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CONSTRUCTION PLANT THEORY

COURSE NOTES
TUTOR: BERNARD MWANGI GITAHI,
CONSTRUCTION PROJECT
MANAGER.
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Contents
CONSTRUCTION PLANT THEORY......................................................................................................1
COURSE NOTES......................................................................................................................................1
TUTOR: BERNARD MWANGI GITAHI,...............................................................................................1
CONSTRUCTION PROJECT MANAGER..............................................................................................1
Specific Objectives....................................................................................................................................4
Content.......................................................................................................................................................4
Competences..............................................................................................................................................4
EARTH-MOVING HEAVY EQUIPMENT FOR CONSTRUCTION.........................................................5
Excavators...............................................................................................................................................5
Backhoe Loaders......................................................................................................................................6
Bulldozers................................................................................................................................................7
Skid-Steer Loaders...................................................................................................................................7
Motor Graders.........................................................................................................................................8
Crawler Loaders.......................................................................................................................................9
Trenchers.................................................................................................................................................9
Scrapers.................................................................................................................................................10
Common Dump Trucks..........................................................................................................................10
COMPACTING PLANT AND EQUIPMENT...........................................................................................11
01. Static Force....................................................................................................................................11
02. Vibratory Force..............................................................................................................................11
01. Smooth Wheeled Rollers:................................................................................................................12
04. Vibratory Roller.............................................................................................................................14
05. Rammers:.......................................................................................................................................14
BATCHING/ CONCRETING PLANT.......................................................................................................16
Commercial concrete plant and engineering concrete plant.................................................................18
Single host batching plant and double host batching plant...................................................................19
Mobile concrete batching plant.............................................................................................................19
Stationary concrete batching plant.......................................................................................................20
Tower concrete mixing plant.................................................................................................................20
Containerized concrete batch plant......................................................................................................21
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CONCRETE PUMPS..................................................................................................................................24
PLACING CONCRETE..............................................................................................................................25
Poker vibrators......................................................................................................................................25
Power Float...........................................................................................................................................27
SPRAYING AND PLASTERING MACHINES/ SHORTCRETING MACHINES..................................28
PILING PLANT AND EQUIPMENT.........................................................................................................29
Types of Pile Driving Equipments..........................................................................................................30
Piling Rigs............................................................................................................................................30
Piling Winches.....................................................................................................................................34
Hanging Leader....................................................................................................................................34
Hammer Guides...................................................................................................................................35
Piling Hammer.....................................................................................................................................36
Helmet, Driving Cap, Dolly and Packing............................................................................................41
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Specific Objectives
By the end of the module unit, the trainee should be able to:
1. explain reasons for using construction plant
2. classify construction plant
3. evaluate works to be carried out

Content
Reasons for using construction plant
 high output
 quality work
 economy
 nature of work
Classification of construction plant
 excavating plant
 compacting plant
 concreting plant
 bitumen laying plant
 transporting plant
 lifting plant
 piling plant and equipment
 drilling plant and equipment
Evaluation of work
 volume of work
 technicalities involved
 economy

Competences
Ability to:
 Assess amount of work to be done and need of plant
 Establish quality of work to be produced
 Select a suitable mechanical plant for a specific task
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EARTH-MOVING HEAVY EQUIPMENT FOR CONSTRUCTION

Heavy equipment is essential for construction jobs of almost any size, from home
building to large-scale commercial and civil projects. Earth-moving equipment covers a
broad range of machines that can excavate and grade soil and rock, along with other jobs.
Earth movers and other heavy equipment help to speed not only earth work but also
materials handling, demolition, and construction. Many types of heavy construction
equipment are designed for multiple functions, making them indispensable on job sites.

Excavators

Excavators are large construction equipment that can be driven by tracks or wheels, but
tracks are more standard. A conventional excavator has a long bucket arm attached to a
pivoting cab that can rotate a full 360 degrees. The operator sits in the cab and from there
has good visibility of the site. Excavators are highly versatile and can be fitted with
special attachments for specialty jobs. The most common uses for an excavator include:
 Material handling
 Excavating trenches, holes, and foundations
 Brush cutting with hydraulic attachments
 Demolition
 Rough grading
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 Heavy lifting and pipe installation

 Mining
 River dredging

Backhoe Loaders

Backhoe loaders, often called backhoes, have a body that's similar to a farm tractor and
include an adjustable shovel in front and a small bucket in the back for digging.
Backhoe loaders are considered medium-sized construction equipment for smaller jobs
and are capable of working in limited space to perform various operations.
They can move dirt, backfill excavations, dig holes and trenches, and place pipes and
other materials.
One of the best attributes of backhoe loaders is that they are wheel-driven and can be
used in urban areas.
They can even be driven to a job site. The bucket in the back can be changed to dig
trenches of different widths.
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Bulldozers

Bulldozers are considered one of the strongest and most reliable heavy equipment used in
the construction industry.
A bulldozer is a powerful and extremely heavy machine used to move dirt along large
open tracts of land.
Bulldozers have a wide, flat blade in front that can be operated using two hydraulic
pistons to move the blade in a limited range of angles and depths.
They are normally used to push piles of earth and for rough or fine grading, depending on
the size of the bulldozer.
A bulldozer's considerable weight helps it crush large boulders, among other operations.

Skid-Steer Loaders
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Skid-steer loaders are among the most versatile machines available in the construction
industry.
They are small and nimble and can turn within their own footprint, just like a tank,
making them ideal for work in confined spaces or in areas where construction activity has
been finalized.
Skid-steer loaders are wheel-driven and offer good traction in snow and mud. The wheels
also minimize soil compaction and damage to finished areas.
These handy loaders come in a few different sizes and can be outfitted with a variety of
attachments to perform digging, drilling, compacting, log grappling, snow blowing, jack-
hammering, and other tasks.

Motor Graders

Motor graders are heavy equipment used for fine grading and for moving small amounts
of dirt. They have a long blade that can be adjusted to meet certain angles to create a flat
surface. They can also be fitted with a second blade in front of the front axle and in some
instances can be used for underground mining. Motor graders are typically used to fine-
grade dirt or gravel roads or to prepare the road base course before placing asphalt.
Graders can also be used to create sloped surfaces or drainage ditches with shallow V-
shaped cross-sections.
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Crawler Loaders

A crawler loader is a cross between an excavator and a backhoe or bucket loader. Its
tracks give it excellent stability, and its versatile bucket makes it useful for moving soil
and debris and for loading material onto trucks. Crawler loaders are also used for
excavation on relatively small projects. For larger-scale work, a hydraulic excavator is
often used instead of a crawler loader.

Trenchers

True to its name, a trencher is used to dig trenches, usually narrow trenches for piping
and cabling. Trenchers come in many different types and sizes, from small walk-behind
versions to very large trenching machines that can cut into asphalt pavement and other
hard surfaces. The trencher has a conveyor system that carries the excavated material and
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deposits it onto the ground next to the trench. Trenchers can use different digging
implements depending on the depth of the trench and material being excavated.

Scrapers

A scraper can move dirt and aggregates quickly around a construction site and is used
primarily for digging and leveling large areas of land. Scrapers are large heavy equipment
designed for open areas, where they can run at high speeds for cut and fill operations.
Large self-propelled scrapers are called motor scrapers. There are also smaller scrapers,
called pull scrapers, that are pulled behind another vehicle.

Common Dump Trucks

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Dump trucks are needed on almost every large job site. They offer limited function but
perform the all-important task of moving and dumping many types of heavy material.
They are also road-ready so they can bring material into or out of site and can travel
anywhere large equipment is permitted. Dump trucks come in many different sizes for
different capacity and load needs, ranging from small utility-type trucks with dumping
beds to enormous machines used in mining operations.

COMPACTING PLANT AND EQUIPMENT

Compaction is the process of mechanically increasing the density of soil. It is the
simple way of increasing the stability and supporting capacity of the soil.
Compaction is one kind of densification that is realised by rearrangement of soil
particles without a flow of water.
Major reasons for compaction of soil:
 Reduction of air-voids content in Soil
 Increasing load bearing capacities
 Providing Stability
 Reducing water seepage, contraction and swelling
 Prevent frost damages and soil settlement
There are two principal types of compaction force :

01. Static Force:

It is simply the dead weight of the equipment. This is done by applying the
downward force on the soil surface and compressing the soil particles. Static force
is confined to upper soil layers and limited to the appreciable depth. Kneading and
Pressure are two basic mechanisms of static compaction.

02. Vibratory Force:

It is usually an engine drive to create the downward force in addition to the weight
of the machine. The vibrating mechanism is usually a rotating eccentric weight of
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the machine or piston combination. The compactors deliver a rapid sequence of

blows to the surfaces, thereby affecting the top layers as well as deeper layers.
Vibrations move the material, setting particles in motions and moves them close
together for highest density possible.
The different types of compaction equipment used in compaction project depend
on the scope of work. The compaction equipment to be used can either be used for
some situations or can be a special type which meets the requirements of the
particular project.
 Smooth Wheeled Roller
 Sheepsfoot Roller
 Pneumatic Roller
 Vibratory Roller
 Rammer
 Vibratory Plate Compactor

01. Smooth Wheeled Rollers:

It is an important equipment for compaction. It consist large steel drum in front and
one or two wheel on rear end.
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02. Sheepsfoot Rollers:

A sheepsfoot roller is also known as a tamping roller. Steel drum of sheepsfoot roller consist of many
rectangular shaped boots of equal sizes fixed in hexagonal pattern.

03. Pneumatic Roller:

Pneumatic roller is also called rubber tyres roller. Pneumatic roller has number of tyres at the front
and at the rear end.
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04. Vibratory Roller:

Vibratory roller consist two smooth drums with the vibrator. One is fixed at front and
other one on rear side of vibratory roller. Both drums are of the same diameter, length
and same weight.

05. Rammers:
Rammer compactor is used for compacting small area and providing impact load to
soil. This equipment is light weight and can be hand or machine operated.
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06. Vibratory Plate Compactor:

Vibratory plate compactor is used for compacting different types of soils in narrow
and conjusted area where it is not possible to use large equipment.

The selection of compaction equipment for building projects depend upon the nature
of the mechanical, job size, distance, method of disposal, and construction time
assigned, volume and depth of soil to be compacted, type of soil, loads on compacted
surface, etc.
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BATCHING/ CONCRETING PLANT

CONCRETING PLANTS AND EQUIPMENTS

INTRODUCTION
• Concrete is basically cement, aggregate & water mixed together and then deposited and
permitted to solidify. • Concrete plant and equipment are mainly used for weighing and mixing
large quantity of concrete constituents’ capacity:
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Concrete batching plants divides into different types according to different classification
criteria.The plants generally,divides into stationary concrete plants and mobile concrete plants. This
is a basic classification that many manufacturers distinguish at the time of production.
Most of the stationary batching plants adopt the modular and splicing design, which mainly uses for
large-scale commercial concrete manufacturers or related manufacturers of concrete components. It
usually applies in large-scale engineering construction, owning the features of strong production
capacity and stable anti-interference. The mobile batching plant is towed by a towing unit, which has
good maneuverability and makes the production more flexible. It generally uses for various small and
medium-sized temporary construction projects.

Commercial concrete plant and engineering concrete plant

According to the application, the concrete batching plant is divided into commercial concrete plant
and engineering concrete plant. The commercial concrete plant is a concrete mixing station based on
commercial purposes. It should be efficient and economical, meeting environmental protection
standards. The engineering concrete plant is often for self-use. The buyer should have a consideration
that whether it is in accordance with the engineering.
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Single host batching plant and double host batching plant

According to the number of concrete mixers, the concrete batching plant divides into single host
batching plant and double host batching plant. The model name of the double main mixing station is
“Double HZS” series concrete batching plant. For example, Double HZS25 concrete batching plant
means that this batching plant equips with two JS500 concrete mixer.
Independent weighing and cumulative weighing methods
According to the weighing method, it divides into independent weighing and cumulative weighing
methods. On the one hand,independent weighing equips with a separate weighing unit for each
material. After weighing each material, these materials will be mixed in the mixer. This weighing
method has a high precision, but it has a complicated design and cost.
On the other hand, the accumulated weighing is to add all the aggregates into the unified hopper. It is
prone to errors and unfavorable for the final production, and the more the number of batching bins.
Besides, The more batching bins, the more likely the deviation will occur. So this method is not
suitable for large projects. It, however, has a simple structural design and low cost.
Batching plants have also been designed for specific location and circumstances. They include;

Mobile concrete batching plant

The mobile concrete batching plant is a concrete mixing equipment. It is suitable for the projects that
need frequent transitions, have short construction period and long construction line.
At the same time, the following systems are concentrated on a trailer unit, including the system of
materials’ store, weigh, transport, stir, unloading and the automatic control system. Moreover, the
mobile concrete plant not only has the function of concrete batching plant, but the advantages of
convenient movement, flexible assembly and disassembly.
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Stationary concrete batching plant

The stationary concrete batching plant is easy to install. It uses in projects with long construction
periods and large demand for concrete. In addition, it applies to a variety of complex terrain
structures.

Compared with mobile concrete plant, the stationary concrete batch plant is more evenly stirred; it
has higher production efficiency. At the same time, the stationary concrete plant achieves good
mixing effect on dry, plastic and various proportions of concrete. Besides, it can also be used as
commercial concrete plants for the production of commercial concrete.

Tower concrete mixing plant

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The tower concrete mixing plant is a new type of concrete plant. Compared to traditional concrete
plant, the aggregates metering system used in it reduces four intermediate link, changing to vertical
unloading metering. At the same time, this method saves a lot of measurement time and improves
production efficiency. Compared with concrete plant of same model, the production efficiency of
tower concrete mixing plant is one-third higher than that.

Containerized concrete batch plant

The containerized concrete batch plant is a type of mixing equipment. It consists of mixing system,
control system, material storage system, weighing system and conveying system.
Compared with the traditional concrete plant, the containerized concrete batch plant does not need to
set the legs and mounting brackets. In addition, containerized concrete batch plant has excellent
environmental performance, convenient transportation and simple installation. At the same time, it is
suitable for concrete production of various hydropower, highway, port, airport, bridge and other
construction projects, as well as construction of commercial concrete plant.
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CONCRETE PUMPS
 This equipment has been used since the 1930's. The advantage of this equipment over others is that is
smoother, faster and flexible as it can access areas inaccessible by cranes and buckets or are too
congested for buggies operating on runways.
TYPES OF PUMPS

1. Piston pump
• It draws fresh concrete from receiving hopper on the suction stroke of piston. The piston then forces
the concrete out of the cylinder through discharge valve into the delivery pipe.

2. Squeeze-pressure pump
• The pumping action is provided by rollers that press on the outside of a flexible tube in a cylindrical
chamber squeezing it and causing concrete to move ahead of rollers.

3. Pneumatic pump
Uses compressed air to force fresh concrete out of a pressure vessel and into the delivery line
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PLACING CONCRETE
 This activity is usually carried out by hand with the objectives of filling the mold, formwork or
excavated area to the correct depth, working the concrete around any inserts or reinforcement and
finally compacting the concrete to the required consolidation.
 The compaction of concrete can be carried out using simple tamping rods or boards or alternatively
it can be carried out with the aid of plants such as vibrators.
 It helps the volume of concrete to be quickly placed, give high density, and reduce air voids.

Poker vibrators

 These consist of a hollow steel tube casing in which is a rotating impellor which generates vibrations
as its head comes into contact with the casing. They are inserted vertically and allowed to penetrate
75mm.
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 They are power either by compressed air or electricity whereas tamping board vibrators are
petrol driven.
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Power Float

A hand operated electric motor or petrol engine surmounted over a mechanical surface skimmer.
Machines are provided with an interchangeable revolving disc and a set of blades. These are useful in
combination to produce a smooth, dense and level surface 2nish to in situ concrete beds. A surfacing disc
is used initially to remove before to passes with blades to 2nish and polish the surface.
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SPRAYING AND PLASTERING MACHINES/ SHORTCRETING

MACHINES
 It allows a plasterer to skim a dry wall more than five times faster than using a hand float.
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PILING PLANT AND EQUIPMENT

Fig.1: Pile Driving Equipment

Fig.2: Pile Driving Equipment

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Types of Pile Driving Equipments

o Piling rigs
o Piling winches
o Hanging leader
o Hammer guides
o Piling hammer
o Helmet, driving cap, dolly, and packing

Piling Rigs
It composed of a series of leaders, which are consist of tabular element or hard box,
placed and fixed on a crane base as it can be seen from Figure-3.Not only does the
leaders support the hammer and the pile but also guide them when the pile is forced into
the ground.

Fig.3: Pile Driving Rig

The leader can be sloped forward and backward using screw or hydraulic adjustment and
attachment at the base of the equipment as shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5. It is possible
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to install a series of piles, without the need to move the equipment, through turning
around base machine and positioning leaders.

Fig.4: Backward Raked Pile Driving Rig

Fig.5: Forward Raked Pile

Regarding pile installation in water, pile driving rig can be used to install piles in water
by placing it on pontoon or leader are fixed on braced frames that mounted on pontoon as
shown in Figure-6.
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Fig.6: Pile Driver Mounted on Pontoon

Moreover, it is considerably crucial to pay adequate attention to the position and
alignment of the leader since any disposition would lead to hammer eccentric blows
eventually the pile will be either damages or displace from its original position.
Furthermore, efforts have been made to improve the efficiency of driven pile machine
and the Delmag MDT 0802, which possess broad range of adjustments with great
movement capacity, is compelling example.
The machine on which Delmag MDY 0801 is fixed on is a wheeled hydraulic excavator
that it’s rams provided sideway, forward, and backward sloping leader, in addition to
arrange the location of the rig in relation to the equipment.
Finally, not only does the leader operation height can be changed thought leader
telescoping but also it could be folded onto the base while the machine it moved from and
to the construction site.
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Fig.7: Delmag Pile Driving Rig

Fig.8: Pile Driver Rig

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Piling Winches
The prime goal of piling winches is to left the hammer and piles in addition to support
tools that responsible for leader raking and rotation. It functions with pile frames and
different powering sources such as hydraulic power, stream; diesel; or petrol engines, and
occasionally electric motors could be applied for powering winches.
There are different piling winches with different capacity for instance winches with
double or triple drums possess satisfactory controlling and pile driving speed whereas one
drum winch does not have that advantage. So, the former type would be favored provided
that handing and driving piles with great speed is required.

Hanging Leader
Hanging leaders are specifically designed to be hanged from the jib of a crane as shown
in Figure-9. A steel strut, which its length can be varied as per requirements of
construction site, provides a stiff connection from the leader foot to the machine bed
frame.

Fig.9: Hanging Leader

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Moreover, crane or excavator winch units are utilized to left the hammer and piles using
separate drums. Regarding hammer application, either drop hammer with friction winch
is considered or it may be operated using stream or hydraulic power or compressed air
which are provided by different units.
Finally, it is substantially crucial to practice utmost precaution to hanging leader stiffness
particularly in the case of long sloped pile driving since intolerable deformation would
lead to eccentric hammer blow and possibly cause pile fracture.

Hammer Guides
When it is intended to remove hanging leaders or piling frames completely, rope
suspended leaders which are commonly guided by timber or steel formwork, would be
considered.
In this technique, an independent crane needed to control the pile and establishing the
guide and hammer. it is necessary to set and secure the guide properly in order to avoid
movements specifically in the during raking pile installation. This is because serious
fatigue stress would generate if the thrust is not centered properly and the guide might
deteriorate.
Finally, it is required to prevent disproportionate bending stress development in guide
and piles because it leads to undesired results. for example, when heavy hammer is
attached to the upper end of a long pile which is driven at flat angle of rake, excessive
bending stress may be generated at support point in the guide. This problem might be
tackled by providing suitable support for the pile at proper position.
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Fig.10: Hammer Guided and Rope Suspended Leader for Delmag Diesel Pile
Hammer

Piling Hammer
There are several factors that greatly influence the decision to choose suitable piling
hammer. For example, pile size and weight, the resistance of the ground which should be
overcame in order to obtain specified penetration, construction site space availability,
noise limitation that might be imposed at certain areas, and availability of cranes.
Previously, the combination of a dynamic equation result and extensive experiences were
employed to select piling hammer, but this has changed nowadays and drivability
analysis results, which is conducted using computer program based on Smith wave
equation, is considered for the piling hammer determination.
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As for input data required for drivability analysis, piling hammer producer provided
necessary data about efficiency and energy feature of the piling hammer. It should be
bore in mind that piling hammer efficiency is not a constant and it is affected by number
of factor for example mechanical condition of the hammer and operation temperature.
It should be known that the mechanical condition is not influence the efficiency of piling
drop hammer. That is why dynamic pile analysis is carried out and its results would be
used to assess the influence of different factor on the piling hammer efficiency.

Fig.11: Drop Hammer Operation

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Fig.12: Single Acting Hammer Operation

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Fig.13: Double Acting Hammer

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Fig.14: Diesel Pile Hammer

Fig.15: Hydraulic Operated Hammer

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Helmet, Driving Cap, Dolly and Packing

Helmet is a cast steel that placed over the pile to hold the dolly that placed between the
pile and the hammer to avoid pile head deterioration that may cause by pile driving
hammer.
Dolly, which is square at the bottom and round at the top, is placed in a square recess at
the top of the helmet. There are different types of dollies for example Elm dollies,
hardwood like oak; greenheart and pyinkado, and their selection is dependent on the
driving force.
As far as packing is concerned, it is placed between pile top and the helmet in order to
protect the former from the hammer blow. Different types of packing include paper
sacking, thin timber sheet, coconut mapping, and sawdust in bags.
Regarding driving cap, it is provided as a protection for steel bearing piles. It is necessary
to place the driving cap tightly otherwise the pile cap would suffer deterioration. That is
why it is fitted with a recess for hardwood or plastic dolly and with steel wedges to fix
the cap tightly on its position.
Lastly, serious pile head damage and hammer breakage cannot be avoided unless
appropriate material and suitable thickness is selected for dollies and packing.
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Fig.16: Placed Helmet, Driving Cap, Dolly and Packing

Fig.17: Installed Helmet, Dolly and Packing