EARTH SCIENCE FRONTIERS

Volume 14, Issue 6, November 2007

Online English edition of the Chinese language journal

Cite this article as: Earth Science Frontiers, 2007, 14(6): 245–256. RESEARCH PAPER

Au-Cu Black Shale Formations

V. I. STAROSTIN∗, O. V. YAPASKURT
Moscow State University, Leninskie gory, Moscow 119992, Russia

Abstract: The results of the generalization of lithologic-facial and paleogeographic reconstructions and genetic formational
analysis of the various metalliferous high-carbonaceous Phanerozoic sedimentary complexes are presented and systematized. The
factors predetermining the origin of ore concentrations of gold and copper are specified.

Key Words: black shale; Au; Cu; lithology; facies

1 Research tasks, methods and terminology
The so-called black shale formations—silty-clayey, clayey-
carbonate and siliceous rocks saturated with organic matter are
well known as concentrators of many metals, including
precious and base ones, as well as rare earth metals and so on.
Much evidence attests to the polygenetic and multi-stage
character of ore formation in black shale formations.
Sedimentation-induced accumulation of metals is considered
not as important as economic concentrations of metals
resulting from later (post-sedimentation) processes, including
diagenesis, catagenesis in the basin of rock- formation, or at
stages of metagenesis and early metamorphism during tectonic
dislocations of the basin of rock-formation, or its
transformation into a folding system element[1–7]. Magmatic
processes also contribute to ore in certain cases.
Understanding of the sedimentogenous stage is very
important, however, because redistribution and concentration
of metallic components in the post-sedimentation stages of
development of the basin of rock formation depends on the
peculiarities and environments of previous sedimentation
processes. However, until now, only the petrography and
geochemistry of ore-hosting black shale formation rocks were
investigated without the concentrated genetic and
lithologic-facial studies that form the basis of modern
lithology. The studies of Ref. [7–11] are the rare exceptions to
this situation. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the
genetic affiliations of numerous unidentical, or not quite
identical, natural formations that are known as black shale
formations.
It is well to be borne in mind that the source definition—
“black shale”—is a typical term of free usage, applied to
sedimentary rocks which, although different, have one feature
in common, that is high organic matter content[12]. The cited
authors specified organic matter quality limits in these rocks
and ranked them by Corg concentrations (converted into the
stage of initial catagenesis): 1%–3%—slightly carbonaceous,
3%–10%—carbonaceous, 10%–15%—highly carbonaceous
varieties, followed by combustible shales with Corg>15%.
The above-mentioned term, translated as “black shales”, is
not a good one, because in the understanding of Russian
geologists these should be metamorphic rocks (i.e., slates).
That is why the name of “highly carbonaceous sediments” and
“highly carbonaceous sedimentary rocks” is preferred. Instead
of black shale formations, the use of the term of “highly
carbonaceous sedimentary complexes (HCSC)” is preferred.
Before the discussion of formational analysis, the fact that
the base term “sedimentary rock association” is interpreted
ambiguously must be taken into account. In general, there are
three primary concepts: (1) stratigraphic, (2) litho-paragenetic
and (3) genetic. The stratigraphic understanding is largely
used by American geologists (a formation corresponds to a
suite 01 series). The litho-paragenetic concept was suggested
by N.S. Shatsky[13]. The genetic understanding is the most
widespread one in Russia today[14]. It is based on an
understanding of sedimentary geologic row associations as
natural facial complexes (or genetic types) of sediments,
which are paragenetically connected in their place and
environment of accumulator and confined to a certain

Received date: 2007-09-20; Accepted date: 2007-11-02.

∗
Corresponding author. E-mail: star@geol.msu.ru
Foundation item: Supported by the project of the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (No. 04-05-64045).
Copyright © 2007, China University of Geosciences (Beijing) and Peking University, Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 V. I. STAROSTIN et al. / Earth Science Frontiers, 2007, 14(6): 245–256
paleotectonic structure (or its part) and corresponding to a
certain stage of its geological development.
If one adheres to the last definition, the concept “formation”
is not correct in relation to black shale formations (it
corresponds only to the first or partly to the second
interpretations of this term). Most probably, each separate
black shale formation or highly carbonaceous sedimentary
complex will represent some facies (or row of facies) inside
the larger formational unit. Based on the data on metalliferous
HCSC, which are primarily Phanerozoic age, this is
considered in the following paragraphs.
2 Similarities of certain mechanisms and
environments of HCSC sediment accumulation
In spite of the diversity of petrography (for geochemical
and petrographic typification, see Ref. [12, 15]) and the
difference in the ages of their structural-tectonic settings,
HCSC are characterized by a similar and limited variety of
initial landscape-geographical features of the seafloor: the
presence of the necessary “traps” for concentration of organic
matter in humid or hot climates in water catchment areas.
Classical studies in this area are presented in studies by N. M.
Strakhov[16] and others, reprinted later[17]. The most recent
summaries on environments favorable for HCSC
accumulation in the Cenozoic were compiled by E. E.
Emel’yanov[18] (Fig. 1). The results are summarized as
follows.
The first characteristic feature of HCSC (and their typical
representatives: sapropelic ooze or sapropel) is that they are
formations of transgressive stages in the history of sedimentation
basins. Sediments of most HCSC accumulate in semi-closed
Fig. 1 Possible models of sapropelic oozes accumulation (black
clays and slates) on the oceanic floor (an example of facial
environments of the Atlantic Ocean and the seas of its basin)
(After Emel’yanov[8])
I–platformean sea with periodical H2S appearance in near-bottom water layer
(Baltic Sea); II–depression sea constantly contaminated by H2S (Black Sea);
III–depression sea with isolated depressions (Mediterranean); IV–arid climatic
zone of the ocean with clearly expressed upwelling (the Angola Basin);
1–influx of salt oceanic waters into a freshened sea (I); 2–influx of less salt
oceanic waters into salinified sea (II); 3–influx of fresh waters into salinified
sea (during regression) (III); 4–coastal upwelling; 5, 6–ocean level: 5–during
transgression, 6–during regression; 7–boundary of near-bottom water layer
with periodical H2S contamination; 8–boundary of waters with permanent H2S
contamination; 9–homogeneous gray oozes with high (3%–5%) Corg content;
10–microlayered sapropelic oozes (up to 5%–20% Corg); 11–presence of
siliceous remains of diatoms (up to 10%–20% SiO2am); 12–supply of organic
matter and diatoms skeletons from foreshore to pelagic zone of a basin during
the oceanic regression; 13–diatoms sapropelic oozes (up to 10%–20% Corg)
sea basins, necessarily connected to the ocean through systems
of straits. In such environments, each sea-level rise results in
sharp changes in the hydrodynamic and hydrobiological
situation, as well as in the entire process of sedimentation. In
depressions of semi-closed basins, sharply expressed levels of
halocline and pyknocline (i.e., gradients of salinity and density
of waters) are formed. This leads to the establishment of a
stagnant regime in benthic waters and their periodical
contamination by H2S (via mass killing of benthos and
accumulation of plankton remains). Consequently, a
reductive-oxidative Eh barrier appears in the water layer. This
sedimentation regime might be periodically interrupted by
influxes of ocean waters through straits, or tectonic events
inside the sedimentation basins. “Depending on the biologic
producing intensity of organic matter in the photosynthesis
layer, the rate of organic matter, SiO2am, CaCO3 (biogenic) and
clay precipitation in such an environment, micro-layered
sapropel-like oozes with different concentrations of Corg,
SiO2am, Mn and other elements accumulated on the seafloor.
The gross content of Corg in the oozes exceeded 3%–5% and
reached 16% and even 22% (or 40% of the organic
matter)”[18].
The duration of HCSC accumulation in depressions
provides a steady influx of oceanic waters, counterbalanced by
river run-off, which necessitates a certain balance between the
rate of differentiated tectonic sagging of the floor of the
sedimentation basins and the formation of cross connections
with the ocean and sedimentation rate.
These conditions are somewhat differently realized in the
inter- and marginal-continental sea sedimentation basins of
various types (Fig. 1). Sedimentation basins of the first type
are epiplatformean water basins with flat seafloor and separate
depressions of up to several hundreds meters, as well as
lagoons with the periodic appearance and disappearance of
near-bottom H2S layers, for example the present Baltic Sea[18],
the Late Jurassic sedimentation basins in the Volga area[16,17]
and the Bazhenovskoe Late Jurassic sea in Western Siberia[10].
Sedimentation basins of the second type are depression basins
with more than a 1–1.5 km dip, along with constant H2S
contamination (the Black Sea[18]). The third type involves
inland sedimentation basins with separated deep depressions
within them (the Mediterranean Sea[18]). In addition, HCSC
oozes are found not only in seas, but also in open oceans at
great depths as, for example, in the 5–6 km Angola Basin[18].
These formations are not discussed here.
3 Similarities of certain mechanisms and
conditions of Au and Cu supply and concentration
in HCSC
– –
Many articles consider this problem[2 4, 8, 12, 15, 19 26]. Gold
sorption on humic acids-indispensable components of organic
matter transformation in soils and peatlands, also in river
 V. I. STAROSTIN et al. / Earth Science Frontiers, 2007, 14(6): 245–256
suspension matter (on land) and in sea oozes is known to be
the major source of primary gold accumulation in HCSC. It is
also known that different genetic types of organic matter
(lignite and lipoid) in any sediment are differently
interconnected to metals[20], which play an important role in
their post-sedimentation redistribution in rocks. Thus,
according to[4,18], HCSC with largely humic organic matter
tend to disseminate metal micro-admixtures at the catagenesis
stage, while rocks with sapropelic organic matter accumulate
and preserve ore elements up to the beginning of green-schist
metamorphism inclusively.
The sediments of HCSC under consideration are peculiar in
their mixed organic matter composition, but always with a
significant presence of a sapropel component from the basin
itself, “diluted,” to a certain extent, by river sediments from
the surrounding land. The latter are rich in auriferous humic
acids when the land is a peneplain (or at least a
hillocky-undulating area) with the occurrence of weathering
crusts and/or peatlands. In conditions of humid and hot
climate, laterite or iron crusts may serve as another important
Au source adsorbed by Fe3+ hydroxides. The third source may
be ion solution of AuCl2 in seawater. The stagnation regime of
sedimentation basins, with H2S presence in near-bottom water
layer, plays an important role in Au accumulation. “In this
case, hydrosulfuric water acts as a giant pump transporting the
chloraurate complex from oxygenated water and then transfers
Au0 hydrosol into sediment. Optimal and periodical supply of
fresh seawater to an O2/H2S chemocline provides periodical
replenishment of solvated gold”[15].
After this, the high metal concentration in sediments is
provided by diagenetic processes in a strong reducing
environment; at low pH values this is a regime of sulfide
diagenesis in sediments. There, the extraction of significant
Au quantities and its fixation in a rather small volume of
sediment (the only means of development of above Clark
concentrations) may take place under the following conditions:
(a) The prolonged existence of hydrogen-sulfide contamination,
that is lasting sulfate-reduction process; (b) Permanent supply
of AuC12 in ooze waters due to its diffusion from near-bottom
waters jointly with sulfate. “These two conditions are met
during low-rate precipitation, that is, they should be
characteristic for domanikoids”[15].
The geochemical characteristics of copper transfer and
accumulation are very different and coordinate with the
above-considered features only partially[21,23,27]. Copper
compounds mobile in a strongly oxidizing and alkaline
environment (their mobility increases by an order of
magnitude in the presence of dissolved chlorides) are leached
out of red beds, continental, lagoonal and shallow-sea
formations of arid climatic belts. In this case, HCSC deposits
act as a reduction geochemical barrier to crystallize
Cu-bearing sulfides. Whether concentrations of Au and Cu
will develop in all the above-considered cases depends on
several post-diagenetic factors of lithogenesis and
metamorphism, which are discussed in detail in Ref. [4–6].
4 Preliminary experience of formational and
facial diagnostics of various HCSC of the
Phanerozoic (with the exception of oceanic
Cenozoic)
Here, the preliminary results of the lithologic studies are
summarized. They are largely based on the published report
data analysis and personal studies within the
Verkhoyansk-Kolyma fold belt[1,7], Western-Siberian
epi-Paleozoic plate, and Eastern-European craton (EEC)[28].
The principles of formational typification are presented above.
A Facies (as one of the most important formational
components) is interpreted as an element of the environment
of sedimentation and a resulting sediment along with its
primary (genetic) composition, and textural, as well as
structural features. Therefore, the following groups of typical
sedimentary formation with HCSC are recognized.
(1) Formations of Mainly Terrigenous-Clayey and
Siliceous-Clayey Deposits of Epi-Continental Shallow-Water Sea
Basins during Transgressive Stages of Development of
Sedimentary Covers of Cratons and Young Platforms. Their
HCSC are presented by facies of organic matter saturated pelitic
sediments in the shelf's depressions far from the shore. Typical
representatives on cratons are the Late Jurassic Volgian deposits
within the Volga-Ural arch of EEC[16,17] and their possible
homologs, the dictionema slates of the Early Ordovician of the
northwestern (Baltic) margin of the EEC[29]. The Late Jurassic
Bazhenovskaya Formation of Western Siberia represents
formations of young (epi-Paleozoic) plates[10].
The characteristics of Late Jurassic HCSC in the Volga-Ural
arch may be additionally supplemented with some conclusions
from detailed genetic analysis by N. M. Strakhov. Two
opposite points of view on the environments of highly
carbonaceous sediments accumulations are compared: (1)
accumulation of water-plants and other biota in fresh small
lagoons and bays or haffs (as in the present-day Baltic Sea); (2)
typical sapropelites deposited in the central part of a sea with
normal salinity. Analysis of flora and fauna remains, facial
rows and other primary sedimentation features proved the
viability of the second variant[17].
Confinement of HCSC to certain moments of the Perisphinctes
Panderi epoch corresponding to tectonic oscillations of the
seafloor covered by rich vegetation (algae and higher plants)
provided a basis for organic matter accumulation. “As long as
seafloor vegetation depends on light penetrated to limited depth, it
naturally sharply disappeared with an increase in depth below a
certain isobath. This results in less accumulation of organic matter
and, consequently, only barren gray clay precipitates. Should the
depth of the basin decrease, an underwater meadow appears again,
followed by shale formation. Irregular distribution of shales
 V. I. STAROSTIN et al. / Earth Science Frontiers, 2007, 14(6): 245–256

inside a member may depend either on seafloor level differences
or an irregular distribution of plants”[17]. This suggests that
depressions of such a sea were not deeper than 50 m.
However, in other formations, for example, the Bazhenovskaya
Formation, some estimates of the depressions are 100–500 m, and
the major supplier of organic matter was abundant plankton,
along with river supply of terrestrial humus. Based on
paleoenvironmental studies of these formations V. A. Zakharov
concluded: “At present there is not a complete analog of the
Bazhenovskoe Sea environmental system. It was a basin with
hydrological and hydrobiological characteristics to a certain
extent resembling the Black Sea on one side, and the Baltic Sea
on the other side. One must bear in mind, however, that the
Bazhenovskoe Sea was surrounded by a landscape completely
different from the one of modern seas…”[10] (Fig. 2).
Metal admixtures in the discussed HCSC exceed Clarke,
but never reach ore concentrations. However, these rocks
(with no depth catagenesis or early metamorphic alterations)
are interesting to us because of the fact that their probable
homologs from areas of late-platformal tectonic activity with
the secondary transformation of rocks by intra-formational
and endogene hydrotherms would possibly be ore-bearing
objects. Such objects, possibly, were Precambrian HCSC[6] not
considered in this article.
(2) The Group of Formations of Depressions on the Outer
Shelf and Continental Slope of Marginal Seas during Early
Stages of Development of Pericratonic Troughs and
Tectonically Mobile Belts, that is the paleostructures which
were earlier (before the priority of the mobilism paradigm)
named miogeosynclines.
This group includes two major types: 2.1 and 2.2. The first
type (2.1) embraces largely carbonate and carbonate-clayey
(siliceous-carbonate-clayey) sediments of marginal seas;
typical representatives are domanikoids (the Semilukskii
Horizon of the Low Frasnian Substage D3 of the western Urals,
southern Timan and eastern margins of EEC). Type 2.2 is
represented by terrigenous deposits of deltas, shelf and
continental slope of the marginal seas (type—Verkhoyanoids
from the Late Visean Substage Cl to J3 inclusively, east of
Lena and Aldan rivers).
Domanikoids “are miscellaneous facies of shallow-water
and deep-water basins united by one common
feature―enrichment in organic matter”[18]. The factors and
mechanisms of such enrichment and general paleogeography
were analyzed in detail by Ref. [17]. Amongst numerous
factors of accumulation and conservation of organic matter,
N.M. Strakhov singled out three points. First, domanikoid
sediments were oozes and, with the exception of purely
carbonate oozes, always included clayey material, favorable
for organic matter conservation. Colloidal silicic acid was also
introduced here, assisting preservation and accumulation of
organic matter[17]. Second, upper levels of the Domanikoid Sea

Fig. 2 Hydrogeological model of the Western-Siberian sea of Bazhenovskoe time in N-S vertical
section (a), and position of the underwater threshold on the present-day Yamal peninsula (b)
Arrows denote sea currents: long, solid–surface and warm ones; long, and dashed–descending “heavy” and cool
waters; short, solid–cold near-bottom waters; short, dashed–upwelling[10]
 V. I. STAROSTIN et al. / Earth Science Frontiers, 2007, 14(6): 245–256

were undoubtedly rich in plankton, numerous remains of
which occur everywhere as pteropod shells. This means that
the supply of organic matter in domanikoid sediments was
high[17]. Third, river supply of nutrition substances, as well as
solubilized organic matter and colloids from neighboring land,
including phosphates and nitrates necessary for phytoplankton
growth, played a great role[17].
The third factor must be paid special attention. The cause of
HCSC origin is not only the morphology of the sedimentation
basin’s seafloor (Figs. 1 and 2), but also landscape and
climatic features of the feeding terrestrial province of this
sedimentation basin. The land is not only a supplier of
nutrients for plankton, but also delivers metals transported by
humic acids and other organic-colloidal compounds as proved
experimentally and indirectly by researchers[19,20,24–26]. The
presence of peatlands or laterite weathering crusts is
especially important, which, in its turn first requires favorable
conditions of climate humidification and second, the existence
of a peneplain, or, at least, hillocky-undulating relief in a wide
coastal strip and in low reaches of the river valleys feeding
sedimentation basins.
In addition to the above, general regional
transgressive-regressive cycles of sedimentation basin
development were important. This is vividly illustrated by a
model suggested by Yu.O. Gavrilov and E.M. Shcherbinina
for HCSC formation in the Northeastern Peri-Tethys during
the “thermal maximum” (IETM) at the Paleocene/Eocene
boundary[9] (Fig. 3). Essentials of the model are as follows. A

Fig. 3 Model of formation of the Paleocene-Eocene boundary sapropelite layer in water area of Northeastern Peri-Tedrys[9]
(a) coastal landscape prior to IETM (normal sedimentation); (b) development of coastal landscapes in the course of sharp sea-level drop
immediately before TETM crisis; (c) flooding of coastal landscapes during eustatic sea rush, mass methane emission and formation of crisis
environments due to burst of bioproductivity of organic-shell and bacteria plankton in coastal zones, IETM is a thermal maximum at the
beginning of Eocene
 V. I. STAROSTIN et al. / Earth Science Frontiers, 2007, 14(6): 245–256

stage of mass accumulation of sapropelic sediments is preceded
by sea regression resulting in the origin of vast lowlands leveled
by sea erosion on the sea periphery and around archipelagos.
Subaerial weathering of non-lithified sea sediments (with
authigenic sulfides and phosphates) resulted in oxidation of
their mineral components and origin of sulfuric and sulfonic
acids that activated hypergene processes of underlying rock
disintegration. In this way, swamp-lacustrine landscapes
originated, which were characterized by aggressive acid media
dissolving terrigenous minerals of the substratum, recovering
many microelements (metals included), and delivering them
into surface and underground waters. Organic matter was
supplied to them not only in solid, but also in a dissolved phase.
Many elements, including biophilic ones concentrated in soils
outside peatlands. Then, sweeping transgression assimilated all
that in peneplain conditions even minor eustatic sea rise resulted
in the flooding of vast areas. Near-bottom substances were
mixed up by sea agitation and redistributed by flows into
depression “traps” to accumulate HCSC.
A similar mechanism of HCSC formation was probably
characteristic of an early period of Verkhoyanoids
development, between the completion of the Late Devonian
and the Early Permian epochs inclusively[7]. Here, in
distinction from the Eocene of the Peri-Tethys and
domanikoids strata of the EEC and Urals, another powerful
mechanism of sediment redistribution was involved: turbidite
flows forming a system of submerged sand-aleuropelite
detrital cones along the continental slope, and redistribution of
these substances by bottom currents in a hemipelagic zone (at
depths of 1–1.5 km and somewhat deeper).
Facial environments and processes analyzed in detail by
Ref. [30] (Fig. 4) will be considered separately. In basins of
this kind, the mechanism of facial differentiation of metals
seems to be as follows: autochthonous organic matter of the
shelf (marine phytoplankton and zooplankton), as well as
allochthonous organic matter, genetically connected with
terrestrial phytoplankton, humus of soils and organic matter of
eroded ancient rocks (supplied to a basin in various ways,
most probably with river run-off) reach the shelf and
accumulate on the underwater continuation of river deltas.
From here, vast amounts of aleuropelite material swoop down
to the foot of the continental slope with turbidity currents. In
such a case, organic matter and connected ore elements occur
in conditions favorable for preservation in distal turbidities
due to their almost instant deposition. The deep-water
environment provides a plankton organic matter admixture of
sapropelic row. Due to this, these submerged cones became
geochemical barriers for concentration of not only gold, but
also molybdenum, vanadium, copper, zinc, nickel, chromium,
cobalt, rhenium, silver, arsenic and rare earths.
These elements were incorporated in ore minerals in the
form of syngenetic sulfides. They never reach economic
concentrations, but are a favorable prerequisite for further
physical and chemical reactions at subsequent stages of

Fig. 4 Paleogeography of the Late Carboniferous (a)[31] and the end of Early Permian[1]
1–5-sedimentation areas: 1–alluvial, 2–underwater-deltaic, 3–marginal-shelfal, 4–slope, 5–hemipelagic; 6–8-land elevations: 6–low, locally
flooded, 7–gently rolling, 8–mountainous; 9–landscapes boundaries; 10–12-zones of post-sedimentation tectonic convergence of facies:
10–Western-Verkhoyansk marginal suture, 11–its latitudinal section, 12–other faults (B—Boguchanskii, U—Unguokhtakhskii,
D—Dzhardzhanskn); 13–edges of the Middle Paleozoic Vilyui Rift; 14–direction of terrigenous substance intake; 15–locations described in the
text with their numbers
 V. I. STAROSTIN et al. / Earth Science Frontiers, 2007, 14(6): 245–256
catagenesis, metagenesis and early metamorphism. In the
course of these stages, the redistribution and secondary
localization of quartz and gold-ore mineralization took place
150 million years later, in a period of tectonic activation,
folding and metamorphism during the Late Mesozoic[1]. No
less than two stages of transformation of HCSC-hosting
formations are necessary for post-sedimentation redistribution
and secondary concentration of gold in tectonically mobile
zones. The first stage involved a violent plunge to a great
depth, and the second involved thrust-and-fold dislocations in
conditions of a collision tectonic regime. Finally, the rocks
underwent lithostatic (Ps), fluid (Pf) and stress (Ps) pressures.
As well, heat impulses occurred, initially from the background
thermal gradient (AT) and stress (Tst) (due to the adiabatic
effect of compression of mass intramineral fluid inclusions),
and second, because of possible thermal domes, hot fluid
flows over deep-seated centers of granitization of the
crystalline basement (Tf) and possible intrusions (Ty).
In this situation[1,7] during the first stage of postdiagenetic
lithogenesis, upon catagenesis of subsidence, there is the
condition Ps = Pf at a consistent AT; during subsequent stages
of metagenesis and zonal metamorphism, Ps > Pf; T = AT +
Tst + Ty (the last parameter refers only to areas with intrusive
activity). In such cases, gold ore bodies are formed under the
influence of intraformation water (thalassogenous and elision
in nature) heated since the start of the depth catagenesis stage
(T from 100–20 °C to 200 °C) and replenished during the
subsequent metagenesis stages of early metamorphism
(200–350 °C) up to the condition of chemically active
hydrotherms[3,28]. With these processes, secondary
mobilization, migration and deposition of metals take place at
new geochemical barriers. All these processes are complicated
by the above-mentioned patterns of ore substances localization,
although the principal of black shale ore genesis in formation
2.1 remains the same.
(3) Formations of the Clayey and Carbonate-Evaporite
Lagoonal-Shelf Sediments of Shallow-Water Epicontinental
(Orogenic) Stages of Development of Tectonically Mobile Belts,
for example, the Late Permian Zechstein of Central Europe[21,22].
Their formation was preceded by the accumulation of a thick
(250–300 m) sequence of red-colored continental deposits:
clayey-silty-sandy rocks with lenses of conglomerates, of
proluvial, alluvial eolian and also lacustrine genesis
(sulfate-salt-bearing clayey units) infilling the vast, so-called
middle-European depression under conditions of significant
aridity of climate. Fragmental material was supplied from the
southern mountain-folded structures of the Renohercynian belt
and partly from the Penninian “threshold”[29].
At the boundary of the Early- and Late-Permian epochs, a
new sedimentation cycle developed: “At the location of the
Arctic-Northern Atlantic Caledonides belt once welding
Laurentian and Fenoscandia (Baltic)… a rift system originated,
making way for transgression from the Boreal basin into the
Northern Sea and central Europe and the formation of the
huge salt-forming Zechstein basin”[30]. At the base of this
sequence, there is a horizon of small pebble conglomerates
occurring transgressively on the Low Permian red beds. The
conglomerates are overlain by black bituminous HCSC clays
(widely known as cupriferous slate, not more than 1 m thick).
This layer is exclusively persistent over the western and
southern margin of the basin from England to Poland. “Over
the entire area, sedimentation environments were surprisingly
unified. It was a vast ‘pool’ with very low intake of fragmental
material; due to suffocation in its near-bottom layer, a
putrefactive media not favorable for living organisms was
created”[29]. Clearly, these environments could exist only
under the condition of peneplanation of the adjacent mountain
land, which took place at the end of the previous Early
Permian epoch. The cupriferous slate was then overlain by a
limestone-dolomite halogen sequence of lagoonal-marine
genesis of the Zechstein sedimentation basins. This was the
end of a relatively short-term transgressive event of Arctic sea
penetration that occurred during a general regressive stage of
the Late Paleozoic geological history of Eurasia continent[30].
For several hundred years, the HCSC at the base of the
Zechstein have been mined for Cu, Pb and Zn ores, which also
contain dispersed elements (V, Cr, Mo and others). In the
middle of the twentieth century, many European geologists
attributed a sedimentogenic nature to them, believing that ore
elements were leached out of the red-colored Early Permian
rocks; later, new arguments appeared in favor of diagenetic
remobilization of the metals[22]. As soon as new data on the
discordant occurrence of ore bodies relative to sedimentation
layering was collected (Figs. 5 and 6), the concept of the
priority of post-sedimentation redistribution of metals
appeared. This took place through the filtration of metal
solutions in underground chloride waters (chloride was
borrowed from the overlying Zechstein evaporites) and
subsequent copper precipitation on reduction geochemical
barriers, that is upon filtration of water through the HCSC[21].
(4) Formations of Alluvial-Deltaic-Lagoonal and Littoral
Fig. 5 Discordant occurrence of ore mineralization in cupriferous
slates in relation to bedding
Slates pinch out near the high in underlying sandstones[22]
 V. I. STAROSTIN et al. / Earth Science Frontiers, 2007, 14(6): 245–256

azurite. As a rule, these rocks belong to the facies of ancient

Fig. 6 Relationship of copper mineralization (7) with Rote Fule fades
(2) in Mansfeld-Sangerhausen (a) and Lusakia-Richelsdorf (b)[22]
Sediments of the Orogenic Tectonic Structures. Typical
representatives are varied argillite-silty-sandy deposits of the
Middle-, Late-Carboniferous and Early Permian age of the
Dzheskazgan basin in Hercynides of the central Kazakhstan
with the known Dzheskazgan copper deposit[8,23].
Here, cupriferous sandstones and clayey rocks are mixed
formations in which quartz-silicate and clay particles are
cemented by copper sulfides, including chalcosine Cu2S,
covellite CuS, bornite Cu5FeS4, chalcopy-rite CuFeS2 and
others, sometimes with native copper; in the hypergenesis
zone, they are replaced by copper carbonates: malachite and
river courses, deltas and lagoons existing in the period of
arid climate. E.F. Gablina studied the mechanism of supply
and concentration of copper in detail[8]. The essentials of the
suggested model (Fig. 7) are as follows: elision brackish
water of catagenesis at the depth stage was squeezed from
the axial zone of the basin to its flanks. They traveled
through red-colored sandy-silty strata with copper contents
initially exceeding the Clark concentration. Under
conditions of high Eh values, copper was leached out of
sandstones and siltstones, migrated in chloride compounds
until it passed through geochemical barriers—localities
where Eh and pH values reversed. These localities were
“gray-colored”, that is saturated with organic matter in
terrigenous rocks on the flanks of Dzheskazgan basin.
It is worth noting that all these formations are concentrated,
first, inside varied sedimentary complexes accumulated in an
environment of a hot arid climate, and, second, they are
paragenetically (and partly genetically) interconnected with
evaporite and reef-carbonate strata (see above). The mechanism
of copper concentration in these rocks was controlled by the
geochemical features of this element being the anti-pode of gold
and iron, depending on their mobility relative to pH and Eh. In
addition, water solutions saturated with chloride salts
significantly increased the mobility of copper.
(5) Formations of Sediments in Basin-type Intracontinental

Fig. 7 Flow diagram of formation of Dzheskazgan copper deposit[8]

1–red-colored argillites and siltstones; 2–red-colored sandstones and conglomerates; 3–gray-colored sandstones and
conglomerates; 4–disseminated impregnation of copper sulphides; 5–disseminated pyrite impregnation; 6–gray argillites
and siltstones; 7–limestones; 8–ore deposits; 9–direction of copper-bearing solutions' movement; 10–ways of hydrocarbons
migration; 11–successive displacements of interaction zone of oxidation and reduction environments; 12–stratigraphic
boundaries (a – proven, b – inferred); Plgd–the Early Permian deposits (Zhidelisaiskaya Formation); C2-3dg – productive
(Dzhezkazgan) series of the Middle-Late Carboniferous; Cm–the Early Carboniferous deposits (Namurian Stage)
 V. I. STAROSTIN et al. / Earth Science Frontiers, 2007, 14(6): 245–256
Seas of Orogenic Areas. A typical representative is the case of
Black Sea sedimentation basins in the Late Cenozoic. Its
sapropelic oozes are thoroughly studied and the results of
numerous publications have been recently summarized[18].
5 Discussion
The above-discussed set of sedimentary formations hosting
potentially metalliferous HCSC is far from exhaustive of their
natural diversity. Only the initial step is made for their
subsequent typification. However, several general features and
regularities predetermining the origin of Au and Cu ores
became obvious on the basis of presented data.
The “starting” role of HCSC as a primary metal collector
and an unusual “shield” for postsedimentation catchment is
obvious. Yet, the composition and quantitative distribution of
impurity elements in sediments of different HCSC are not the
same from the very beginning.
The following conditions are favorable for sedimentogenic
accumulation of gold in HCSC:
(1) A post-rifting epoch of regional peneplain, not an
absolute one, but with preservation of numerous depressions
and scarps to provide seafloor irregularities and hollows
(potential traps for the metalliferous components of organic
matter) at the time of transgression.
(2) A stable epoch of a humid and warm (better hot) climate
that provides intensification of the hypergene processes of
mobilization substances necessary for biotic life and transport
of elements into sedimentation basins; mass development of
weathering crusts (with Fe hydroxides, concentrators of Au),
soils and peatlands―suppliers of humic acid and colloidal
organometallic compounds.
(3) A diversity of rocks subjected to hypergenesis:
magmatic, metamorphic, metasomatic (metals suppliers) and
sedimentary (suppliers of phosphorus, nitrogen and other
nutrients for marine planktons).
(4) A global-scale transgression coinciding in time with a
climatic optimum to provide (along with plentiful nutrients)
flourishing biota in general and plankton in particular.
(5) Preservation, up to the maximum moment of
transgression, and the prolonged (dozens of millions of years)
existence of a vast coastal plain and large rivers collecting and
delivering colloidal and ion solutions of metals and a
fine-pelite mixture, as well as sorbing metals, to sea
sedimentation basins.
(6) Long-term balance amongst river sediment yield, rates
of seafloor subsidence and catchment area elevation to
provide the stable existence of the above-mentioned
environments. Any activation of orogenic events on the land
under erosion near sedimentation basins is an unfavorable
factor for metal accumulation, as they become diluted with a
terrigenous mineral admixture.
(7) Domination, or at least significant proportion of
sapropelic components in the organic matter of sediment.
(8) Stable domination of low (negative) Eh values during
diagenesis, which happens in the case of a high level of
non-oxidized organic matter in sediments provided with a
high mass and rate of accumulation of biogenic components.
These must be overlain by new portions of oozes as soon as
possible to minimize the aerobic processes of early diagenesis.
(9) Periodically occurring of hydrogen sulfide
contamination conditions of the near-bottom water layer are
favorable (although not necessary). The occurrence of two of
the above-mentioned conditions contributes to intense
diagenetic pyritization of sediments, often together with
isomorphic saturation of pyrite with gold.
These factors most favorable for potentially auriferous
HCSC are characteristic of a group of terrigenous formations
of marginal seas originated at the initial stages of mobile belt
development following rifting activation on platform margins,
for example, the formations of the Late Paleozoic of the
Verkhoyansk-Kolyma fold belt[1,31]. However, the
sedimentogenic-diagenetic stage of these sedimentation basins
(and others considered at the beginning of the article) seems to
be the only preparatory condition for their gold potential. The
latter could not occur if the HCSC did not go through stages
of catagenesis and metagenesis-early metamorphism of the
host rocks. At the pre-metagenesis stages of litho-genesis,
HCSC may be of interest only as possible oil parent strata, and
higher metals concentrations in there are usually below
economic ore levels.
Copper mineralization in HCSC is similar to a certain
extent, but different in the following:
(1) Copper-bearing formations are confined to orogenic and
post-orogenic tectonic structures.
(2) A favorable sedimentogenic factor for copper-bearing
HCSC is a global stage of a general regression regime with
local transgressive events producing shallow-water
sedimentation basins.
(3) Formation of HCSC in these sedimentation basins
should be preceded and then followed by hot arid climate.
(4) The distribution and structure of copper-bearing
sandstones and slates may be explained only on the
assumption of Cu removal from red-colored rocks with its
subsequent precipitation on hydrogen sulfide barriers[21]; the
presence of organic matter and sulfate reducing bacteria are
necessary conditions for Cu concentration[21].
(5) At positive Eh values, the mobility of Cu is sharply
increased by the presence of chlorides in water, which, in their
turn are associated components of red-colored and salt-bearing
formations of arid climate zones.
(6) Cupriferous rocks were formed at geochemical barriers
of two types: syngenetic (sedimentogenic-diagenetic) and
epigenetic (post-sedimentation, at the catagenesis stage)[8,21].
Syngenetic barriers are characteristic for the following
facial-landscape environments: swamps, alluvium-fluvial,
 V. I. STAROSTIN et al. / Earth Science Frontiers, 2007, 14(6): 245–256

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