l METAL CASTING

INTRODUCTION
1r a st1 nr1 · ,, th
'- .,, 13 e pror:~": .'.3 , f pr0 rl ~1ct n g met a J obj ':!C t :J b y pourin g
molten met& l i nto a m0uld ~a \ it y an d bll o wing it t0 s
olidif y ,) Th ~
place ~-h~ r ~ m~tal c a sti n~ s "tre prod•.J ce d i s k no wn a s "F~~d ~y' ' •
Gener al l y met a l castin g s are pr o duced i n 2and and me tal
mou ld L ,
Onl y i ngot 3 and s mall objec ts are produc e d in metal mo uld z
,
whil~ c a st1· r1~s :, o f -11
<.I ~
;::, 1.
· z ea both simple and compl icat ~d , ar~
, C, '

produ ced u~u all y i n s and mould s .

Basic Ste ps in Ma ki ng Sand Castin gs

Th ere are fi v e basic ste ps in a sand castin g. They are-
1) Patter n and Core-b ox Makin g: Patter ns are requir ed to mak~
mould ~. Patte rns are p repare d in the patter n making sectio
n.
The p a tt ern may b e of wood, metal , . plast i c, etc. Also c o re -
b ox e £ are mad e to obt ai n desire ~ co~es .
2 ) Core -~akin g: Cores made of sand are used to obtain int~r 1or
s u r f ac e o f
castin gs. Co res are prepa red in a core-r o0m. Th e
core - b oxes are suppl ied ·from the patter n making sectio n.
3 ) Mould ing: ~ould i ng i.s the proce ss of obtain ing the cavity
to
~o u r molten metal . This is done by rammin g mould ing sa nd
a r0 u nd the patte rn kept in a mould box. When patte rn is
ta}:<::n o u t , t he shape o f the patte rn is left i n th e ramme d
~ind , ~ ec essary cores ar e then set i n t he mou ld c& v itf . Th
e
mo11l d i :; f in is hed . and c l e aned b e fore metal p ou ri n g .
• I

4 ) Meltin g and Pour i ng: The metal o f t h e r eq u i red compo s i tio n

i~ m~ l t e d i n a s ui t ahl~ furna ce , ta ken i n ln d le£ a n d po 11 red
l n~0 t h~ mo uld c av iti eg , Th e mould s o r e t hen allo ~ r d t n c oo l
, J ,.,... n ,~ o t-. h 8 t '3 o 1 i rJ ;i f i " rJ mc ta 1 r- o.. s t i 11 ~ 1 '3 0 b t r, .i n rd .
5 ) Cle an i ng and In s pectio n : 'fh r• '~o l i rli f i,-. ct r · n.<;ti. 11 ~ 111 th 1..• mn •tl 1

, •. r . :, { ' ( , ,.rr,,,, r•d r, 11d Lhr { I c I l I I 1,.t 1~ (" 1 t' f \ l l f' d 1 n

fr .f t J JII " ' J•r. t. i rJ(j,
 Fi n a ll y t h e c l ea n ed ca s ti n g s or e i n ~ p ~rt~ d to c h eck
f0r
::m ~· bl o w-h o l e s , f 1 a ws , c r a -::· I-. s ~ n d o l l 1 '! r '·-"• I l r_• rLI rJ O f n. r • t, .., • I t,, 0

i n s p ec ted c a s ting i s t h e n r e ad y fo r 11 se ,
I
Ad v antag es of Metal Casti ng Proce ss
1) Casti ng is the basic and ; ersa t il e manuf nctur i ni
p r oces s .
21 Diffi cult shape s can be cast e asil y ,
3) Casti ng provi des freedo m o f d e sign in te r ms of sh
a p e & si z e.
4) Some metal s that canno t be mach ined, can b e
p r od uce d by
casti ng to the requi red shape .
51 Heav y objec ts can be produ ced only b y casti
ng pro c e ss .
6) Mech anica l and meta llurg ical prop ertie s can be
obtai ned.

PATTERNS
Patte rns are the found ryman 's mould formi ng tool. ~ atte rn
i s essen tial to form the mould
cavit y in which molte n metal i s
p ou red. ~ A patte rn is us~d to form many mould cavit
ies and hence
ca s t ings. The quali ty and finis h of the casti ng depen
ds mainl y on
th e t ype of mate rial used for patte rn. desig n and ·cons truct i on
o f the . p a ttern . Hence , for produ cing high quali ty ~' nd preci sio n
;
ca s ti n g s, e xpens ive and ·. -~ . \ _,
speci al patte rns are used , while for
si mp le a nd small quan tity, patte rns made of wood, metal or
pl a ste r a r e p refer red.

Prop erties of Patte rn Mate rial

Th e i mp o r ta n t prope rt ie s of a good pa t tern ma ter i al
are-
l) It s houl d b e e as:v t o s h ape , wo r k and as s emble
.
2 ) I t s h o uld b e h a rd, st ro n g ,a n d ·d ur a b l e .
3l It s h ou ld have r esist anc e t o 'n br a. s i'on a n d ch e mic a l ac ti ons,
I) I t s hould be lig h t i n weig ht f o r ea
s y h a ndlin g .
~l It bhoul d be d i me nsio n a lly s tabl e .
\ \ \ '

PATTE RN MATERI AL S
r 111 . dI r r ,, 1' "' 1, t ty p ~ 0 o f motcr i n ls u se d f or pntte r n s a r e wood ,
mr- t I l• /l 11d fl I I (j \ ' lt ,, 1 fl l:', L ..
" r , 11l "0°
'
~ L l' cs ' r u bb ei"s a nd wax.
0
'

Wood : w,,o d i III I h,,,, n, n ~ l c v m111a nl r ~Hi€' d p n tt0rn mute rial , si n ce i t

mr> (" t , fll 11 •, l O j' I IH' r~qul t·f• mfl n t s of n '")C\tt e"n , 1' o
~ • obtai n b e s t
 •

r e s u lt R
- IJro n~_a
- ~ r•l~- sea~one d woo d 1.s
· use d , D1.'ffe r e n ·t t v,p·e• o f wood s
u sed to ma ke p a tt e rns a re Teak, Mahogany, Deodar, et c.
' ' I ,.- , • I .
Nowa d a ys compressed wood laminates lply~opds and laminated
bo a rds l a nd lnmina~ed wood impregnates ! like .plastic , rilled wood
laminate s) ar e finding wider applications for makinS patterns,
Thes e gi v e additional benefits like strength, hardness,
resistanc
'
e', , to wear and dimensional stability to the pattern,
More over , __fabrication of pattern with these materials is easier
and faster as compared to the basic wood, I ·r ,,,,-.r,-

The ad v antages of wooden patterns ar~ they are available in

: ' . •\
1', ' 1 ,1 ' .

plent ~ , the y 6an ~e ~orked and shaped easily, they are light in
.., :· .
: '
weight a nd they at~ cheaper th~ri other
\ ,·1,
materials,
.
. , 11 r· •; , ,_· I 1

The limitatiqns of these patterns are susceptible to

moisture, causing swell.ing and distortion, poor in strength, have
no resistance to wear and chemical actions and ·~en~e they are
'
suitable for small number of. patterns, . l'

Metal: Cast or machined metallic -patte~ns are w~dely used. The

different metals used are cast iron, aluminium, steel, ·brass an~
other alloys. Metallic patterns are. sui tabie i 'f or producing
castings in large quantity a~d repetitive : production: These are
: i

P referred when the patterns • -•re to be stored for years, surface

finish of the c asting and stability_ 6£ ·'t}\~i 'p~}; -t;.ie r~. ar.e more
impoI? tant. Cast irori and :'. oth:~,; ' '·\r~rrou~ allo? ,n~;tterns are used
.. . i ·:-. . ~·• .
for primary casting proce~s of producing ingots . ..
' I
\ -'
Plastics and. Rubpe_r s: The.~.mo;s ,~1t,ti,ng and thermo-plastics are also
used' as pattern material~. 0:~ ~r~?~ ets ~tyl= . tu~ed fo.r making
dur a bl e and long I service patt~~ris) whil e G hermopl~ stics are used
for s ho r t runs and · ·"whe're the patterns c an be melted and reused
' I

f o r maki n g pa tt e rns) ( Th,:_ commonly used th ~ oset s are ~:V and

0

po l ye ster resi n s , ) and · am ong (the t hermopla s tics , po lys t y rene a nd

~
wi d e 1y---- u s e d ,) -
ur e tha n e are widely us e d ) Amon g (t_ubb e r s , s i l ic.o n e r ubb e r s a r e
Pl as t i c s a nd rubber s a r e 1 i g h t , bu t a r e f r a g i le a nd
may n ot with s ta n d c h e mical a c ti on s ,
d, s p o ..sa b 1.~ ~ ~ <:::... 0 ~ e 0 --,r ~ .dc__ 4
.' I , ,~ ·,. f.ok4 ~-~:zr.,e~ ~ r vc , P<' l~rVI.., ,(-' \L..~, •'-Q
' I
 e

--
Plaster : Gypsum or plaster
strong, light and gi,·es
of paris with suitabl 0 a dd it i ves is
goo d sur f·ace f'1'n1's l1 , 'I'h e,v are , however ,
suitable for small castings onlr :)

Wax: Wax. is used in

m~ ~ -~La l ,. These are
a reusable patte.rn
investment casting. They ~ i , ·e
-- - -
good surface finish, light to
haotlle, suitable to form complex shapes and are reusable,

TYPES OF PArTERNS
The "~arious type~ ~f patterni (~~o¥ n in figure 1-1) are-
1 ) Solid Pattern 5) ,Ga,t ed ;pattern
2 ) Spl~t Pa ttern • f 6) ,FolJ.ow Board Pattern
' .. : ' .
3 ) Loose Piece Pattern. ! 7 Li,~,k~letpn Pa,t tern , ,.
4 ) Mat~b. , Plate , Pa;tter_n- .! .; 8) ~w~~~ Pattern
1

I ! •,

/ PATTERN ,~}~~QWArC;ES ,
Fqr _; 'P~t ally.ristca], find mechanical ,, reasons a number of
allowances a~e prqvided on a patt~~n. They are-
,.,. 1 )._ Shr.inkag.e .o r Cont_raction AJJ.owance :(It is a correction for
r,;

-
/ ' ·I t'"'" :• •:" (

solidificiticin - shrinkage ~f the casting and its contraction

during --~~~1r~~-- .to rc;;2~- {emper~tur~) - Th~-- total contract ion is
~ - - J I _' : •1 t • • !J t•

-
volumetric, but it {s · expressed linearly.
made bigger i ·n_ ~ ize ,.·•trh·a n the reqt1i'red :cas·ting siz,e ~)" •'
Thus, the pattern is

I ' ' ' ! '. i :• ••1 • ' ~.

The pattern a.llowances required dif'f er from mewl to metal.
: ! \ , i ·, . ;11 ' ·

~ ome times d ouble allowanc-es are provided if a pattern is made in

-
wood) and then
terns"· . (Thi:Ds i -s beo.ause ··th'e: 1 metal
i~ some other rnetai, as i .n mak:i.ng ''master pat-
pattern cast, also 'shrinks ;
which is al so to' ' be compensa te.d) '' ·Al v-®\;1.,._;, 'f e,::,_ , -lo..v-;1e.st-:-· .S V'li.1<'i K<Je
2) Machine Finish
. '' :
Allowance:
"' ! I. ·/"H c:> _Ll)~y, (,~ .yqh. d e v~K\ "'.J
Machine finiBh allowance is the
r~t-teY(). . :
I , ' !- ! ( ' _I \ f • · • ; :• ' ~II _ ! !: JI I_ 1~ • ! '
excess dimension on ~~attern to gi~e o~e~~ ~ze on the casting, It
is necessary to provide stock for machining. lt depends upon the
' .. . : '. ' '; ; i. .i ( { ,.-
type of metal, design and method of ca3ting and cleaning.
. . ; ,: ' ·. : .: '. ,·!
3) Draft or Taper Allowance: D;raft is , .. the taper a llowed on
verti ca l fa c es of a pattern to permit its withdrawal witho u t
'I ,

a ffect ing the mould, For hand drawn patterns abo u t 10 to 2 0 mm

I , , , I I t I' ' ' I

I' . .
 5

1,1 11 1' 1 e ,,r or mn '-'" h J' nc c1r a1,· 11 p ::i Lt 0. rn ~;

dr aft pe1· n1e tr· e i's -_, 1 e d,
c"'°' ll"'1,

abo u t l _d eg r ~~ i s allow ed , .
I I•

4) Disto rtion Allow ance: This al l o wance i s ptovi ded on patt e rn s

whose castin gs tend to d'lst'~ rt ' on .. c ooli rig . GeneN 1.lly it is
I '
requi red for flat, lo~g, U and V shape d castin g s . To obtai n a
prope ~
-
casti ng,
--
patte rn itsel f
_
is
, ,,111_ _
~listor ted, which yield s a

casti ng of requi red shape ,

\ ,, I I

rappe d for easy

5) Rappi ng or Shake Allow ance: When ~ patte rn is
withd rawal s, the m6uld cavit y gets enlar ged. To take care of

this 't he patte rn s·f :ze is reduc ed, This allo\v ance is very
\.' \

impo rtant in case of large and preci sion~

- stin~ .

'i- PATTE RN COLOU R CO,DJNG . . I r,

ifica tion,
Patt~ rns are colou red to facil itate quick ident
be . machi ned
t yp e of metal to be cast, to decid e what port:i on to ' '
and t o ident ify core print s, loose piece s·, etc. The colou r

, . , .~1513 ~1911 is as Jhown

codin g recom mende d by IS below -
t ~.. _\ -

Surfa ce
• \ l I
.Colou r, ·
. • - I·

Surfa ce to be left as cast (,unma chin~ d) "

Steil Blue
Grey cast iron - : ,Red
Malle able cast iron· 1 .•: Gre y
Heavy metal casti ngs ' ! Orang e
Light metal casti ng_ $ ,, , 1_ .: ·-: Brown
Surfa ces to be machi ned '' ·'
·• I
Yello w.
, ·,· ;• 1 Black ,
Core print s
Black /Clea r varni sh
Patte rn joint s , J , J 11'
' Green
1
Seats for loose core print s
. 1 •• ·n Diago nal ila~k strip s
Stop offs
· 1'

MOU.IJDING 'SANDS
II
found ry for
~ould ing sand is the princ ipal mate rial used in
makin g mou lds. A g ood mould ing sand shoul d posse ss the neces sary
eithe r natur al
prop ertie s for makin g quali ty mould s. Thes e mny be
sands are used
o r synth etic ( prepa red ) types , Gene rally synth etic
c onv e nient and offer bette r q uali t ies than
s Jncc L l i ey are mo re

th e n0Lur1 .1l s a nd s .
 G

Ingredi e nts of Moulding Sands

Th e principa l in gre di e n t s o f mu u lcl in~ s and s a r e s ili r:.: c1 s and
grain s, c l a~· , moisture n 11d s p ec ial a ddi t i \ f:S ,

~ ilica Sand Grains : IL is the c hi ef c o n sLituent o f a moulding

sand, in gra. nular f orm. About 80-9 5% o f moul d ing s a nd i s t h e
,I
sili ca sand. Q ts main function is to form a good mouldi
. , ...
ng

material wit h high r e~ ct.2.!:lness, c hemic al and thermal stabi l it y

and permeabil ity . ) The y are specified according t o t heir a ve rage

size and s hape. The, ~l so includes

silica sand ~o some
2
impurities (max . 2%) like Al o , FeO, Cao, Mgo 2 , etc )'
2 3
Clay: About 2~% of the moulding sand canst i tute s clay . It acts

as a "binder'' with suit<).:b le water content .) Q_t binds the sand

partic].e s, and imparts

-
strength
sand. ( Bentoni te is the clay generally · used in foun~ri_es )
&. plasticity
~
to the moulding

Moi_sture: (!he quantity of moisture present in the moulding sand

is in the range of ~ t~%. ) . i.s p.e.s ',\ ' kh!= . bonding

It fur,.~ action to
cla y, t hus briniing strength and plasticity to the sand. Mois-

ture in excess lowers · the ' strength of the moulding aggr~gate, but
offers eas iness · to prepar ~ and control. ~etter san~ ·propertie s
are obtained onl y when the moi'sture c~~nL4,~ optimum )

Special Additives: These are added to the moulding sands, to

obtain certain · specific propertie~ , as well a·s to· :enhance

.
the
l · : ,

e xis ting prqp_ertie- s , ·-Some spe,c ial_. addi tiv~es in use are-
a,, J Sea co al ( Coal dust) 1-10%: to improve surface _.finish.
bl P itch {coke by-produc t) and as~halt: , ijpto 3% : to improve
I '

surface finish and hot strength.

el Grap hi te and Silica flour u pto 2%: to imp ro ve refractor i-

ness, s urface finish a nd mouldabil it y .

ft ) Wood flour , c e r eal a nd ce llulos e upto 3%: to improve
co llapsibil it y , flowabi lit y , a nd gree n and dry stre ngths.
,,,e) Fuel oil upto 0.1%: t ~ improv e mould abi li ty .
~) ~cla sses , de x trin u pto 2%: to i mpro~e dry strength a nd edge
h ard n e ss .
A l Pe rlit e u pto 1. 5%: to impro,e th e rmal s tabi l itr .
 7

Classification of Moulding Sands

The y are c l assifi e d inl o t hr e e ~ a l e go r i " a ,t
r ! 1 u r .::l ,

synthet ic and spec i a l sand s .

Natural moulding sa.nd, ~~ s o c a ll ed "green s and'', i s obla il1e d

from river beds or dug from p it s. The y cont ain clay (5 -20% ) , and
can be used with additi ves, directl y for moulding. Natural sands

- -
are ,less refractory compared to_ synthgtic .sands.)
- -
than 2%
- clay
Synthetic sand, also called "high silica sand ", contain le ss
and . rest .§__i0 . They occur as deposits or at ri v er
- --- -
2
banks. They are also prod't.1ced .. b ~)•s rushing quartzite sand stone s)
.,

Special sands are useful i 'h · obtaining spec{cii1 • properties in

moulding sands . ,like high surf~ce , finish, high refractoriness,
etc. Zircon, olivine, chamotte and chrome magnesite are often
• : ~, I ,

used as ~p~cial sands. )

: '.: ,·
:_: .: 1
Prope1:ties .of Mciu lding San<3:s
J '. --~

1) Cohesiveness or : Str~ngth. -l . , ', .

tt 'fs ·the -a bilit..Y
,.J
w •• ~-! "•
of sand par-
,,- /

ticles to stick together. A ·good · ~6~ndry _sa~d should have

green strength, ,, dry streiigth, ··and ho\ streng~h.
j) Permeability, _ The property :9f - a sand to allow easy flow of
gases and moisture through it is called permeability, i.e.,
the sand must hav e sufficient porosity,
~) Flowabili ty. The sand must flow smoothl;f while preparing the
sand and the mould cavity ,
4,,) Adhesiveness. It is the property by which the sand p_ar-
ticles cling or adhere to the mould box surfaces, and adhere
to the neighboring particles.
5) Refractoriness. A sand must not fuse when it comes in
/
molfen metal; that is, the sand must have good
contact with
refractoriness.
V\l, I ~
·)
+o
'" 1 - --, _, ~ i(IqJ,-i ~ rn \~ , +u r«- l-;o u L
F~~ . I
"'°' i.,,11
,,6) Thermal stability. A foundry J and must retain its dimen-
s io n s under high temperature conditions, if not the mould
c a v i t y may distor t .
1) Collapsibility. Af t er t he solidifi c ation of t he molt e n
meta l , t he mo u l d mu s t be cosi l y c o ll n p sl b l~ . Th is h elps
8

f r ee c on l r G c t .i. o n ,_, f t h c rn e t n l & ".:' a s ,.- r e m0 , · a J o f t h e c a s 1, i n g .

8) Surf ace f inish, ..\ goo d s E1 11d m11 s l i mport 1.t f 1. n e '3 u r fac e
fi n i s h Lu t h e me tal cas l i n g ,
9} Reusabili t y, .\ f o und r ~ s and mu st b e reu ::; ab l e .
lO) Easy to prepare and control. A sand mu s t be easy t 0 prepar e
a nd c o n t rol it s properti e s,

FOUNDRY SAND TESTS & CONTROL

Va riou s tests are conduc t ed on foundr y sand s tp a scer t ain
its working qualities . The s a nd tests help to a greater e x t e nt
in controlli ng the sand propertie s ~ ·, and · hence to y ield sound
castings, The different tests carried out are described here.

Preparati on of the Sand Sample ~nd Specimen

specimen of 5 cm dia · and 5 cm length is used for
A standard
determini ng the permeabi lity number, compressi on & shear strength
I

of the sand. The specimen i~ prepared· Using a sand rammer. It

consists of a sli-c:iing weight ( 14 lb. as per AFS standard) which
is used to ram the sand by dropping ·,i t fr·o,m a standard height. It
also has the ac)ce'ssori es like· the ste:e l tube for specimen ( of 5

cm inner d~a 1·, a base or pedestal & a stripping post (Fig. 1-2).

a) Moisture Content . Test

: ,_:. . , -·

~ o isture ~e~~ • is - · th~ most important test since moisture

content affects many propertie s of a moulding ,,~,and.
. \ ;i
This test is J

done b y dry ing, 50 gm , of the green · sand at about 11o · c, for 2

1;

hours in a dr ? ing oven. , The · dried sand sample is cooled to room

temperat' u r e in a desiccato r and welghed. The final weight of the

-\ i ;
c o o l e d s and i s noted down. The differenc e in weight of the sample
I

d i vi d e d b y 50 ~m gi v es the perc'entag e of moisture content in the

giv en g ree n s a nd. j r

Q t i s d es ir a bl e t o h ave t h e mo ist ure c o ntent between 4 to 8 %

t o obta in opti mum sa nd pr o pe r ties . Lo w o r high mo i s t ur e contents
d ec rpa se t h e s a nd st r e n gt h ~ Mois ture c ont ~ n t te s t is us e ful t o

co ntr ol t h P pe rc e ntag ~ o f moist u r e i n a give n sa n d .

 'j

Si n ce, t h e co nv e ntio n al me Lh od of moistu re dr:c> tP.r rn i n at .io n

ve b AP n
l a b or i o u s a nd ti me co n s umi ng , so me rece n t qui c k met h od s h a
s tur e
wi d ely u sed i n t h e p r ese n t d ay fo un drie s . Th e met h o d o f moi
is u s ed popul arl y . In t hi s ace t y l e n e gas ( C 1-1 l i c•
t ell e r 2 2 ~
ss u r e
gene r at e d b y reacti on with mois t ure i n the sand and it s pre
is used a s measu re of the moist ure conte nt.

b) Clay Conte nt Test 1.

n-
Cl ay is the bindin g ~ater ial iq a foundr y sand. It influe
The
ces the streng th, perme abilit y and prepa ration of the sand.
below -
.proce dure for the det~ r minat i on of the clay_ co~te nt is as
1) Take 50 gm of mould ing sand in a wash b9ttle .
2) To this add 475 cc of distil led water and 25 cc of 3% ~aOH.
es,
3) St ir the sand wit·h added S(;)lut; io.n const ant.ly for . 10__minut
using a mecha ni~ al stirre r ,
4 ) Fill the clay wash bottle with water :uptp the mark and

allo w to settle for 10 minut es.

5) Then using o luti_on o:ut by
a Siphon .pipe remov e the dilute d s _

·about 3/'1- th total conte nts. Care should be takep to see that
partic le is · remov ed ·.·. along, v.[ith.-, s9luti on. The
no · . s and 0 0

-
.
solut i on brings the clay rni x e .d in i -t due to stirri ng action
and
6) Again dilute the conten t s by adding water upto the mark
on
all o w to set tle for 5 minut es. Siphon out to remov e soluti
by 3 /4th the t otal c ont e nt.

Re p eat step numbe r 6 for about 4 -5 times to make the water

i n th e bo tt l e c lear and retain onl y pure silica sand. Take the
e rence in
s and g ra i n s i n a pan a nd dr y i n a oven. Div ide the diff
. ,,
nt in the
sampl e weig ht b y 5 0 t o get t h e pe t c e nt a g e of c l ay conte
given fou nd ry s a~d.

c ) Grain Finen ess Number (GFN)

Th i s test is carrie d o u t u sing a Sieve s h ~ k er, 11 s ta n dard

si e v es a nd a dry fou n dry sa n d sa mpl e . Th is t e st gives t h e

finen es<:: o f t h e s a nd g r ai n s . ~ ig h er t he g rain finene s s, lower

th e p e r mea bi l iLyof Lh o mou J d , ) Fcn· t:. h i R l e s t , c.fr i ed 50 g m sample

- - r1 ·0 111 t h e c la)' co nt e n t
of s ili c a SFlnd ( or Lhc c1n 11 cl 4 ,~11 i 11 n'· 1i cl u 0
0
 10

t e st) is k ept o n t h e top o f n serie s of e l e v e n s i e ve s a nd s h ak e n

for 1 5 mi nu tes , Th e ::; a nd re mai ned on ea c h s .i. e v e a nd Ll1 e bottom
pan is collected , Kei gh e d a nd it s ,percentages o f t h e t ota l
sample is calculated, Th e perc e nta ge of s and ret a i n e d in e ac h
sieve is multipl i ed b y a multipli e r {a c on s tant fac t o r g i ve n f or
each si eve) and the product is obtained, All the produ c ts a r e
added to get the t o tal product. (E_he ~ al product cl ~ v ide~ b y
total percentage of the sand gains reta i ned (i . e., 100) gives the
grain f t ne.ness ~ number,) A typi c al c alculation of grain fineness
number (based on US series equi v alent number) is shown below ~

U.S. Sieve Amount of sand retained Multiplier Product

gram percentage
I
6 3
-,
12 - 5
20 10
30 0.5 1.0 20 20.0
40 1.0 2.0 30 60.0
50 3.0 6.0 40 2 ·1 0. 0
70 8.5 17.0 50 850.0
100 10.2 20,4 70 1428.0
140 ,/
·rs. a 31. 6 100 3160.0
200 6.5 13.0 145 1885.0
270 200
Pan :L...Q. 9.0 300 2700.0
50.0 100.0 10343.0

Total Product 10 ~:l43

GFN = = = 103.43, say 103.
Total% of sand ;i.oo

d) Permeability ,
(germeability number • is defined as the volume of air in cubic
centimeters that will pass per minute •: under a pressure of 1 . gm
• J ; - -. ; ' : • '

per square centi~eter . through a sp~cimen . , of 1 square centimeter

in cross sectioIJ. and-· 1 cm deep .') .

The permeability ' o f a sand i~- dcit~rmined b y using ~ standard

cvlindri c al s pecimen '( 5 cm . diamete·r and 5 cm height l in the
permeability tester. The permeabilit y tester c onsist s of a
invert ed fl o ating bell in which 2000 cc of air is trapped, a
s p e cime n tub e , mercur y seal and a water manometer.
 1]

To car ry o ut Lh c t r s l, Lh c s p cc j mc n Lube 1;1 ith the ra mm ed

h o \, n i n f i g u r e 1 - 3 . T h e n
s Pe c i me n i s kept on t h c III c r c u r. :-' s e cd a s s
t h e t rap p ed a ir i s allo we d to flow t h roug h Lh e s peci me n by
s top wat c h is star te d.
ope ning t h e VH l ve . At t h e same mom e nt u
The ti me tak en for the flow of 2000 cc ai r is not e d down . Also
r.
the a ir pres sure is note d from the mano mete
g the rela tion ,
The perm eabi lity numb e r is calc ulat ed usin
V H 0.o oo -x s-
Perm eabi litv
.
Num ber, P N
=
PAT
f
x 't::. -x: -~◊ -2b~

wher e, V = Volu me of air = 2000 cc

H = Heig ht of the spec imen = 5 cm

p = Air pres sure , in gm/s q.cm
A = Cros s sect iona l area of spec imen = 20.2
68 sq.c m.

T = Time of air flow , in minu tes

e) Stre ngth Test s

Usu ally on a stan dard tens ile, com pres sion ,
sand spec imen
ied out in~ univ ersa l
shea r and bend ing stre ngth test s ·are carr
and shea r test s the
stre ngth test ing mac~ ine. For com pres sion
ramm er is requ ired , The
stan dard spec imen prep ared · in a sand -
n out usin g the strip ping post and used .
prep ared spec imen is take
t type s of spec imen s are
For tens ile and bend ing test s diff eren 2
. m.
d in term s of kg/c
used . Stre ngth valu es are usua lly expr esse

CORES AND CORE MAKING

sand shap es used to form the holl ow
( core s are usua lly
as hole s) or exte rior s (suc h as groo ves on
inte rior s (suc h
our of a cast ing that
pull eys) of a cast ing 0 They form the cont
s core s are used to form
is not mou lded with a patt ern, Some tim~
moul d cav ities with out patt erns . The core is left in the mou ld
cati on of the cast ing.
cavi ty and brea k remo ved afte r the soli difi
and ce ra mic mat eria ls in
Core s can also be made of meta l, plas ter
app lica tion .
a ddit ion to core sand s depe ndin g upon the