivate said homestead.
The right to choose the area to be retained, which shall be compact or contiguous, shall
pertain to the landowner: Provided, however, That in case the area selected for retention
by the landowner is tenanted, the tenant shall have the option to choose whether to
139
remain therein or be a beneficiary in the same or another agricultural land with similar or
comparable features. In case the tenant chooses to remain in the retained area, he shall be
considered a leaseholder and shall lose his right to be a beneficiary under this Act. In case
the tenant chooses to be a beneficiary in another agricultural land, he loses his right as a
leaseholder to the land retained by the landowner. The tenant must exercise this option
within a period of one (1) year from the time the landowner manifests his choice of the
area for retention. In all cases, the security of tenure of the farmers or farmworkers on the
land prior to the approval of this Act shall be respected.
Upon the effectivity of this Act, any sale, disposition, lease, management, contract or
transfer of possession of private lands executed by the original landowner in violation of
the Act shall be null and void: Provided, however, That those executed prior to this Act
shall be valid only when registered with the Register of Deeds within a period of three (3)
months after the effectivity of this Act. Thereafter, all Registers of Deeds shall inform the
Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR) within thirty (30) days of any transaction
involving agricultural lands in excess of five (5) hectares.
Source: http://www.gov.ph/downloads/1988/06jun/19880610-RA-6657-CCA.pdf
140
COMPREHENSIVE AGRARIAN REFORM PROGRAM EXTENSION WITH

REFORMS OF 2009 (RA 9700)
AN ACT STRENGTHENING THE COMPREHENSIVE AGRARIAN REFORM PROGRAM

(CARP), EXTENDING THE ACQUISITION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ALL AGRICULTURAL
LANDS, INSTITUTING NECESSARY REFORMS, AMENDING FOR THE PURPOSE
CERTAIN PROVISIONS OF REPUBLIC ACT NO. 6657, OTHERWISE, KNOWN AS THE
COMPREHENSIVE AGRARIAN REFORM LAW OF 1988, AS AMENDED, AND
APPROPRIATING FUNDS THEREFOR
Section 2 of Republic Act No. 6657, as amended, otherwise known as the

Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law of 1988, is hereby further amended to read as
follows:
Section 4 of Republic Act No. 6657, as amended, is hereby further amended to read as
follows: "SEC. 4. Scope. — The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law of 1988 shall
cover, regardless of tenurial arrangement and commodity produced, all public and private
agricultural lands as provided in Proclamation No. 131 and Executive Order No. 229,
including other lands of the public domain suitable for agriculture: Provided, That
landholdings of landowners with a total area of five (5) hectares and below shall not be
covered for acquisition and distribution to qualified beneficiaries. IHAcCS "More
specifically, the following lands are covered by the CARP: "(a) All alienable and
disposable lands of the public domain devoted to or suitable for agriculture. No
reclassification of forest or mineral lands to agricultural lands shall be undertaken after
the approval of this Act until Congress, taking into account ecological, developmental
and equity considerations, shall have determined by law, the specific limits of the public
domain; "(b) All lands of the public domain in excess of the specific limits as determined
by Congress in the preceding paragraph; "(c) All other lands owned by the Government
devoted to or suitable for agriculture; and "(d) All private lands devoted to or suitable for
agriculture regardless of the agricultural products raised or that can be raised thereon. "A
comprehensive inventory system in consonance with the national land use plan shall be
instituted by the Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR), in accordance with the Local
Government Code, for the purpose of properly identifying and classifying farmlands
within one (1) year from effectivity of this Act, without prejudice to the implementation
of the land acquisition and distribution."
There shall be incorporated after Section 6 of Republic Act No. 6657, as amended, new
sections to read as follows: EHTISC "SEC. 6-A. Exception to Retention Limits. —
Provincial, city and municipal government units acquiring private agricultural lands by
expropriation or other modes of acquisition to be used for actual, direct and exclusive
public purposes, such as roads and bridges, public markets, school sites, resettlement
sites, local government facilities, public parks and barangay plazas or squares, consistent
with the approved local comprehensive land use plan, shall not be subject to the five (5)-
hectare retention limit under this Section and Sections 70 and 73(a) of Republic Act No.
6657, as amended: Provided, That lands subject to CARP shall first undergo the land
acquisition and distribution process of the program: Provided, further, That when these
lands have been subjected to expropriation, the agrarian reform beneficiaries therein shall
141
be paid just compensation." "SEC. 6-B. Review of Limits of Land Size. — Within six (6)
months from the effectivity of this Act, the DAR shall submit a comprehensive study on
the land size appropriate for each type of crop to Congress for a possible review of limits
of land sizes provided in this Act."
Section 7 of Republic Act No. 6657, as amended, is hereby further amended to read as
follows: "SEC. 7. Priorities. — The DAR, in coordination with the Presidential Agrarian
Reform Council (PARC) shall plan and program the final acquisition and distribution of
all remaining unacquired and undistributed agricultural lands from the effectivity of this
Act until June 30, 2014. Lands shall be acquired and distributed as follows:
"Phase One: During the five (5)-year extension period hereafter all remaining lands
above fifty (50) hectares shall be covered for purposes of agrarian reform upon the
effectivity of this Act. All private agricultural lands of landowners with aggregate
landholdings in excess of fifty (50) hectares which have already been subjected to a
notice of coverage issued on or before December 10, 2008; rice and corn lands under
Presidential Decree No. 27; all idle or abandoned lands; all private lands voluntarily
offered by the owners for agrarian reform: Provided, That with respect to voluntary land
transfer, only those submitted by June 30, 2009 shall be allowed: Provided, further, That
after June 30, 2009, the modes of acquisition shall be limited to voluntary offer to sell
and compulsory acquisition: Provided, furthermore, That all previously acquired lands
wherein valuation is subject to challenge by landowners shall be completed and finally
resolved pursuant to Section 17 of Republic Act No. 6657, as amended: Provided, finally,
as mandated by the Constitution, Republic Act No. 6657, as amended, and Republic Act
No. 3844, as amended, only farmers (tenants or lessees) and regular farmworkers actually
tilling the lands, as certified under oath by the Barangay Agrarian Reform Council
(BARC) and attested under oath by the landowners, are the qualified beneficiaries. The
intended beneficiary shall state under oath before the judge of the city or municipal court
that he/she is willing to work on the land to make it productive and to assume the
obligation of paying the amortization for the compensation of the land and the land taxes
thereon; all lands foreclosed by government financial institutions; all lands acquired by
the Presidential Commission on Good Government (PCGG); and all other lands owned
by the government devoted to or suitable for agriculture, which shall be acquired and
distributed immediately upon the effectivity of this Act, with the implementation to be
completed by June 30, 2012;
"Phase Two: (a) Lands twenty-four (24) hectares up to fifty (50) hectares shall likewise
be covered for purposes of agrarian reform upon the effectivity of this Act. All alienable
and disposable public agricultural lands; all arable public agricultural lands under agro-
forest, pasture and agricultural leases already cultivated and planted to crops in
accordance with Section 6, Article XIII of the Constitution; all public agricultural lands
which are to be opened for new development and resettlement; and all private agricultural
lands of landowners with aggregate landholdings: above twenty-four (24) hectares up to
fifty (50) hectares which have already been subjected to a notice of coverage issued on or
before December 10, 2008, to implement principally the rights of farmers and regular
farmworkers, who are landless, to own directly or collectively the lands they till, which
shall be distributed immediately upon the effectivity of this Act, with the implementation
142
to be completed by June 30, 2012; and "(b) All remaining private agricultural lands of
landowners with aggregate landholdings in excess of twenty-four (24) hectares,
regardless as to whether these have been subjected to notices of coverage or not, with the
implementation to begin on July 1, 2012 and to be completed by June 30, 2013;
"Phase Three: All other private agricultural lands commencing with large landholdings
and proceeding to medium and small landholdings under the following schedule: "(a)
Lands of landowners with aggregate landholdings above ten (10) hectares up to twenty-
four (24) hectares, insofar as the excess hectarage above ten (10) hectares is concerned, to
begin on July 1, 2012 and to be completed by June 30, 2013; and "(b) Lands of
landowners with aggregate landholdings from the retention limit up to ten (10) hectares,
to begin on July 1, 2013 and to be completed by June 30, 2014; to implement principally
the right of farmers and regular farmworkers who are landless, to own directly or
collectively the lands they till.
Source: http://www.chanrobles.com /republicacts/republicactsno9700_pdf.php
143
B. Philippine Constitution
MALOLOS CONSTITUTION OF 1899
Preamble
We, the Representatives of the Filipino people, lawfully covened, in order to

establish justice, provide for common defense, promote the general welfare, and
insure the benefits of liberty, imploring the aid of the Sovereign Legislator of
the Universe for the attainment of these ends, have voted, decreed, and
sanctioned the following:
POLITICAL CONSTITUTION
Title I
THE REPUBLIC
Article 1. The political association of all Filipinos constitutes a nation, whose

state shall be known as the Philippine Republic.
Article 2. The Philippine Republic is free and independent.
Article 3. Sovereignty resides exclusively in the people.
Title II
THE GOVERNMENT
Article 4. The Government of the Republic is popular, representative,

alternative, and responsible, and shall exercise three distinct powers: namely,
the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. Any two or more of these three
powers shall never be united in one person or cooperation, nor the legislative
power vested in one single individual.
Title III
RELIGION
Article 5. The State recognizes the freedom and equality of all religions, as well
as the separation of the Church and the State.
144
Title IV
THE FILIPINOS AND THEIR NATIONAL
AND INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS
Article 6. The following are Filipinos:
1. All persons born in the Philippine territory. A vessel of Philippine registry is

considered, for this purpose, as part of Philippine territory.
2. Children of a Filipino father or mother, although born outside of the

Philippines.
3. Foreigners who have obtained certification of naturalization.
4. Those who, without such certificate, have acquired a domicile in any town
within Philippine territory.
It is understood that domicile is acquired by uninterrupted residence for two

years in any locality within Philippine territory, with an open abode and known
occupation, and contributing to all the taxes imposed by the Nation.
The condition of being a Filipino is lost in accordance with law.
Article 7. No Filipino or foreigner shall be detained nor imprisoned except for

the commission of a crime and in accordance with law.
Article 8. All persons detained shall be discharged or delivered to the judicial

authority within 24 hours following the act of detention. All detentions shall be
without legal effect, unless the arrested person is duly prosecuted within 72
hours after delivery to a competent court. The accused shall be duly notified of
such proceeding within the same period.
Article 9. No Filipino shall be imprisoned except by virtue of an order by a

competent court. The order of imprisonment shall be ratified or confirmed
within 72 hours following the said order, after the accused has been heard.
Article 10. No one shall enter the dwelling house of any Filipino or a foreigner
residing in the Philippines without his consent except in urgent cases of fire,
inundation, earthquake or similar dangers, or by reason of unlawful aggression
from within, or in order to assist a person therein who cries for help. Outside of
these cases, the entry into the dwelling house of any Filipino or foreign resident
145
in the Philippines or the search of his papers and effects can only be decreed by
a competent court and executed only in the daytime. The search of papers and
effects shall be made always in the presence of the person searched or of a
member of his family and, in their absence, of two witnesses resident of the
same place. However, when a criminal caught in fraganti should take refuge in
his dwelling house, the authorities in pursuit may enter into it, only for the
purpose of making an arrest. If a criminal should take refuge in the dwelling
house of a foreigner, the consent of a latter must first be obtained.
Article 11. No Filipino shall be compelled to change his residence or domicile

except by virtue of a final judgment.
Article 12. In no case may correspondence confided to the post office be

detained or opened by government authorities, nor any telegraphic or telephonic
message detained. However, by virtue of a competent court, correspondence
may be detained and opened in the presence of the sender.
Article 13. All orders of imprisonment, of search of a dwelling house, or

detention of written correspondence, telegraph or telephone, must be
justified. When an order lacks this requisite, or when the grounds on which the
act was founded is proven in court to be unlawful or manifestly insufficient, the
person to be detained or whose imprisonment has not been ratified within the
period prescribed in Art. 9, or whose correspondence has been detained, shall
have the right to recover damages.
Article 14. No Filipino shall be prosecuted or sentenced, except by a judge or

court of proper jurisdiction and according to the procedure prescribed by law.
Article 15. Exept in the cases provided by the Constitution, all persons detained
or imprisoned not in accordance with legal formalities shall be released upon his
own petition or upon petition of another person. The law shall determine the
manner of proceeding summarily in this instance, as well as the personal and
pecuniary penalties which shall be imposed upon the person who ordered,
executed or to be executed the illegal detention or imprisonment.
Article 16. No one shall be temporarily or permanently deprived of rights or

dstured in his enjoyment thereof, except by virtue of judicial sentence. The
officials who, under any pretext whatsoever, should violate this provision, shall
be personally liable for the damages caused.
Article 17. No one shall be deprived of his property by expropriation except on

grounds of public necessity and benefit, previously declared and justified by
proper authorities, and indemnifying the owner thereof prior to expropriation.
146
Article 18. No one shall be obliged to pay any public tax which had not been
approved by the National Assembly or by local popular governments legally so
authorized, and which is not in the manner prescribed by the law.
Article 19. No Filipino who is in full enjoyment of his civil or political rights,
shall be impeded in the free exercise of said rights.
Article 20. Neither shall any Filipino be deprived:

1. Of the right to freely express his ideas or opinions, orally or in writing,
through the use of the press or other similar means.
2. Of the right of association for purposes of human life and which are not
contrary to public morals; and lastly
3. Of the right to send petitions to the authorities, individually or collectively.
The right of petition shall not be exercised through any kind of armed force.
Article 21. The exercise of the rights provided for in the preceding article shall
be subject to general provisions regulating the same.
Article 22. Crimes committed on the occasion of the exercise of rights provided
for in this title, shall be punished by the courts in accordance with the laws.
Article 23. Any Filipino may establish and maintain institutions of learning, in
accordance with the laws authorizing them. Public education shall be free and
obligatory in all schools of the nation.
Article 24. Foreigners may freely reside in Philippine territory, subject to legal
dispositions regulating the matter; may engage in any occupation or profession
for the exercise of which no special license is required by law to be issued by
the national authorities.
Article 25. No Filipino who is in full enjoyment of his political and civil rights
shall be impeded in his right to travel freely abroad or in his right to transfer his
residence or possessions to another country, except as to his obligations to
contribute to military service or the maintenance of public taxes.
Article 26. No foreigner who has not been naturalized may exercise in the
Philippines any office which carries with it any authority or jurisdictional
powers.
147
Article 27. All Filipinos are obliged to defend his country with arms when
called upon by law, and to contribute to the expenses of the State in proportion
to his means.
Article 28. The enumeration of the rights provided for in this title does not
imply the denial of other rights not mentioned.
Article 29. The prior authorization to prosecute a public official in the ordinary
courts is not necessary, whatever may be the crime committed.
A superior order shall not exempt a public official from liability in the cases
which constitute apparent and clear violations of constitutional precepts. In
others, the agents of the law shall only be exempted if they did not exercise the
authority.
Article 30. The guarantees provided for in Articles 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 and
paragraphs 1 and 2 of Article 20 shall not be suspended, partially or wholly, in
any part of the Republic, except temporarily and by authority of law, when the
security of the State in extraordinary circumstances so demands.
When promulgated in any territory where the suspension applies, there shall be
a special law which shall govern during the period of the suspension, according
to the circumstances prevailing.
The law of suspension as well as the special law to govern shall be approved by
the National Assembly, and in case the latter is in recess, the Government shall
have the power to decree the same jointly with the Permanent Commission,
without prejudice to convoking the Assembly without the least delay and report
to it what had been done. However, any suspension made shall not affect more
rights than those mentioned in the first paragraph of this article nor authorize the
Government to banish or deport from the Philippines any Filipino
Article 31. In the Republic of the Philippines, no one shall be judged by a

special law nor by special tribunals. No person or corporation may enjoy
privileges or emoluments which are not in compensation for public service
rendered and authorized by law. War and marine laws shall apply
only for crimes and delicts which have intimate relation to military or naval
discipline.
Article 32. No Filipino shall establish laws on primogeniture, nor institutions

restrictive of property rights, nor accept honors, decorations, or honorific titles
or nobility from foreign nations without the
consent of the Government.
148
Neither shall the Government establish in the Republic institutions mentioned in

the preceding paragraph, nor confer honors, decorations, or honorific titles of
nobility to any Filipino.
The Nation, however, may reward by special law approved by the Assembly,
conspicuous services rendered by citizens of the country.
Source: http://www.lawphil.net/consti/consmalo.html
149
COMMONWEALTH CONSTITUTION OF 1935
The Filipino people, imploring the aid of Divine Providence, in order to establish a
government that shall embody their ideals, conserve and develop the patrimony of the
nation, promote the general welfare, and secure to themselves and their posterity the
blessings of independence under a régime of justice, liberty, and democracy, do ordain
and promulgate this Constitution.
Article I.—THE NATIONAL TERRITORY
Section 1. The Philippines comprises all the territory ceded to the United States by the
treaty of Paris concluded between the United States and Spain on the tenth day of
December, eighteen hundred and ninety-eight, the limits of which are set forth in Article
III of said treaty, together with all the islands embraced in the treaty concluded at
Washington, between the United States and Spain on the seventh day of November,
nineteen hundred, and in the treaty concluded between the United States and Great
Britain on the second day of January, nineteen hundred and thirty, and all territory over
which the present Government of the Philippine Islands exercises jurisdiction.
ARTICLE II.—DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES
Section 1. The Philippines is a republican state. Sovereignty resides in the people and all
government authority emanates from them.
Sec. 2. The defense of the State is a prime duty of government, and in the fulfillment of
this duty all citizens may be required by law to render personal military or civil service.
Sec. 3. The Philippines renounces war as an instrument of national policy, and adopts the
generally accepted principles of international law as a part of the law of the Nation.
SEC. 4. The natural right and duty of parents in the rearing of the youth for civic
efficiency should receive the aid and support of the Government.
SEC. 5. The promotion of social justice to insure the well-being and economic security of
all the people should be the concern of the State.
ARTICLE III.—BILL OF RIGHTS
SECTION 1. (1) No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due
process of law, nor shall any person be denied the equal protection of the laws.
(2) Private property shall not be taken for public use without just compensation.
(3) The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects
against unreasonable searches and seizures shall not be violated, and no warrants shall
150
issue but upon probable cause, to be determined by the judge after examination under
oath or affirmation of the complainant and the witnesses he may produce, and particularly
describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
(4) The liberty of abode and of changing the same within the limits prescribed by law
shall not be impaired.
(5) The privacy of communication and correspondence shall be inviolable except upon
lawful order of the court or when public safety and order require otherwise.
(6) The right to form associations or societies for purposes not contrary to law shall not
be abridged.
(7) No law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free
exercise thereof, and the free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and worship,
without discrimination or preference, shall forever be allowed. No religious test shall be
required for the exercise of civil or political rights.
(8) No law shall be passed abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press, or the right of
the people peaceably to assemble and petition the Government for redress of grievances
(9) No law granting a little of nobility shall be enacted, and no person holding any office
of profit or trust shall, without the consent of the National Assembly, accept any present,
emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever from any foreign state.
(10) No law impairing the obligation of contracts shall be passed.
(11) No ex post facto law or bill of attainder shall be enacted.
(12) No person shall be imprisoned for debt or nonpayment of a poll tax.
(13) No involuntary servitude in any form shall exist except as a punishment for crime
whereof the party shall have been duly convicted.
(14) The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended except in cases of
invasion, insurrection, or rebellion, when the public safety requires it, in any of which
events the same may be suspended wherever during such period the necessity for such
suspension shall exist.
(15) No person shall be held to answer for a criminal offense without due process of law.
(16) All persons shall before conviction be bailable by sufficient sureties, except those
charged with capital offenses when evidence of guilt is strong. Excessive bail shall not be
required.
151
(17) In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall be presumed to be innocent until the
contrary is proved, and shall enjoy the right to be heard by himself and counsel, to be
informed of the nature and cause of the accusation against him, to have a speedy and
public trial, to meet the witnesses face to face and to have compulsory process to secure
the attendance of witnesses in his behalf.
(18) Bo person shall be compelled to be a witness against himself.
(19) Excessive fines shall not be imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishment inflicted.
(20) No person shall be twice put in jeopardy of punishment for the same offense. If an
cat is punished by a law and an ordinance, conviction or acquittal under either shall
constitute a bar to another prosecution for the same act.
(21) Free access to the courts shall not be denied to any person by reason of poverty.
Source: http://www.gov.ph/constitutions/1935-constitution-amended/
152
1973 CONSTITUTION
Preamble
We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring the aid of Divine Providence, in order to
establish a Government that shall embody our ideals, promote the general welfare,
conserve and develop the patrimony of our Nation, and secure to ourselves and our
posterity the blessings of democracy under a regime of justice, peace, liberty, and
equality, do ordain and promulgate this Constitution.
THE NATIONAL TERRITORY
SECTION 1. The national territory comprises the Philippine archipelago, with all the
islands and waters embraced therein, and all the other territories belonging to the
Philippines by historic right or legal title, including the territorial sea, the air space, the
subsoil, the sea-bed, the insular shelves, and the other submarine areas over which the
Philippines has sovereignty or jurisdiction. The waters around, between, and connecting
the islands of the archipelago, irrespective of their breadth and dimensions, form part of
the internal waters of the Philippines.
DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES AND STATE POLICIES
SECTION 1. The Philippines is a republican state. Sovereignty resides in the people and
all governmental authority emanates from them.
SEC. 2. The defense of the State is a prime duty of the Government and the people, and
in the fulfillment of this duty all citizens may be required by law to render personal
military or civil service.
SEC. 3. The Philippines renounces war as an instrument of national policy, adopts the
generally accepted principles of international law as part of the law of the land, and
adheres to the policy of peace, equality, justice, freedom, cooperation, and amity with all
nations.
SEC. 4. The State shall strengthen the family as a basic social institution. The natural
right and duty of parents in the rearing of the youth for civic efficiency and the
development of moral character shall receive the aid and support of the Government.
SEC. 5. The State recognizes the vital role of the youth in the nation-building and shall
promote their physical, intellectual, and social well-being.
153
SEC. 6. The State shall promote social justice to ensure the dignity, welfare, and security
of all the people. Towards this end, the State shall regulate the acquisition, ownership,
use, enjoyment, and disposition of private property, and equitably diffuse property
ownership and profits.
SEC. 7. The State shall establish, maintain, and ensure adequate social services in the
field of education, health, housing, employment, welfare, and social security to guarantee
the enjoyment by the people of a decent standard of living.
SEC. 8. Civilian authority is at all times supreme over the military.
SEC. 9. The State shall afford protection to labor, promote full employment and equality
in employment, ensure equal work opportunities regardless of sex, race, or creed, and
regulate the relations between workers and employers. The State shall assure the rights of
workers to self-organization, collective bargaining, security of tenure, and just and
humane conditions of work. The State may provide for compulsory arbitration.
SEC. 10. The State shall guarantee and promote the autonomy of local government units,
especially the [barangays ], to ensure their fullest development as self-reliant
communities.
CITIZENSHIP
SECTION 1. The following are citizens of the Philippines:
(1) Those who are citizens of the Philippines at the time of the adoption of this
Constitution.
(2) Those whose fathers or mothers are citizens of the Philippines.
(3) Those who elect Philippine citizenship pursuant to the provisions of the Constitution
of nineteen hundred and thirty-five.
(4) Those who are naturalized in accordance with law.
SEC. 2. A female citizen of the Philippines who marries an alien shall retain her
Philippine citizenship, unless by her act or omission she is deemed, under the law, to
have renounced her citizenship.
SEC. 3. Philippine citizenship may be lost or reacquired in the manner provided by law.
SEC. 4. A natural-born citizen is one who is a citizen of the Philippines from birth
without having to perform any act to acquire or perfect his Philippine citizenship.
154
BILL OF RIGHTS
SECTION 1. No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process
of law, nor shall any person be denied the equal protection of the laws.
SEC. 2. Private property shall not be taken for public use without just compensation.
SEC. 3. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects
against unreasonable searches and seizures of whatever nature and for any purpose shall
not be violated, and no search warrant or warrant of arrest shall issue except upon
probable cause to be determined by the judge, or such other responsible officer as may be
authorized by law, after examination under oath or affirmation of the complainant and the
witnesses he may produce, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the
persons or things to be seized.
SEC. 4. (1) The privacy of communication and correspondence shall be inviolable except
upon lawful order of the court, or when public safety and order require otherwise.
(2) Any evidence obtained in violation of this or the preceding section shall be
inadmissible for any purpose in any proceeding.
SEC. 5. The liberty of abode and of travel shall not, be impaired except upon lawful order
of the court, or when necessary in the interest of national security, public safety, or public
health.
SEC. 6. The right of the people to information on matters of public concern shall be
recognized. Access to official records, and to documents and papers pertaining to official
acts, transactions, or decisions, shall be afforded the citizen subject to such limitations as
may be provided by law.
SEC. 7. The right to form associations or societies for purposes not contrary to law shall
not be abridged.
SEC. 8. No law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the

free exercise thereof. The free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and
worship, without discrimination or preference, shall forever be allowed. No religious test
shall be required for the exercise of civil or political rights.
SEC. 9. No law shall be passed abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press, or the
right of the people peaceably to assemble and petition the Government for redress of
grievances.
SEC. 10. No law granting a title of royalty or nobility shall be enacted.
SEC. 11. No law impairing the obligation of contracts shall be passed.
155
SEC. 12. No ex post facto law or bill of attainder shall be enacted.
SEC. 13. No person shall be imprisoned for debt or non-payment of a poll tax.
SEC. 14. No involuntary servitude in any form shall exist except as a punishment for a
crime whereof the party shall have been duty convicted.
SEC. 15. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended except in
cases of invasion, insurrection, rebellion, or imminent danger thereof, when the public
safety requires it.
SEC. 16. All persons shall have the right to a speedy disposition of their cases before all
judicial, quasi-judicial, or administrative bodies.
SEC. 17. No person shall be held to answer for a criminal offense without due process of
law.
SEC. 18. All persons, except those charged with capital offenses when evidence of guilt
is strong, shall, before conviction, be bailable by sufficient sureties. Excessive bail shall
not be required.
SEC. 19. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall be presumed innocent until the
contrary is proved, and shall enjoy the right to be heard by himself and counsel, to be
informed of the nature and cause of the accusation against him, to have a speedy,
impartial, and public trial, to meet the witnesses face to face, and to have compulsory
process to secure the attendance of witnesses and the production of evidence in his
behalf. However, after arraignment, trial may proceed notwithstanding the absence of the
accused provided that he has been duly notified and his failure to appear is unjustified.
SEC. 20. No person shall be compelled to be a witness against himself. Any person under
investigation for the commission of an offense shall have the right to remain silent and to
counsel, and to be informed of such right. No force, violence, threat, intimidation, or any
other means which vitiates the free will shall be used against him. Any confession
obtained in violation of this section shall be inadmissible in evidence.
SEC. 21. Excessive fines shall not be imposed, nor cruel or unusual punishment inflicted.
SEC. 22. No person shall be twice put in jeopardy of punishment for the same offense. If
an act is punished by a law and an ordinance, conviction or acquittal under either shall
constitute a bar to another prosecution for the same act.
SEC. 23. Free access to the courts shall not be denied to any person by reason of poverty.
Source: http://www.gov.ph/constitutions/1973-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines-2/
156
1987 CONSTITUTION
Preamble
We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring the aid of Almighty God, in order to build a
just and humane society, and establish a Government that shall embody our ideals and
aspirations, promote the common good, conserve and develop our patrimony, and secure
to ourselves and our posterity, the blessings of independence and democracy under the
rule of law and a regime of truth, justice, freedom, love, equality, and peace, do ordain
and promulgate this Constitution.
ARTICLE I
NATIONAL TERRITORY
The national territory comprises the Philippine archipelago, with all the islands and
waters embraced therein, and all other territories over which the Philippines has
sovereignty or jurisdiction, consisting of its terrestrial, fluvial and aerial domains,
including its territorial sea, the seabed, the subsoil, the insular shelves, and other
submarine areas. The waters around, between, and connecting the islands of the
archipelago, regardless of their breadth and dimensions, form part of the internal waters
of the Philippines.
ARTICLE II
DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES AND STATE POLICIES
PRINCIPLES
Section 1. The Philippines is a democratic and republican State. Sovereignty resides in
the people and all government authority emanates from them.
Section 2. The Philippines renounces war as an instrument of national policy, adopts the
generally accepted principles of international law as part of the law of the land and
adheres to the policy of peace, equality, justice, freedom, cooperation, and amity with all
nations.cralaw
Section 3. Civilian authority is, at all times, supreme over the military. The Armed Forces
of the Philippines is the protector of the people and the State. Its goal is to secure the
sovereignty of the State and the integrity of the national territory.cralaw
Section 4. The prime duty of the Government is to serve and protect the people. The
Government may call upon the people to defend the State and, in the fulfillment thereof,
157
all citizens may be required, under conditions provided by law, to render personal,
military or civil service.cralaw
Section 5. The maintenance of peace and order, the protection of life, liberty, and
property, and promotion of the general welfare are essential for the enjoyment by all the
people of the blessings of democracy.cralaw
Section 6. The separation of Church and State shall be inviolable.
STATE POLICIES
Section 7. The State shall pursue an independent foreign policy. In its relations with other
states, the paramount consideration shall be national sovereignty, territorial integrity,
national interest, and the right to self-determination.
Section 8. The Philippines, consistent with the national interest, adopts and pursues a
policy of freedom from nuclear weapons in its territory.cralaw
Section 9. The State shall promote a just and dynamic social order that will ensure the
prosperity and independence of the nation and free the people from poverty through
policies that provide adequate social services, promote full employment, a rising standard
of living, and an improved quality of life for all.cralaw
Section 10. The State shall promote social justice in all phases of national
development.cralaw
Section 11. The State values the dignity of every human person and guarantees full
respect for human rights.cralaw
Section 12. The State recognizes the sanctity of family life and shall protect and
strengthen the family as a basic autonomous social institution. It shall equally protect the
life of the mother and the life of the unborn from conception. The natural and primary
right and duty of parents in the rearing of the youth for civic efficiency and the
development of moral character shall receive the support of the Government.cralaw
Section 13. The State recognizes the vital role of the youth in nation-building and shall
promote and protect their physical, moral, spiritual, intellectual, and social well-being. It
shall inculcate in the youth patriotism and nationalism, and encourage their involvement
in public and civic affairs.cralaw
Section 14. The State recognizes the role of women in nation-building, and shall ensure
the fundamental equality before the law of women and men.cralaw
Section 15. The State shall protect and promote the right to health of the people and
instill health consciousness among them.cralaw
Section 16. The State shall protect and advance the right of the people to a balanced and
healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature.cralaw
Section 17. The State shall give priority to education, science and technology, arts,
culture, and sports to foster patriotism and nationalism, accelerate social progress, and
promote total human liberation and development.cralaw
Section 18. The State affirms labor as a primary social economic force. It shall protect the
rights of workers and promote their welfare.cralaw
158
Section 19. The State shall develop a self-reliant and independent national economy
effectively controlled by Filipinos.cralaw
Section 20. The State recognizes the indispensable role of the private sector, encourages
private enterprise, and provides incentives to needed investments.cralaw
Section 21. The State shall promote comprehensive rural development and agrarian
reform.cralaw
Section 22. The State recognizes and promotes the rights of indigenous cultural
communities within the framework of national unity and development.cralaw
Section 23. The State shall encourage non-governmental, community-based, or sectoral
organizations that promote the welfare of the nation.cralaw
Section 24. The State recognizes the vital role of communication and information in
nation-building.cralaw
Section 25. The State shall ensure the autonomy of local governments.cralaw
Section 26. The State shall guarantee equal access to opportunities for public service and
prohibit political dynasties as may be defined by law.cralaw
Section 27. The State shall maintain honesty and integrity in the public service and take
positive and effective measures against graft and corruption.cralaw
Section 28. Subject to reasonable conditions prescribed by law, the State adopts and
implements a policy of full public disclosure of all its transactions involving public
interest.
ARTICLE III. BILL OF RIGHTS
The Bill of Rights in the Constitution is the article that articulates and enlists the rights of
an individual that the government is duly bound to protect, respect and carry out.
It embodies statements of individual rights and immunities to protect persons or citizens

from the government excesses and oppression.
RIGHTS PROTECTED BY THE BILL OF RIGHTS
 THE RIGHT TO DUE PROCESS
Section 1. No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of
law, nor shall any person be denied the equal protection of the laws.
LIFE – attributed to the physical appearance and existence of a human form
Example: right to self-preservation
Deprivation of life includes the loss of any of the various physical and mental attributes
which man must have to live as human being
159
LIBERTY – means not only the right of an individual to be free from physical restraint
of his person, such as by imprisonment or detention, but also the right to be free in the
use of his faculties in all lawful ways.
Example: freedom of expression, speech, and travel
Deprivation of liberty means the prevention, suppression and restriction of human

freedom and expression
PROPERTY – may refer to a thing itself or the right over the thing
Example: right to own, use, transmit and even destroy the property, subject to the
right of the state and of other persons
Deprivation of property exists when the property is unlawfully confiscated or when the
exercise of the right over a property is unreasonably prevented
Power of Eminent Domain – the power of the state to acquire private property for
public use upon payment of just compensation
 RIGHT AGAINST UNREASONABLE SEARCHES AND SEIZURES
Section 2. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and
effects against unreasonable searches and seizures of whatever nature and for any
purpose shall be inviolable, and no search warrant or warrant of arrest shall issue
except upon probable cause to be determined personally by the judge after examination
under oath or affirmation of the complainant and the witnesses he may produce, and
particularly describing the place to be searched and the persons or things to be seized.
Search Warrant – an order in writing, issued in the name of the Republic of the
Philippines, signed by a judge and directed to a peace officer commanding him to search
for personal property and bring it before the court
Warrant of Arrest – a command in formal writing issued against a person; to take him
in the custody of law in order that he may be bound to answer for the commission of an
offense.
160
 RIGHT OF PRIVACY OF COMMUNICATION
Section 3. (1) The privacy of communication and correspondence shall be inviolable

except upon lawful order of the court, or when public safety or order requires otherwise,
as prescribed by law.
(2) Any evidence obtained in violation of this or the preceding section shall be
inadmissible for any purpose in any proceeding.
The new constitution protects and safeguards the privacy of communication (by
telephone and similar devices) as well as correspondence (letters and telegrams).
Exceptions:
1. Upon lawful order of the court, as when the judge orders that the communication or
letter be testified to as being material to a pending case.
2. When public safety or order shall require otherwise, as prescribed by law.
 FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION AND RIGHT TO ASSEMBLE
Section 4. No law shall be passed abridging the freedom of speech, of expression, or of

the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and petition the government
for redress of grievances.
Freedom of Speech implies the opportunity to freely utter whatever anyone pleases and
be protected against any responsibility unless such utterances are against the law or
against recognized rights of others
Freedom of the Press implies the opportunity to freely print whatsoever one pleases and
to be protected against any responsibility unless such print is against the recognized
rights of others.
Freedom of Expression is a catch-all phraseology for it may include freedom of speech,

press, religion, association and acts.
Right to Assemble means a right on the part of the citizens to meet peacefully for
consultation with respect to public affairs, not the affairs of other people
Right to Petition means any person or group of persons can complain without fear of
penalty to the concerned government branch or office
161
 FREEDOM OF RELIGION
Section 5. No law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting

the free exercise thereof. The free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and
worship, without discrimination or preference, shall forever be allowed. No religious test
shall be required for the exercise of civil or political rights.
Freedom of religion is meant to protect the broadest possible liberty of conscience, to

allow each man to believe as his conscience directs, to profess his beliefs, and to live as
he believes he ought to live, consistent with the liberty of others and with the common
good.
 FREEDOM OF ABODE AND RIGHT TO TRAVEL
Section 6. The liberty of abode and of changing the same within the limits prescribed by
law shall not be impaired except upon lawful order of the court. Neither shall the right to
travel be impaired except in the interest of national security, public safety, or public
health, as may be provided by law.
Abode refers to a place or domicile where a person has established his residence.
Travel refers to act of mobility going in or out of places where one pleases.
 RIGHT OF PEOPLE TO INFORMATION
Section 7. The right of the people to information on matters of public concern shall be
recognized. Access to official records, and to documents and papers pertaining to official
acts, transactions, or decisions, as well as to government research data used as basis for
policy development, shall be afforded the citizen, subject to such limitations as may be
provided by law.
Any citizen of the Philippines, and alien to a given extent, enjoys the right to obtain
information on matters of public concern from government records and documents on
public policy, laws passed by Congress, financial report at the Department of Budget and
Management. However, certain records of national interest and confidentiality may be
kept secret by the State.
162
 RIGHT TO FORM ASSOCIATIONS
Section 8. The right of the people, including those employed in the public and private
sectors, to form unions, associations, or societies for purposes not contrary to law shall
not be abridged.
People can form unions, associations, or organizations which are peaceful, purposeful,
and not contrary to law.
 RIGHT TO PRIVATE PROPERTY
Section 9. Private property shall not be taken for public use without just compensation.
The Constitution respects the rights of citizens to own something that is strictly for their
personal use. The government may need a particular property for, a public project but the
government must pay justly.
RIGHTS OF THE ACCUSED
1. The right to adequate legal assistance.
2. The right, when under investigation for the commission of an offense, to be informed
of his right to remain silent and to have counsel
Miranda Doctrine – The accused has the right to remain silent; that anything he says can
be used against him in a court of law; that he has the right to the presence of an attorney,
and that if he cannot afford an attorney, one will be appointed for him prior to any
questioning, if he so desires.
3. The right against the use of torture, force, violence, threat intimidation, or any other
means which vitiates the free will
4. The right against being held in secret incommunicado, or similar forms of solitary
confinement
5. The right against excessive fines. The right to bail and against excessive bail
6. The right to due process
163
7. The right to the presumption of innocence, the right to be heard by himself and
counsel, the right to meet the witnesses face to face, the right to have compulsory process
to secure the attendance of witnesses and the production of evidence in his behalf
8. The right against self-incrimination
9. The right against detention by reason of political beliefs and aspirations and the right
against involuntary servitude.
10. The right against cruel, degrading or inhuman punishment and the right against
infliction of death penalty except for heinous crimes.
11. The right against double jeopardy – prohibits the execution of any person for a crime
of which he was previously acquitted or convicted.
Source: http://www.gov.ph/constitutions/1987-constitution/
164
C. Taxation
Edwin Valencia and Gregorio Roxas, Income Taxation: Principles and Laws with Accounting
Applications
Efren Vincent Dizon, Taxation Law Compendium.
Danilo Duncano, Philippine Taxation Handbook.
Artemio Saguinsin, Taxation in the Philippines.
Hector S. de Leon and Hector de Leon Jr., The Fundamentals of Taxation
165
Chapter V.
Living History:
Evaluation and Promotion of Local and Oral History,
Museums, Historical Shrines, Popular Culture, and
Cultural Practices
LIVING HISTORY SESSIONS
Travelling Classroom: Vigan Heritage Tour

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the tour, the participants should be able to:
1. describe and examine the historical value of Vigan as a key national heritage site;
2. develop competencies in facilitating a heritage walking tour such as skills in guiding
and presentation delivery;
3. demonstrate the ability to use primary sources in writing tour commentaries/scripts;
4. display the ability to work in team and contribute to a group project; and
5. propose recommendations to further improve heritage walking tours as an effective
out-of-classroom activity.
Tour Participants – History Professors
Tour Facilitators
Bella G. Ramos and Jerry C. Buenavista – course facilitators

 1 (one) Vigan history expert
 1 (one) Vigan heritage tour consultant
Tour Itinerary
Date and Assembly Time: July 20, 2017 (Thursday), 8:00 AM
166
Assembly Place: MMSU CAS
7:00-8:00 AM Breakfast
8:00 Assembly at MMSU CAS
8:10-9:30 Travel time to Vigan
9:30-10:30 Old Provincial Jail and Burgos Museum
11:00-12:00 Syquia Mansion/Rivercruise
12:00-1:00 Lunch
1:00-2:00 Hotel Luna
2:00-3:00 Calle Crisologo
3:00-4:00 Pagburnayan
4:00-5:00 Baluarte
5:00-6:30 Travel time to Batac
General Reminders for Participants
1. Please wear appropriate comfortable clothes and shoes.

2. Bring your own bottled water and umbrella or any personal protection against hear or
in case of unexpected weather condition.
3. Please take care of your personal belongings.
4. Please stay with your group at all times.
General Presentation Delivery Techniques
1. uses the right tone of voice (not too loud or too weak)
2. makes sure that the quality of word pronunciation is clear and distinct
3. varies voice speed and pitch for emphasis
4. has rich vocabulary and uses comprehensive words
5. engages the participants/clients through eye contact
6. shows positive rapport by smiling and being friendly
7. repeats questions before answering them
8. has poise and stance that shows confidence and good body language
9. be properly attired for the type of tour or activity
General Guiding Techniques on Foot
1. provides a brief introduction of the site

2. herds the clients by showing or leading the way
3. selects shaded areas before giving commentaries
4. waits for most of the clients before giving commentaries
5. establishes eye contact with the audience
6. uses positive gestures when pointing at objects
167
REFERENCES:
Chirino, Pedro. Excerpts from History of the Philippine Province of the Society of Jesus
Schumacher, John “The Historian’s Task in the Philippines” in The Making of a Nation: Essays
on Nineteenth-Century Filipino Nationalism, 7-15.
“Declaration of Philippine Independence.” In The Laws of the First Philippine Republic (The
Laws of Malolos), edited by Sulpicio Guevara, 203-206. Manila: National Historical
Commission, 1972
de Leon, Hector S. and Hector de Leon Jr. The Fundamentals of Taxation
de Morga, Antonio. Excerpts from History of the Philippine Islands
de Zuniga, Joaquin Martinez. Excerpts from A Historical View of the Philippine Islands
Exhibiting their Discovery, Population, Language, Government, Manners, Customs, Productions
and Commerce
Dizon, Efren Vincent. Taxation Law Compendium.
Dumol, Paul. Selected Chapters The Manila Synod of 1582, 3-33.
Furuy, Colonel and Michael Salevouris, The Methods and Skills of History: A Practical Guide, 1-
17.
Duncano, Danilo Duncano. Philippine Taxation Handbook.
Gottschalk, Loius. Understading History: A Primer if Historical Method, New York: A.A.Knopf,
1969.
Guerrero, Milagros, Emmanuel Encarnacion and Ramon Villegas. “Andres Bonifacio and the
1896 Revolution”, Sulyap Kultura, 2-12.
Howell, Martha and Walter Prevenier. From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical
Methods, 17-68.
Jose, Vivencio. “Ang Diskurso ng Kaisipan at Layunin ng Katipunan” in Pagbabalik sa bayan:

mga lektura sa kasaysayan ng historiograpiya at pagkabansang Pilipino, 117-138.
Pigafetta, Antonio. “First Voyage Around the World.” In the Philippine Islands, Vol. 33, edited
by E. Blair and J. Robertson, 175, 177, 179, 181. Cleveland: A.H. Clark, 1909. Reprinted by
Cacho Hermanos, 1973.
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Saguinsin, Artemio. Taxation in the Philippines.
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http://www.lawphil.net/statutes/presdecs/pd1972/pd_27_1972.html
http://www.gov.ph/downloads/1988/06jun/19880610-RA-6657-CCA.pdf
http://www.chanrobles.com /republicacts/republicactsno9700_pdf.php
http://www.lawphil.net/consti/consmalo.html
http://www.gov.ph/constitutions/1935-constitution-amended/
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http://www.gov.ph/constitutions/1987-constitution/
169

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Readings in Philippine History

MARIANO MARCOS STATE UNIVERSITY

READINGS IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY

Course Title : READINGS IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY

At the end of the course, students should be able to:

Outline of Syllabus from CHED

Revised Syllabus during the Training

“The Propagandists’ Reconstruction of the

Selected Chapters from Paul Dumol

Selected Chapters from William Henry Scott,

 Evolution Malolos Constitution of 1899.

Edwin Valencia and Gregorio Roxas, Income

Efren Vincent Dizon, Taxation Law

Danilo Duncano, Philippine Taxation

Artemio Saguinsin, Taxation in the

Hector S. de Leon and Hector de Leon Jr.,

Group activities and presentations 60%

READINGS IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY Rubrics

Assessment Rubric for Group Presentation

and accurate. general and lacks

CHAPTER I: BASICS OF HISTORY

CHAPTER II: CONTENT AND CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF SELECTED

Chapter III: CONTROVERSIES AND CONFLICTING VIEWS IN PHILIPPINE

CHAPTER IV. SOCIAL, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL ISSUES

CHAPTER V. LIVING HISTORY: EVALUATION AND PROMOTION OF

Living History Sessions ………………………………………………………….….. 153

REFERENCES ……………………………………………………………………..… 155

MEANING AND RELEVANCE OF HISTORY

It requires only a moment’s reflection to recognize that in this sense history

The practice of historical writing is called historiography. Traditional method in

a. Documents – handwritten, printed, designed, drawn and other composed materials

Relacion de las Islas Filipinas Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas

Colonial records such as government reports and legal documents form a

 fossils – remains of animals, plants and other organisms

 artifacts – remnants of material culture

Laguna Copperplate Inscription Manunggul Jar

 GENERAL KINDS OF HISTORICAL SOURCES

a. Primary – documents, physical objects, and oral/video accounts by an individual or

“Original” is a word of so many different meanings that it would have been

A document may be called “original”

1. because it contains fresh and creative ideas

Unfortunately, the phrase “original sources” has become common among

However, Constantino refuted Agoncillo’s leader-centric scheme of dividing the

To ascertain the authenticity and reliability of primary sources to be used in

a. External criticism – answers concerns and questions pertinent to the authenticity of a

 LOCATING PRIMARY SOURCES

 PHILIPPINE HISTORIOGRAPHY AFTER WORLD WAR II

In the 1950s, Teodoro Agoncillo pioneered

The discourse of “lost history” was not

Other Filipino historians set new directions in

Equally important is the contribution of

 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTEMPORARY PHILIPPINE HISTORIOGRAPHY

b. Colonial Histories in Historical Narratives

Another weakness of most national histories is the importance given to colonial

Up to now, some social studies textbooks misrepresent ancient Filipinos as

c. Elite-centric Perspectives in Historical Narratives

Some historical narratives focus on the contribution of the elite in nation-building

d. Patriarchal Orientation in Historical Narratives