CE 120-02: Fundamentals of Surveying

Prepared by: Engr. June Arion D. Malesido

Units of Measurement
The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (French:
Bureau international des poids et mesures, BIPM) promulgated in
1960 the International System of Units, generally known as S.I.
(Système International d'Unités). The goal is to modernize the
metric system by introducing a coherent and rational worldwide
system of units.
Effective January 1, 1983 the English System was officially
phased out in the Philippines and only the modern metric system
was allowed to be used.

Units in SI of major concern to surveying are the meter (m) for

linear measure, the square meter (sq m or m2) for areas, the
cubic meter (cu m or m3) for volumes, and the radian (rad) for
plane angles. There are certain units which are not part of SI but
are still widely used. Examples are liter, hectare, knot, day, hour,
and minute.

For longer distances the kilometer (km) may be used and for
larger areas the hectare (ha) is used. Degrees, minutes, and
seconds are also acceptable for plane angles measured in SI.
Units of Measurement

From "The International System of Units - 9th

Edition Complete Brochure"
Linear, Area, and Volume Measurements
Prefix Symbol 10n Decimal Short Scale
yotta Y 1024 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 Septillion
zetta Z 1021 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 Sextillion
exa E 1018 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 Quintillion
peta P 1015 1,000,000,000,000,000 Quadrillion
tera T 1012 1,000,000,000,000 Trillion
giga G 109 1,000,000,000 Billion
mega M 106 1,000,000 Million
kilo k 103 1,000 Thousand
hecto h 102 100 Hundred
deca da 101 10 Ten
10 1 One
deci d 10-1 0.1 Tenth
centi c 10-2 0.01 Hundredth
milli m 10-3 0.001 Thousandth
micro µ 10-6 0.000 001 Millionth
nano n 10-9 0.000 000 001 Billionth
pico p 10-12 0.000 000 000 001 Trillionth
femto f 10-15 0.000 000 000 000 001 Quadrillionth
atto a 10-18 0.000 000 000 000 000 001 Quintillionth
zepto z 10-21 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 001 Sextillionth
yocto y 10-24 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 Septillionth
Linear, Area, and Volume Measurements
The common units for length are the kilometer, meter, centimeter, and the
millimeter.

The unit of area in SI is the square meter. The hectare (ha) although not an SI
unit, is commonly used for the measurement of large tracts of land such as
cities, provinces, plantations, forests, etc.

The common metric units for volume are the cubic meter, liter, and the milliliter.
Angular Measurements
SI Unit for plane angles is the radian.

a. Sexagesimal Units - Degree, Minute, and Second

1 deg = 60 minutes
1 min = 60 seconds

b. Centesimal Units - Grad is the angular unit

360 deg = 400 grads
1 grad = 100 centesimal minutes
1 centesimal minute = 100 centesimal seconds
Error & Mistakes
An error is defined as the difference between the true value and the measured
value of a quantity. It is a deviation of an observation or a calculation from the
true value and is often beyond the control of the one performing the operation.
Since the true value of a quantity can never be ascertained by measurements,
the exact value of an error, likewise, can never be determined in any
measurement.

Errors are inherent in all measurements and result from sources which cannot
be avoided. They may be caused by the type of equipment used or by the way
in which the equipment is employed. It may also be caused by the imperfections
of the senses of the person undertaking the measurement or by natural causes.
The effects of errors cannot be entirely eliminated; they can, however, be
minimized by careful work and by applying corrections.
Error & Mistakes
Mistakes are inaccuracies in measurements which occur because some aspect
of a surveying operation is performed by the surveyor with carelessness,
inattention, poor judgement, and improper execution. Mistakes are also caused
by a misunderstanding of the problem, inexperience, or indifference of the
surveyor.

A large mistake is referred to as a blunder. Mistakes and blunders are not

classified as errors because they usually are so large in magnitude when
compared to errors.

Among students of surveying, mistakes which are frequently committed include:

reading the wrong graduation on the tape, omitting a whole length of tape,
transposition of figures, reading a scale backward, misplacing a decimal point,
incorrect recording of field notes, adding a row or column of numbers incorrectly,
etc.
Error & Mistakes
If careful attention is given to the execution of any surveying operation, mistakes
can be avoided. The various types of mistakes, however, can only be corrected
if discovered. Their detection can be made by systematic checking of all work,
making a common sense estimate and analysis, or by making a duplicate
measurement.

Undetected mistakes may produce very serious effects on the final result of a
survey such that the surveyor should exert every possible effort to minimize
their occurrence.

Mistakes have no plane in engineering and surveying works. The effects of

errors can be minimized, but they cannot be entirely eliminated, whereas
mistakes can be detected and removed from recorded measurements.
Types of Errors
1. Systematic Errors - This error will always have the same sign and
magnitude if field conditions remain constant and unchanged. A systematic error
will repeat itself in other measurements, still maintaining the same sign, and
thus will accumulate. It is for this reason that this type of error is also called a
cumulative error. Such errors can be computed, and their effects eliminated by
applying corrections, employing proper techniques in the use of instruments, or
by adopting a field procedure which will automatically eliminate it.

In surveying, systematic errors occur due to instrumental factors, natural

causes, and human limitations of the observer. This type of error will continue to
persist and impose regular effects in the performance of a survey operation.

2. Accidental Errors - There is no absolute way of determining or eliminating

them since the error for an observation of a quantity is not likely to be the same
as for a second observation. Accidental errors are caused by factors beyond the
control of the surveyor and are present in all surveying measurements. In
comparison to systematic errors, accidental errors are usually of minor
importance in surveying operations since they are variable in sign and are of a
compensating nature.
Types of Errors
1. Systematic Errors - This error will always have the same sign and
magnitude if field conditions remain constant and unchanged. A systematic error
will repeat itself in other measurements, still maintaining the same sign, and
thus will accumulate. It is for this reason that this type of error is also called a
cumulative error. Such errors can be computed, and their effects eliminated by
applying corrections, employing proper techniques in the use of instruments, or
by adopting a field procedure which will automatically eliminate it.

In surveying, systematic errors occur due to instrumental factors, natural

causes, and human limitations of the observer. This type of error will continue to
persist and impose regular effects in the performance of a survey operation.

2. Accidental Errors - There is no absolute way of determining or eliminating

them since the error for an observation of a quantity is not likely to be the same
as for a second observation. Accidental errors are caused by factors beyond the
control of the surveyor and are present in all surveying measurements. In
comparison to systematic errors, accidental errors are usually of minor
importance in surveying operations since they are variable in sign and are of a
compensating nature.