MODULE 1

- The Respiratory system is composed of organs that help us breathe air in

and out – supplying oxygen and eliminating carbon dioxide gases. The air
enters the nose (nostril), nasal cavity (passageway) to make it warm, damp,
and clean. The air moves to the pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box),
and trachea (windpipe). The trachea conducts inhaled air into the lungs
through the bronchi. The bronchi are divided into bronchioles which are
smaller tubes and finally to the alveoli where oxygen and carbon
dioxide are being exchange.

- Function of the respiratory system - facilitates the exchange of gases between the air
and the blood

- Inhalation and exhalation are the processes by which the body brings in
oxygen and expels carbon dioxide. The process is aided by a large dome-
shaped muscle under the lungs called diaphragm. During inhalation, the
diaphragm contracts and flattens and the chest cavity enlarges. This
contraction creates a vacuum, which pulls air into the lungs. Upon exhalation,
the diaphragm relaxes and returns to its domelike shape, and air is forced out
of the lungs.

- Pathway of Air:

- Inhalation: nose → nasal cavity → pharynx → larynx → trachea → bronchi

→ bronchioles → alveoli (oxygen in, carbon dioxide out)

- Exhalation: alveoli → bronchioles → bronchi → trachea → larynx → pharynx

→ nasal cavity → nose

- The Circulatory system, also known as cardiovascular/vascular system,

transports nutrients, respiratory gases, and metabolic products throughout a
living organism which permits integration among the various tissues. The
 circulation includes the intake and delivery of metabolic materials throughout
the organism, and the removal of harmful by-products and return to the
environment. It is made up of heart, blood, and blood vessels (veins, arteries,
and capillaries).

- Function of the circulatory system:

Removes waste materials from the cells
Delivers needed materials to the cells of the body
Help fight diseases by transporting white blood cells throughout the body

Heart - pumps blood to all parts of the body.

Blood – by carrying food nutrients and oxygen to all parts of the body
Blood Vessel – carrying blood throughout the body

- 4 chambers of the HUMAN HEART

RIGHT ATRIUM receives deoxygenated blood from the other parts of the body
through vena cava
RIGHT VENTRICLE pumps the blood to the main pulmonary artery which
connects to the lungs.
LEFT ATRIUM receives the oxygenated blood from the lungs through the
pulmonary vein
LEFT VENTRICLE – pumps blood to all parts of the body

3 Types of blood circulation

1. Pulmonary Circulation – movement of blood from the heart, to the lungs and
back to the heart.
2. Systemic Circulation – movement of blood from the heart to the rest of the body,
excluding the lungs.
3. Coronary Circulation – movement of blood throughout the tissues of the heart

Flow of Deoxygenated or Oxygen-Poor Blood

Other Parts of the Body → Vena Cava (Superior Vena Cava and Inferior
Vena Cava) → Right Atrium → Tricuspid Valve → Right Ventricle → Main
Pulmonary Artery → Left and Right Pulmonary Artery → Lungs

Flow of Oxygenated or Oxygen-Rich Blood

Lungs → Left and Right Pulmonary Vein → Left Atrium → Mitral Valve
→ Left Ventricle → Aortic Valve → Aorta → Other Parts of the Body

QUESTION: What will happen if respiratory and circulatory systems do not work
together?
 MODULE 2

WHAT ARE THE DISEASES RELATED TO RESPIRATORY SYSTEM?

EMPHYSEMA - is a lung condition that causes shortness of breath. Emphysema and

chronic bronchitis are two conditions that make up chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD). Cigarette smoking is the leading cause of COPD, as well as marijuana
smoke, air pollution and chemical fumes and dust. A person with emphysema could be
treated using prescribed medication and supportive therapy that includes oxygen and
smoking cessation therapy.

Bronchitis - is an inflammation of the mucus membrane that lines the bronchial tubes.
The thick mucus builds up causing coughing, difficulty of breathing and heavy feeling in
the chest. Bronchitis may be caused by bacteria, viruses or irritants in the air. There is
no cure for chronic bronchitis, but there are several medications to help relieve
symptoms. It is also important to avoid smoking and smoky environments, and to drink
lots of water and get plenty of rest.

Pneumonia - is an infection in one or both lungs which causes inflammation of the air
sacs. The infection is caused by bacteria, viruses and fungi. Treatment for pneumonia
involves curing the infection and preventing complications. People who have
community-acquired pneumonia usually can be treated at home with medication such
as antibiotics and pain reliever recommended by the doctor.

Asthma is a chronic respiratory disorder caused by inflammation and narrowing of the

bronchial tubes. An asthma is triggered by airborne substances, certain foods, common
bacteria and viruses. Inhalers and nebulizers are key components of asthma treatment.

Tuberculosis - is a disease caused by bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The

bacteria usually attack the lungs, but they can also damage other parts of the body. The
bacteria that cause tuberculosis are spread from one person to another person through
tiny droplets released into the air via coughs and sneezes. With early detection and
appropriate antibiotics, TB is treatable. Treatment for TB can vary. It may involve taking
an antibiotic once a week for 12 weeks or every day for 9 months. TB Dots is a short-
course treatment given to persons with tuberculosis (TB) recommended by the World
Health Organization.

WHAT ARE THE DISEASES RELATED TO CIRCULATORY SYSTEM?

ATHEROSCLEROSIS AND ARTERIOSCLEROSIS

Atherosclerosis happens when the plaque collects and causes arteries to narrow and
harden due to factors such as smoking, high blood pressure and cholesterol in the blood.
The difference between Atherosclerosis and Arteriosclerosis is that Atherosclerosis
refers to build up of fats, cholesterol and other substances that triggers to blood clot
while the Arteriosclerosis occurs when the blood vessels that carry oxygen and nutrients
from the heart and to the rest of the body thickens and hardens. A person with
atherosclerosis or arteriosclerosis is advised to undergo medication and surgical
procedure and to change lifestyle.

Coronary heart - disease develops when the major blood vessels that supply our heart
with blood, oxygen and nutrients become damaged. This disease can be caused by high
cholesterol foods, diabetes, family history and smoking. Coronary Heart Disease is
commonly treated with a combination of change in lifestyle, prescribed medication and
in some cases through surgery.

The following could help prevent diseases related to the circulatory and respiratory
systems.
•Quit/stop smoking
•Eat healthy foods
•Exercise regularly
•Maintain a healthy weight
•Enough rest/sleep
•Take vitamin C to improve immune system

MODULE 3

Incomplete dominance - is a pattern of inheritance characterized by the Formation

of a trait that is in between the phenotypes of the parents. There is an absence of the
expression of the complete dominant allele. It is very common in the expression of
flower color in most plants.

Codominance - This happens when the alleles of same gene are present and both are
equally expressed in the phenotype of the offspring.
Multiple Alleles - are alternative form of a gene that controls a certain trait. Normally,
a gene is controlled by only two alleles but there are genes that have two or more alleles.
For example, in human, the ABO blood type. In this case three alleles are controlling the
blood group, wherein blood type A is codominant with blood type B and blood type O is
recessive. The four possible blood types are shown in Table 3 below. Figure 3: Multiple
Alleles controlling the human blood type inheritance. Table 2.

Another exception to Mendelian rules is the sex-related inheritance. It can be

categorized into three: sex-linked, sex-influenced, and sex-limited.

Sex Chromosomes and Sex Determination There are 23 pairs of human

chromosomes, 22 pairs are called body chromosomes and the 23rd pair refer to as the
sex chromosomes. Males have two sex chromosomes; the X and Y. Females have both X
chromosomes. Humans have a total of 46 chromosomes in each cell.

Sex-linked Traits Genes that are present in sex chromosomes are sex-linked traits
because the expression depends on the sex of the person. X-linked genes are genes
located on X chromosomes whereas Y-linked genes are those in Y chromosomes. An
example is hemophilia (bleeder’s disease), a common sex-linked recessive disorder
carried by the genes in the X chromosomes. Study the Table 4 below. Xh is hemophiliac
and XH is normal.
Sex-linked traits show up much more often in a male because males do not have a
matching X chromosome to mask a recessive allele.

Examples of Sex - linked trait: hemophilia (bleeder’s disease) and red green
colorblindness

Genotypes and phenotypes

of hemophilia in
humans.

Sex-limited traits are only present in one gender. These traits are determined by the
genes in the autosomes, which are found in both male and female. The difference is in
the expression of the genes in the phenotype of the organism. In females, for example,
lactation is expressed in females but not in males. The gene for lactation is present in
both males and females, but is only expressed in females. Males never produce milk
even if they possess genes for lactation.

Sex-influenced traits are visible in both gender but more often in one gender than
the other. The trait is also carried by the autosomes and not the sex chromosomes.
Pattern Baldness in human is a common example of sex-influenced trait. This trait is not
restricted to males but the expression is controlled by the hormone testosterone. This
hormone is present in both male and
female, but males have higher
testosterone level than females. This
results that recessive allele.

Follow the steps below on how to solve genetic problems using Punnett square.

Step 1: Identify the genotype of the parents.

White goat (WW) x Roan goat (RW)

Step 2: Construct the Punnett square and show the possible outcome of the cross.
Step 3: Interpret the results.
2 WW = White coat-colored goat
2 RW = Roan coat-colored goat
Step 4: Write the genotypic and phenotypic ratio of the offspring.

Genotypic Ratio =2:2 or 50% WW, 50% RW

Phenotypic Ratio=2:2 or 50% White, 50% Roan

MODULE 4

1. Population is a group of organisms of the same species living in a certain place.

2. Biodiversity refers to the variety of life in an area.
3. Communities with many different species (a high of diversity) will be able to
withstand environment changes better than communities with only a few species
(a low index of diversity)
4. Population size very among organisms. They change with the number of birth
and when they move into an ecosystem. They also change when member die or
move out of an ecosystem.
5. Limiting factor are environmental condition that keep population from
increasing in size and help balance ecosystem.
6. The carrying capacity is affected by change in the environment
7. Extinction occurs when the last member of species dies.
8. When population of species begins declining rapidly, the species is said to be a
threatened species.
9. A species is endangered when its population is so low that it is nearly extinct.
10. Human action has resulted in habitat loss and degradation that has acceleration
the rate of extinction.
11. The principal causes of deforestation are illegal logging, kaingin farming, forest
fire, and conversion of agricultural lands to housing projects, and typhoon.
12. The effect of deforestation includes soil erosion, floods, and depletion of wildlife
resources, while the mangrove destruction is caused by over harvesting and
conversion of the area. Is caused by dynamite fishing and muro-ami.
13. The major cause of wildlife depletion is loss of habitat.
14. Coral reef destruction is caused by dynamite fishing and muro-ami, while the
mangrove destruction is caused by over harvesting and conversion of the area.
15. In eutrophication, nutrients are washed away from the land of enrich bodies of
water. It causes excusive growth of aquatic plants and algae and results in algal
boom, in water, causing fish and other aquatic organisms to die.
16. Acid rain is a result of air pollution mostly from factories and motor vehicles.
17. Sustainable development means that a society should live under the carrying
capacity of environment.
18. Greenhouse effect – it is called as the increase in the earth’s temperature from
the rapid build up carbon dioxide and other gases
19. Global warming – a trapping of heat by gases in the earth’s atmosphere.
 MODULE 5

Photosynthesis - is a process of food making done by plants and other autotrophic

organism. A food production in plants.

- Plant make food by absorbing water and carbon dioxide.

- Water - is a substance where oxygen released as gas by green plants during
photosynthesis
- Carbon dioxide – is a gas that cycle out in the ecosystem which is
important to photosynthesis
-

Chloroplast – the organelles responsible for photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis occurs
- Chloroplasts are found in all green plants and algae.
RAW MATERIAL - CARBON DIOXIDE, WATER, SUNLIGHT

END PRODUCTS – SUGAR(GLUCOSE), OXYGEN

GLUCOSE – is the product of photosynthesis, it is the chief source of energy for most
organisms.

Cellular Respiration – released of stored energy

EQUATION FOR CELLULAR RESPIRATION:

RAW MATERIALS: GLUCOSE, OXYGEN

END MATERIALS: CARBON DIOXIDE, WATER, ENERGY

ATP – Adenosine triphosphate

Mitochondrion - are membrane-bound cell organelles (mitochondrion,

singular) that generate most of the chemical energy needed to power the
cell's biochemical reactions. Chemical energy produced by the mitochondria is
stored in a small molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

3 PHASES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION:

1. Glycolysis
2. Krebs Cycle
3. Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

In glycolysis, the 6-carbon sugar, glucose, is broken down into two molecules of a 3-
carbon molecule called pyruvate. This change is accompanied by a net gain of 2 ATP
molecules and 2 NADH molecules

Pyruvate - is transported into the mitochondria and loses carbon dioxide to form
acetyl-CoA, a 2-carbon molecule. When acetyl-CoA is oxidized to carbon dioxide in the
Krebs cycle, chemical energy is released and captured in the form of NADH, FADH2,
and ATP

The electron transport chain allows the release of the large amount of chemical
energy stored in reduced NAD+ (NADH) and reduced FAD (FADH2). The energy
released is captured in the form of ATP (3 ATP per NADH and 2 ATP per FADH2).

The Krebs Cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and generates a pool of chemical
energy (ATP, NADH, and FADH2) from the oxidation of pyruvate, the end product of
glycolysis.