Chemical Engineering - cover story

Making the Most of Valves

Selecting the Right Valve for the Job May Take Time, but the Results are
Worth the Effort

John P. Frenck, Consultant

All valves are designed to control flow. However, some throttle the flow, while others
perform all-or-nothing on-off duties. In addition, the devices can be operated manually,
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remotely or automatically, and some are self-regulating (CE, September 1999, p. 84). They
come in a variety of materials ranging from steel to exotic alloys and plastics. Selecting the
right valve for the job, as well as the most cost-effective one, is an involved process that
takes time.
This article reviews the different types of valves commonly used in the chemical process
industries (CPI) and details the factors that need to be considered when selecting the most
appropriate and cost-effective valve for the job. Materials of construction and the various
standards concerning valves and piping systems receive specific attention.
In general, valve selection takes a four-step approach.
1. The procedure begins with deciding what type of flow control is needed; that is, on-off or
throttling.
2. This leads to determining which type of valve will best perform that action in the
particular piping system where it will be installed.
3. Once the engineer has decided on the kind of valve, appropriate materials of construction
must be selected for compatibility with the fluid being handled.
4. Finally, an ISO 9000-certified manufacturer must be found.
Perhaps the most difficult aspect of the process is making the selection based on life-cycle
cost. A manufacturer's standard valve provides the lowest initial cost and the quickest
delivery time. However, an off-the-shelf model may not be exactly what is needed, and the
necessary modifications will usually increase both cost and delivery time.
A life cycle cost analysis weighs the initial expense against a host of other costs, such as the
price of a replacement valve, labor for replacing it, and the accompanying downtime and loss
of production. In addition, process operating problems and off-specification product resulting
from internal leakage and environmental concerns for external leakage must be factored in.
As a result, economic pressures for the lowest initial cost may not yield the optimum valve in
the long run.

VALVE VARIETIES
The majority of valves used in the CPI are one of four types: gate, globe, quarter-turn (plug,
ball, and butterfly), and check valves. However, other kinds of valves are used for specific
applications.
All valves consist of the same basic components. The body contains the fluid, which moves
along the flow path of the valve. A device, such as a disc or plate that is inserted into the flow
path manipulates the movement of fluid. A stem, which exits the body wall through a
stuffing box, moves the flow-changing device with either a linear or rotary motion. The
stuffing box contains a number of seals to prevent external leakage.
In the simplest form, all the components of a valve are made of the same material of
construction. However, using different materials for various parts or as linings can expand
the range of applications, increase service life and reduce the costs of a valve.

Gate valves

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A gate valve consists of a body and an internal wedged-shaped plate. When the valve is
closed, the plate is wedged between the sealing surfaces, or seats, totally blocking the flow.
In the open position, the plate is completely removed from the flow path.

Achieving a bubble-tight performance in metal-to-metal sealing is challenging even with a

brand-new gate valve, but a tight seal is even more difficult to maintain with corroded or
worn parts. Thus, gate valves are used exclusively for on-off operation where opening up or
shutting off the flow is relatively infrequent.

In addition, the gate is repositioned by turning a hand wheel. This changes the flow relatively
slowly and, compared to the other types of on-off valves, requires a lot of stem movement.

Gate valves have two sealing surfaces, one on each side of the gate. In the closed position,
these seals trap liquid in a cavity bounded by the body and the two sealing surfaces. If the
temperature of the trapped liquid rises, the fluid will expand and its pressure will increase
significantly. If not vented, the expanded liquid will leak internally or externally.

To avoid such leakage, manufacturers make a positive vent, often by drilling a small hole in
the upstream seat. Such a vent, however, makes the device a one-way valve since it seals at
only one end of the gate. The one-way flow direction of the valve must be marked on its
exterior to prevent installation in the wrong direction.

A variation of the gate valve, the knife gate, employs a gate with a flat leading edge rather
than a tapered one. With no wedging action to provide a tight seal, flexible elastomeric or
plastic sealing surfaces must be used. The profile of the leading edge of a knife gate can be
curved, angled or various contours other than straight to achieve some throttling of the flow
as the valve is being opened or closed.

Butterfly valves

An alternate to the gate valve for on-off service is the butterfly valve. Such valves have a
wafer, wafer-lug, or flange design, which reduces weight and possibly cost if expensive
alloys are required.

A butterfly valve controls the flow with a disc that rotates 90-deg. In the closed position, the
disc blocks the flow. With a quarter-turn, the disc remains in the flow path but pivots so only
its thin edge obstructs fluid flow. However, even in this open position, the disc restricts flow
somewhat and lowers the overall flow capacity. In addition, the edge of the disc is subject to
wear and corrosion from the fluid.

Originally, butterfly valves had a relatively simple design. The body had an elastomeric
lining, and sealing was accomplished as the disc came into contact with the lining. The lining
also protruded into the stuffing box to produce the seal for the stem. Subsequent designs
incorporated a backup or secondary stem seal for added protection against leaks. However,
fluid incompatibility and low-temperature limitations for elastomers initially restricted the
use of such designs.

More recently, technology has overcome the limitations of elastomers, significantly

expanding the use of butterfly valves. For example, chemically resistant plastics, such as poly
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tetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), now complement elastomers, thus broadening the spectrum of
service applications.

All-metal designs offset the axis of the disc in both two and three dimensions to produce
what are called double and triple offsets. Such seats close with less relative motion and, thus,
produce less wear to the disc and seat.

Butterfly valves are normally restricted to piping systems with ASME pressure classes 150
and 300, since higher pressures require very thick discs to accept full pressure differentials.

The internals of butterfly valves are inserted into the body through one end. The final piece
bolts or otherwise locks onto the body of the valve, becoming a portion of the gasket surface.
Depending on the exact design, that piece may reduce the contact area of the gasket and lead
to external leakage at the sealing surface. Specifying an uninterrupted gasket surface can
remedy the situation.

For wafer-lug and flanged versions, the method of bolting the valve to the piping usually
lessens the allowable pressure if no mating flange is present, as can happen when
downstream piping is removed. In this condition, the valve must not be expected to provide
shutoff for high-pressures lines. If removal of downstream piping is a possibility, during
maintenance for example, the valve must be installed with the insertion end oriented
upstream. Otherwise, all the internals could be ejected.

Butterfly valves perform poorly in control applications. Their seals tend to corrode and wear
excessively when the valve is only slightly open. Also, positioning the disc at an angle
directs flow against the wall of the piping, potentially accelerating failures there.

Globe valves

While they achieve the same level of tightness as a gate valve and can be used for shut-off
conditions, globe valves are more commonly used for throttling flow. They are readily
adaptable to automatic operation and control systems. Indeed, most control valves are of this
design.

The flow-changing component, or plug, of a globe valve has a circular cross-section, but its
overall shape ranges from conical to cylindrical or a variety of other forms. It engages a
circular seat, which can be of the same or a different alloy. Each plug shape produces a
unique flow characteristic, which is the volumetric change in the flow relative to the amount
the valve is open. For example, a linear flow characteristic is that in which flow is reduced by
10% when the valve is closed by 10%.

Rather than having a plug, true flow-control valves utilize a "cage" composed of several
pieces that move relative to one another. Such devices also reduce noise in processes where
pressure has to be let down.

Check valves

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Placed in piping systems to prevent backflow, check valves are not as reliable as most users
assume them to be. Because the valves have close tolerances, corrosion and solids can cause
them to stick and malfunction.

The sealing element of a check valve takes many shapes, all of them designed to be
completely out of the flow path during normal operation and to immediately stop flow when
backflow pushes the element closed. The most common sealing elements are swing, poppet,
and ball types.

In the absence of flow, a check valve should shut by itself. To achieve this, the valve must be
oriented so gravity forces the sealing element to the closed position. For example, the sealing
surface of a swing check valve mounted on a horizontal pipe is at a slight angle to the flow
axis of the valve. This setup allows the force of gravity to push the element against the seat
when flow is insufficient. In vertical pipes, both swing and ball checks work best as long as
the flow is upward, since gravity and downward flow produce a permanently shut valve.
Poppets should only be used in horizontal piping.

To ensure that the sealing element lifts completely out of the flow path, especially in vapor
service, the mass flow of the vapor or liquid pushing the element open must fully counteract
the force of gravity acting to close it. Manufacturers make this calculation, if requested by
the potential buyer.

If the calculation reveals the flow needed to keep the valve fully open is insufficient, a
double-disc check valve may provide the solution. This type of valve has two half-discs that
rotate on a hinge pin. With the pin vertical, there is no gravitational force to be counteracted.
A spring assists the closing, and its force must be included in the calculation to ensure that
the flow overrides it.

Indeed, springs are added to all types of check valves to assist closing. However, there is a
trade-off. The stronger the spring, the more force it exerts. This force determines the
minimum pressure needed to open the valve as well as its pressure drop. Both of these
conditions may be important, particularly in low-pressure applications.

Another type of check valve, the stop-check, is a globe valve whose stem is not attached to
the plug. When the stem is turned fully inward, it pushes the plug against the seat, creating a
closed globe valve; but when the stem retracts, the plug is free to rise out of the flow path.
Backflow also pushes the plug against the seat, resulting in a check-valve behavior. Such
valves commonly prevent interaction between boilers operating in parallel off a common
steam piping system.

Excess flow valves

The opposite of the check valve is the excess flow valve, which closes when flow exceeding
a specified rate carries the sealing element to the seat. It is extremely important in the piping
system design to ensure that all downstream piping can accommodate the maximum flow
that shuts the valve. This is particularly crucial where a failure might occur far from the
excess flow valve. For example, these valves are commonly used at the outlets of storage
tanks, and they are most often located near the tank. If a pipe coming from the tank fails

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some distance downstream from the excess flow valve, the resulting pressure drop may
reduce the flow to less than that required to shut the valve.

Plug and ball valves

Like the butterfly valve, plug and ball valves are referred to as quarter-turn valves. The
cylindrically-shaped plug or the ball in such valves has a hole, or port, though which the fluid
passes. Turning the plug or ball 90 deg stops the flow. A PTFE sleeve in plug valves and a
pair of PTFE seals in the ball valves create tight seals.

Ball valves come in three body styles: end entry or unibody; split body; and top entry. Most
split-body valves have full port designs, where the diameters of both port and piping match.
In unibody and top-entry valves, however, the port diameter is smaller than that of the piping.
All plug valves have reduced ports as well. The slight loss of flow inherent in reduced port
designs usually poses no problems, but full port designs are necessary if the piping system is
cleaned by pigging.

Small-diameter ball valves have a floating ball, so the downstream seat becomes the main
seal. Larger ball valves have a trunnion-mounted ball and the seats are spring-loaded to move
them into contact with the ball. Sealing the movable seats requires elastomeric O-rings,
which must be compatible with the fluid.

Like gate valves, plug and ball valves trap a volume of fluid when closed. Plug valves relieve
heat-induced pressure through a small hole drilled on the upstream side of the closed port.
Design of some ball valves use self-relieving PTFE seats, while other designs incorporate a
small hole in the ball or seat. The pressure relieving designs produce unidirectional shutoff.
Thus, the flow direction must be clearly marked on the exterior of plug and ball valves.

For service at temperatures above the 350°F limit of PTFE seals, ball valves are available
with metal or graphite seals. Ceramic balls of very high purity alumina or partially stabilized
zirconia are also available. Both types of ceramics provide excellent chemical and erosion
resistance.

Ball and plug valves can have more than two ports or rotate more than 90-deg to enable flow
diversion or selection. For example, a two-port design is commonly used for dual relief-valve
systems, where one relief valve can be out of service while the other is active. With such a
valve, no reduction in the flow capacity occurs when switching from one relief valve to the
other, should a relief incident occur just at that moment.

Ram seal valves

Often used as a drain valve on the bottom of a tank, the ram seal valve forces a piston, or
ram, into a seat that produces a slight interference fit. Some designs allow for a ram
extension that removes dead space in the nozzle neck on which the valve is mounted. In
small sizes, that version makes a good sampling valve.

A diverter design alternately moves the ram to seals at either end of the valve. Since the stem
exits one end of the valve and, thus, obstructs the flow path of one port, the difference in

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flow coefficients of the two ports must be considered if the valve is used in a dual-relief
valve system.

Special variations

Almost every valve has a standard design, but variations are often necessary to fulfill a
valve's specific service requirements. Fire-safe valves, for example, utilize graphite gaskets
and packing. The seals may be graphitic or have a metal backup to the PTFE seat. In
addition, fire-safe quarter-turn valves must meet the API 607 test protocol, which specifies
that the valve be subjected to a prescribed external fire. The valve's through- and external
leakages are then measured, and must be less than set limits.

For valves outside the scope of API 607, the API 589 protocol defines fire-safe packing.
Ostensibly, using fire-safe packing along with graphitic gaskets produces a fire-safe valve,
even though the valve is not tested as such.

With safety and environmental concerns ever more prominent, sealing components for stems
have evolved substantially from the braided "rope" packing used years ago. Die-formed
graphite rings, PTFE chevrons, or other types of packing significantly reduce leakage. Recent
variations on the die-formed rings utilize a cup-and-cone shape to improve sealing.

While a "more rings, the better" philosophy applied to rope packing, having more than five
rings is now considered detrimental because more compression occurs at the end of the stack
where the pressure is applied than the opposite end. As a result, any subsequent stem motion
redistributes the compression, resulting in insufficient compression and leakage.

Installing newer packing into older valves with long stuffing boxes requires the use of
spacers to fill the excess volume. Alternately, a lantern ring and a leak sensing port can be
installed between two sets of packing. Since the packing wears equally above and below the
sensing port, any leakage detected means the entire packing has failed.

Today, most valve and packing manufacturers offer live loading, which consists of packing
plus appropriate spring washers. The washers compensate for wear by maintaining the proper
packing compression. These modifications can be easily retrofitted to existing valves.

Bellows stems provide another packing alternative. Considered a wetted part because it
comes in contact with fluids, a bellows must be made of an appropriate alloy. Its backup
packing must be adjusted, unless it is live-loaded. A relief port located between the bellows
and the packing senses bellows failure. Again, leakage will negate the sensing if the backup
packing is worn.

MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

Once the type of valve has been selected, determining what it must be made of is the next
step in the selection process. The materials must be compatible with the fluid as well as the
operational pressures and temperatures, so corrosion or other types of testing may be needed.

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Unquestionably, the majority of valves use metal as the main building block. However,
plastic and elastomeric linings extend use of metal valves to corrosive or ultra-clean
applications. And all-plastic valves offer lightweight options, often at less cost.

Metals and alloys

While small steel valves are usually forged and many instrument valves are wrought forgings
or machined from long metal rods called bar stock, most valves are made by pouring molten
metal into a mold. These castings differ from their wrought or bar-stock counterparts in
several ways.

The differences begin in the solidification process. Large-scale and micro-scale porosity
results from shrinkage as hot molten metal cools and condenses to a solid. The thermo-
mechanical history of wrought processing, where the metal is repeatedly heated and pounded,
eliminates such porosity problems. Castings may also have microscopic cracks caused by the
stresses imposed by the molds as the metal cools, or the stress between solidified and
unsolidified portions of the casting.

Solidification itself generates chemical inhomogeneities. These results as the advancing front
of a solidified alloy pushes lower-melting components ahead of it. The components, and
possibly sand and slag, end up in the last places to crystallize. Once solidified, secondary or
tertiary metallurgical phases may precipitate because of solubility limitations. As a result,
many alloys require a subsequent heat treatment to give the valve the optimum quality.

Compared to wrought alloys, casting alloys have chemical compositions designed to increase
fluidity and facilitate filling a mold. For example, stainless steels and nickel-based alloys
used for casting contain more silicon than wrought alloys. Due to these differences, samples
of both wrought and cast alloys should be included in corrosion testing.

Iron and nickel-based castings utilize an identification system, specified by ASTM A781,
which consists of letters and numbers. The letters are determined by the composition of the
alloy. The number identifies the maximum carbon content in hundredths of a percent, for
example, "CF8M" contains 0.08% maximum carbon.

The quantity of carbon in iron and nickel alloys is critical to valve selection. Low carbon
content increases corrosion resistance, while more carbon increases strength particularly at
elevated temperatures. For example, stainless steel is produced with two carbon contents,
CF3M and CF8M. For strength reasons, CF3M is not used above 850°F, and CF8M must
have a minimum carbon level of 0.04% for service above 1,000°F

To aid in understanding chemical composition and differences in cast and wrought alloys,
Table 1 lists the nominal chemical composition of forged and cast metals. The table includes
two low-temperature alloys, since impact testing is required for low temperature service.
Table 2 lists popular corrosion-resistant wrought alloys and equivalent cast alloys. To avoid
trade names, the alloys are listed by their universal numbering system (UNS) number. ASME
B16.34, a standard for piping system design, contains the same data as well as acceptable
pressure and temperature combinations.

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Plain carbon steel suffices for most applications, but high-temperature service requires alloys
containing chromium and molybdenum. These additions increase stress retention and
oxidation resistance, but have little effect on corrosion resistance. Cast iron and ductile iron
are used in some lined valves. Copper alloys of bronze or copper-nickel are mainly used in
service applications for water, air, inert gas and low-pressure steam. Valves in chemical
applications often employ an alloy composed of 30% copper and 70% nickel.

Stainless steels offer increased corrosion resistance compared to carbon steels. Suitable
wrought stainless steel alloys are 304 and 316; for castings, however, only the CF3M and
CF8M equivalents to 316L and 316 are normally available. Compared to their wrought
counterparts, cast stainless steels resist chloride-induced stress-corrosion cracking more
effectively, due to a small amount of ferrite used to inhibit crack formation during casting.

General corrosion resistance increases with increasing amounts of chromium, nickel, and
molybdenum. Therefore, as shown in Table 2, stainless steels, "6 molybdenum" alloys with
about 20% chromium and 25% nickel, and alloys such as "Alloy 20" with about 20%
chromium, 3040% nickel and 23% molybdenum are increasingly more corrosion resistant
than stainless steel. In addition, the "C" type nickel alloy, originally with 16% chromium and
16% molybdenum, is now available with 21% chromium. To maximize the quality of high-
nickel-content alloys, ASTM A990 includes specific chemistry and manufacturing
requirements beyond those specified in ASTM A494 alloy specification.

To avoid using large amounts of expensive nickel and molybdenum, duplex-stainless-steel

alloys have been developed. These metals nominally contain about 25% chromium, 5%
nickel, 3-7% molybdenum, and some nitrogen. Such a chemical composition produces high
pitting resistance, while the microstructure of equal amounts of ferrite and austenite inhibits
chloride-stress corrosion cracking.

Current casting technology also makes titanium and zirconium alloys cost-effective
alternatives. However, applications where fluorides are present or hydrogen is generated
exclude use of these alloys because they become severely embrittled.

Similarly, hydrogen embrittlement resulting from sour-gas (involving H2S) service prompted
the petrochemical industry to develop NACE MR0175, a specification for steel valves used
in wet hydrogen sulfide environments. In this type of service, wetted components of steel
valves are susceptible to hydrogen-assisted stress corrosion cracking and subsequent brittle
failure. The standard limits components to a hardness of HRC 22 for both manufacture and
repairs, especially welding.

Bolting considerations

The conventional approach to valve specification considers only wetted parts. However,
exterior components play an important role, as well. For example, bolting that fails to hold
packing in place results in leakage, and bolting that fails to keep the body together can lead to
a catastrophe.

In general, manufacturers use steel bolting in steel valves. Bolting for steel valves is normally
alloy steel to ASTM A193 Grade B7. The possibility of hydrogen-assisted stress-corrosion
cracking requires use of controlled hardness-strength A193 Grade B7M bolts. For low-
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temperature service, grades L7 and L7M are available in ASTM A320. Underlined markings,
such as in B7M or L7M, indicate that the B7M and L7M bolts have been 100% hardness
tested.

For stainless steel and higher alloys, stainless steel ASTM A193 Grade B8 or B8M bolting is
usually used. Some valve designs requiring higher bolting preloads for gasket seating use
Class 2 B8 or B8M bolts, the underline indicating the strain-hardened version. Other
materials are available at much higher cost if both alloy steel and stainless steel are
considered susceptible to corrosion-related failures due to the environment.

Valve linings

As an alternative to expensive alloys, steel valve bodies can be lined with a variety of
resistant materials, such as polypropylene, polyvinylidene fluoride, and PTFE. Most linings
are found in quarter-turn valves, but some control valves, even those with bellows seals, have
the protective linings. Permeation of fluid into or through these polymers can be a problem,
however, particularly to internals with no provision for venting.

Recently, ceramic liners have been developed. In addition to chemical resistance, they also
provide excellent wear and corrosion resistance. Wear resistance can be obtained with
neoprene and other elastomeric linings as well, but certain chemicals, such as solvents,
readily degrade them. Some valves have a chemical glass lining, notably those designed as
tank bottom valves, or the weir-diaphragm types.

Reinforced plastics

The chemical resistance of plastic composites continues to expand their use as materials of
construction for valves. The pressure and temperature limits of solid plastic restricts its use in
valves, but fiber-reinforced plastics (FRP) or reinforced thermoset plastics largely overcome
those limitations for ball and butterfly valves. The materials are available only in ASME
pressure class 150 and are limited to temperatures below 150°F.

Unlike FRP pipe, which has a two-layer construction consisting of a chemical barrier and a
structural barrier, FRP valves have a homogeneous composition due to limitations of current
molding technologies. Hence, the reinforcement fiber, usually glass, is exposed to the process
fluid. For caustic or hydrofluoric acid service, more- expensive graphite fiber is required.

Standards

An engineer selecting valves should be familiar with the various standards applicable to
valves, as well as ASME B31.3, which details piping system requirements (see box, this
page). In general, ASTM specifications cover chemical composition and test mechanical
properties. The ASME standards use many of the ASTM specifications prefixed with an "S".
The API standards cover valve design and acceptance requirements, while such requirements
for copper and iron-based alloys are found in the MSS Standard Practices.

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It is important to select the correct pressure class of iron- and nickel-based alloys by referring
to the pressure-temperature ratings described in the ASME B16.34. The code also allows use
of unlisted alloys, provided that a sound technical basis has been established. Special class
valves may provide a higher temperature rating, but the engineer should note any restrictions
that apply.

The various types of valves have different end-to-end lengths, which poses problems when
replacing a gate valve, for example, with a globe valve. ASME B16.10 lists the various end-
to-end dimensions for all types of valves by both size and type of end.

Certification of the chemical composition and mechanical test properties is required for all
alloys. This materials test report applies to the entire lot of simultaneously produced castings
rather than a specific valve. Valve internals have no documentation except, perhaps,
information about the bar stock used for a stem. Consequently, specific traceability becomes
problematic when trying to meet the process hazards management requirements of OSHA
1910.

ASTM specifications list supplementary requirements, such as additional testing or heat

treatment, that can be specified for certain applications. For example, both ASTM A743 and
A744 relate to post-weld heat treatment (PWHT). In general, castings are made to less-
stringent A743 specifications, which do not require any PWHT unless the valve user
specifies it. If maximum corrosion resistance is required, thus making PWHT necessary,
A743 defers to A744, which defines major and minor repairs and the specific PWHT
required.

If A744 is required, chances are no off-the-shelf valve will be available. A manufacturer will
have to make a documented run beginning with the casting process -- all at additional time
and cost.

The testing specification for leakage, API 598, applies to most valves. It lists pressures, test
duration, and acceptable results for each type of valve, with particular distinction between
metal-seated and soft-seated valves. No external leakage, or weepage, is acceptable in any
valve. While no internal, or through, leakage is allowed for plastic or soft-seated valves,
metal-seated valves can leak a small amount depending on their size. However, testing times
range from a few seconds to a several minutes depending on valve size, so small amounts of
weepage, may go undetected. Usually caused by microporosity, weepage often increases with
time if the valve is used in corrosive service.

As mentioned previously, API 607 details testing procedures for fire-safe quarter-turn valves.
Controversy surrounds this standard, and many companies opt to use their own more rigorous
fire testing method, which they feel better simulates reality. The effect of fire on soft seats is,
perhaps, the biggest problem. If the soft seat is completely consumed by the heat, the metal
backup seat can perform as designed. However, a partially destroyed soft-seat may prevent
the metal seat from working properly. Fire-induced damage should only affect through
leakage, not weepage.

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FINDING A MANUFACTURER

Armed with a knowledge of the various standards, the specific process requirements and
results of materials testing, the engineer can specify a suitable valve. Contacting
manufacturers to learn what services and valves they offer can help the decisionmaking
process.

An engineer should bear in mind that a new valve is not always necessary. Remanufactured
valves are often suitable and cost about half the price of a new valve. Some remanufacturers
keep valves and components in stock and can supply a replacement valve immediately.

A distinction must be made between "repaired" and "remanufactured" valves. The latter is
completely disassembled, the alloy composition of its components identified, and all
necessary repairs made before reassembly and testing to original specifications. Anything
less constitutes a repaired valve.

The applicable standard for remanufactured steel valves, API 621, requires visual inspection
and, if necessary, measurement of the casting wall thickness to ensure a minimum thickness.
The standard stipulates what to do if weld repairs are required, including whether PWHT
applies. A competent remanufacturer will notify the valve's user if wear or corrosion
indicates a wrong application. API 621 also requires attachment of a permanent serialized
number tag to the valve for traceability to the remanufacturer's records.

Some remanufacturers are authorized by the original valve manufacturer, others work
without such authorization. The engineer can best satisfy his or her own requirements by
conducting a thorough inspection of the facilities, in conjunction with knowledgeable outside
personnel if necessary. Since a valve remanufacturer is not involved in production schedules,
time for testing is usually longer than that required by API 598. As a result, leakage is more
likely to be identified, and the necessary repairs made. *

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