Chapter 6

CELLULAR REPRODUCTION
▪ Cells reproduce by cell division

▪ “All cells come from existing cells.”

What are the functions of cell division?

▪ Cells reproduce by cell division, in which a

parent cell normally gives rise to two daughter
cells.
▪ Cell division is required for growth and
development of multicellular organisms.
▪ Cell Division Is Required for Sexual and Asexual
Reproduction
 Cell division is required for sexual and
asexual reproduction
▪ Organisms reproduce by either or both of two
fundamentally different processes: sexual reproduction and
asexual reproduction.
▪ Sexual reproduction in most eukaryotic organisms occurs
when offspring are produced by the fusion of gametes
(sperm and eggs). To produce gametes, cells in the adult’s
reproductive system (ovaries and testes) undergo the
meiotic cell division.
▪ Reproduction in which offspring are formed from a single
parent, without having a sperm fertilize an egg, is called
asexual reproduction with the involvement of mitotic cell
division.
❑ Mitotic cell division

❑ Meiotic cell division

 DNA in Eukaryotic Chromosomes
▪ A linear DNA double helix 1 DNA double helix
bound to proteins
–Each human chromosome
contains a single DNA
double helix, about 50
histone proteins
million to 250 million
2 DNA wound around histone proteins
nucleotides long
3 Coiled DNA/histone beads
–Most of the time, the DNA
4 Loops attached to a protein scaffold;
in each chromosome is this stage of partial condensation typically
occurs in a nondividing cell
wound around proteins protein scaffold
called histones
5 Folded chromosome,
fully condensed in a
dividing cell
 DNA in Eukaryotic Chromosomes

▪ Eukaryotic chromosomes usually occur in pairs with

similar genetic information
– Karyotype - an entire set of stained chromosomes from a
single cell

Human Karyotype
23 pairs of chromosome
sex
chromosomes
The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle
▪ Mitotic cell division
– During mitosis (nuclear division), the nucleus of the cell
and the chromosomes divide
– Each daughter nucleus receives one copy of each of
the replicated chromosomes of the parent cell

– During cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division), the cytoplasm

is divided roughly equally between the two daughter cells,
and one daughter nucleus enters each of the daughter
cells
Mitotic Cell Division
▪ Mitotic cell division takes place in all types of
eukaryotic organisms
– It is the mechanism of asexual reproduction
– It allows organisms to maintain, grow, repair, and even
regenerate body parts
– It is the mechanism whereby stem cells reproduce
Mitotic Cell Division
duplicated
sister chromosome
chromatids (two DNA double
helices)
centromere
(b) A eukaryotic chromosome after DNA replication

▪ Four phases followed by cytokinesis

– Prophase
– Metaphase
– Anaphase
– Telophase
– Cytokinesis
Mitotic Cell Division in an Animal Cell
INTERPHASE MITOSIS

nuclear
envelope chromatin
condensing spindle pole
nucleolus chromosomes spindle
microtubules

kinetochore
centriole beginning of
pairs spindle formation spindle pole kinetochore
microtubules

(a) Late Interphase (b) Early Prophase (c) Late Prophase (d) Metaphase
Duplicated chromosomes Chromosomes condense The nucleolus disappears; Kinetochore microtubules
are in the relaxed and shorten; spindle nuclear envelope breaks line up the chromosomes
uncondensed state; microtubules begin to down; some spindle at the cell's equator.
duplicated centrioles form between separating microtubules attach to the
remain clustered. centriole pairs. kinetochore (blue) of each
sister chromatid.
Mitotic Cell Division in an Animal Cell
INTERPHASE

polar
chromosomes nuclear envelope
microtubules
extending re-forming

nucleolus
reappearing

(e) Anaphase (f) Telophase (g) Cytokinesis (h) Interphase of

Sister chromatids separate One set of chromosomes
& move to opposite poles reaches each pole & begins to
of the cell; polar decondense; nuclear envelopes
microtubules push the start to form; nucleoli begin to
poles apart. reappear; spindle microtubules
begin to disappear;
microfilaments form rings
around the equator.
The ring of microfilaments
contracts, dividing the cell
in two; each daughter cell
receives one nucleus and
about half of the
cytoplasm.
daughter cells
Spindles disappear,
intact nuclear envelopes
form, and the
chromosomes extend
completely.
Cytokinesis in a Plant Cell

Fig. 9-10
Summary
Why Do So Many Organisms Reproduce Sexually?

▪ Sexual reproduction is the prevalent form of

reproduction
– Asexual reproduction by mitosis produces genetically
identical offspring
– Sexual reproduction by meiosis shuffles the genes to
produce genetically unique offspring
– Two parents, each with a different advantageous trait
(allele), can combine those traits in one individual (their
offspring) through sexual reproduction
▪ Meiotic cell division
– occurs in animal ovaries and testes
– Meiotic cell division involves a specialized nuclear division
called meiosis, and two rounds of cytokinesis
– Two divisional steps produce four daughter cells that
can become haploid gametes
– Each gamete receives one homologue of each pair of
chromosomes
Meiosis Is a Reduction Division That Halves the
Number of Chromosomes

sister
chromatids

homologous
chromosomes

(a) Replicated (b) After meiosis I (c) After meiosis II

homologues
prior to meiosis
Meiotic Cell Division

▪ Fusion of gametes keeps the chromosome number

constant between generations

2n n

meiotic
2n
cell division

2n n
fertilization
diploid haploid diploid
parental gametes fertilized
cells egg
Meiotic Cell Division

▪ Prophase I, homologous chromosomes pair up and

exchange DNA
– Crossing over
– If the exchanged segments carry different traits, genetic
recombination has occurred
Meiotic Cell Division in an Animal Cell
MEIOSIS I Fig. 9-15a, b, c, d

paired homologous recombined

chiasma chromosomes chromatids

spindle
microtubule
kinetochores

(a) Prophase I (b) Metaphase I (c) Anaphase I (d) Telophase I

Duplicated chromosomes Paired homologous Homologues separate, Spindle microtubules disappear.
condense. Homologous chromosomes line up along one member of each pair Two clusters of chromosomes
chromosomes pair up and the equator of the cell. One going to each pole of the have formed. Cytokinesis
chromatids of homologues homologue of each pair faces cell. Sister chromatids commonly occurs at this stage.
exchange parts by crossing each pole of the cell and do not separate. There is little or no interphase
over. The nuclear envelope attaches to the spindle
between meiosis I and meiosis II.
disintegrates, and spindle Microtubules.
microtubules form.
Meiotic Cell Division in an Animal Cell
MEIOSIS II
Fig. 9-15e, f, g, h, i

(e) Prophase II (f) Metaphase II (g) Anaphase II (h) Telophase II (i) Four haploid cells
Spindle The chromosomes line The chromatids Nuclear envelopes result from Cytokinesis
microtubules re-form up along the equator. separate into re-form, and the each containing one
and attach to the independent daughter chromosomes member of each pair
sister chromatids. chromosomes, decondense. of homologous
one chromatid moving chromosomes.
toward each pole.
What Occurs During The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle?

▪ Mitotic and meiotic cell division in the human life

cycle mitotic cell division,
differentiation, and growth

mitotic cell division,

baby
differentiation,
and growth adults

embryo
meiotic cell
division in
ovaries meiotic cell
mitotic division in
cell division, testes
differentiation,
and growth egg
fertilized
haploid egg sperm

diploid
fusion of gametes