1. What is a chemical change, and how does it differ from a physical change?

2. Provide examples of chemical changes occurring in everyday life.

3. What is a word equation, and how is it used to represent chemical reactions?
4. Explain the difference between a reactant and a product in a chemical equation.
5. Define and give examples of natural chemical changes.
6. Discuss the importance of manmade chemical changes in industry and technology.
7. Describe the process of balancing chemical equations.
8. What is a chemical bond, and why do atoms form bonds?
9. Compare and contrast ionic and covalent bonds.
10. How do ionic bonds form, and what are their characteristics?
11. Provide examples of substances that are held together by ionic bonds.
12. Explain the concept of electronegativity and its role in the formation of ionic bonds.
13. What are the properties of compounds with ionic bonds?
14. Define covalent bonds and describe how they form between atoms.
15. Give examples of substances held together by covalent bonds.
16. Discuss the differences between polar and nonpolar covalent bonds.
17. How do coordinate covalent bonds differ from typical covalent bonds?
18. Describe the formation of a coordinate covalent bond with an example.
19. Explain the concept of bond energy and its significance in chemical reactions.
20. How does the octet rule influence the formation of chemical bonds?
21. Define metallic bonding and provide examples of substances with metallic bonds.
22. Discuss the properties of substances with metallic bonds.
23. What role do valence electrons play in chemical bonding?
24. Explain the process of hybridization and its importance in molecular geometry.
25. Describe the formation of hydrogen bonds and their significance in biology.
26. Discuss the factors influencing the strength of covalent bonds.
27. How do intermolecular forces contribute to the properties of substances?
28. Provide examples of chemical reactions where bonds are broken and formed.
29. What are the different types of chemical changes and how do they differ from each
other?

CHEMICAL CHANGE

Chemical Change:

Chemical change refers to a process where one or more substances are transformed into
new substances with different chemical compositions. This transformation involves the
breaking and forming of chemical bonds. Chemical changes are characterized by the
production of new substances that exhibit different properties from the original
substances.

Types of Chemical Change:

1. Slow Chemical Change: These changes occur gradually over time. Examples include the
rusting of iron and the decomposition of organic matter.

2. Fast Chemical Change: These changes occur rapidly. Examples include combustion
reactions and explosions.

Natural Chemical Changes:

1. Respiration:
- Process: In respiration, living organisms, such as animals and plants, utilize oxygen to
break down organic molecules (glucose) into carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy in
the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
- Chemical Equation: C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
- Word Equation: Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy
- Usefulness: The energy released during respiration is essential for various cellular
processes, providing organisms with the energy they need to perform activities and
maintain life functions.
2. Photosynthesis:
- Process: In photosynthesis, green plants, algae, and some bacteria convert carbon
dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen using sunlight as an energy source.
- Chemical Equation: 6CO2 + 6H2O + Light Energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2
- Word Equation: Carbon Dioxide + Water + Light Energy → Glucose + Oxygen
- Usefulness: Photosynthesis is crucial for producing oxygen, which is essential for the
respiration of most living organisms. Additionally, it serves as the primary mechanism by
which plants produce their own food.

Manmade Chemical Changes:

1. Combustion of Fuel:
- Process: Combustion involves the rapid chemical combination of a fuel (such as
hydrocarbons) with oxygen, resulting in the release of heat and light energy. It is a fast and
irreversible chemical change.
- Chemical Equation: C2 + O2 → CO2
- Word Equation: Carbon + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide
- Usefulness: Combustion reactions are utilized for heating, cooking, generating electricity,
and powering various vehicles and machinery.

2. Cleaning Shahabad Tiles with Dilute Hydrochloric Acid (HCl):

- Process: Dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with calcium carbonate present in Shahabad tiles
to form calcium chloride (soluble in water, so gets easily washed away), carbon dioxide
(bubbles mix up in air), and water (water mixes with water)
- Chemical Equation: CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
- Word Equation: Calcium Carbonate + Hydrochloric Acid → Calcium Chloride + Carbon
Dioxide + Water
- Usefulness: This chemical reaction helps in removing dirt, stains, and deposits from
Shahabad tiles, improving their appearance and cleanliness.

3. Softening of Hard Water:

- Process: Hard water, which chloride and sulphate salts of calcium and magnesium in
dissolved state, can be softened by adding certain chemicals like sodium carbonate (washing
soda) It reacts with the salts and forms carbon salts of calcium and magnesium, precipitating
them out as insoluble compounds. Hence water is softened
- Chemical Equation: CaCl2 + Na2CO3 → CaCO3 + 2 NaCl
- Word Equation: Calcium Chloride + Sodium Carbonate → Calcium Carbonate + Sodium
Chloride
- Usefulness: Softening hard water helps prevent the buildup of scale in pipes and
appliances, improving their efficiency and longevity.

In each of these chemical changes, the products are more useful in various applications
such as energy production, cleaning, and water treatment, contributing to technological
advancements and improved quality of life.

CHEMICAL BONDS

What is electronegativity?

Electronegativity is a measure of an atom's ability to attract electrons towards itself in a

chemical bond. It quantifies the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons.
As non-metals have a tendency to accept electrons they have higher electronegativity
than metals

Key Points about Electronegativity:

1. Pauling Scale:
- Electronegativity values are often expressed on the Pauling scale, named after the
American chemist Linus Pauling.
- The scale assigns values ranging from approximately 0.7 for the least electronegative
elements (such as cesium) to 4.0 for the most electronegative elements (such as fluorine).

2. Trend in Periodic Table:

- Electronegativity generally increases across a period from left to right (towards fluorine
as atoms tend to become smaller) and decreases down a group in the periodic table.
- This trend is primarily due to changes in effective nuclear charge and atomic size.
3. Chemical Bonding:
- Electronegativity differences between atoms determine the type of chemical bond
formed between them.
- Large electronegativity differences typically result in ionic bonds, where electrons are
transferred completely from one atom to another.
Eg. Na + Cl- -> NaCl
- When sodium reacts with chlorine, it gives it excess atom to chlorine to become
positively charged (as there are more protons in nucleus than electrons) and chlorine
accepts this atom and becomes negatively charged (as there are less protons than
electrons in the nucleus) in this way, both of them come together to earn stability.
But as the electronegativity of chlorine is more than sodium (as non metals have a
tendency to accept electrons) so the atom will be more attracted towards chlorine.
NOTE: All positive cations have greater electronegativity than negative anions as opposite
charges attract but as the cations do not need the electrons they do not accept it

- Small electronegativity differences result in covalent bonds, where electrons are shared
between atoms.

4. Applications:
- Electronegativity is widely used in predicting the behavior of chemical bonds, molecular
polarity, and reactivity.
- It helps chemists understand and predict the properties of molecules and their
interactions in various chemical reactions.

5. Factors Influencing Electronegativity:

- Electronegativity depends on factors such as the number of protons in the nucleus, the
distance between the nucleus and the valence electrons, and shielding effects from inner
electron shells.

6. Typical Electronegativity Values:

- Some typical electronegativity values include:
- Hydrogen (H): 2.20
- Carbon (C): 2.55
 - Oxygen (O): 3.44
- Fluorine (F): 3.98
- Sodium (Na): 0.93
- Chlorine (Cl): 3.16
1. Covalent Bonds
Covalent bonds are a type of chemical bond formed between atoms through the sharing of
electron pairs. In covalent bonding, atoms share electrons in order to achieve a stable
electron configuration similar to that of noble gases. Covalent bonds are typically found
between non-metal atoms.
NOTE: A covalent bond is formed between two non-metals that have similar
electronegativities. Neither atom is "strong" enough to attract electrons from the other. For
stabilization, they share their electrons from outer molecular orbit with others

Types of Covalent Bonds:

1. Polar Covalent Bonds:

- Formed when atoms with different electronegativities share electrons unequally.
- The atom with higher electronegativity attracts the shared electrons more strongly,
creating partial charges.
- Results in a dipole moment where one end of the bond is slightly positive and the other
end is slightly negative.
- Example: Hydrogen chloride(HCl) , where chlorine (Cl) is more electronegative than
hydrogen (H), resulting in a polar covalent bond.

2. Non-Polar Covalent Bonds:

- Formed when atoms with similar electronegativities share electrons equally.
- There is no significant difference in electronegativity between the atoms involved.
- No dipole moment is created.
- Example: Oxygen gas (O2) where both oxygen atoms share electrons equally, resulting in
a non-polar covalent bond.
Properties of Covalent Bonds:

1. Variable Bond Lengths and Strengths:

- Covalent bonds can have different bond lengths and strengths depending on the atoms
involved and the number of shared electron pairs.
- Multiple bonds (double or triple bonds) are shorter and stronger than single bonds due
to increased electron density between the atoms.

2. Low Melting and Boiling Points:

- Generally, covalent compounds have lower melting and boiling points compared to ionic
compounds.
- This is because covalent bonds are weaker than ionic bonds, and less energy is required
to break them.

3. Poor Conductors of Electricity:

- Covalent compounds are typically poor conductors of electricity in any state (solid, liquid,
or solution).
- This is because covalent compounds do not contain ions or free-moving electrons.

4. Solubility:
- Covalent compounds tend to be soluble in non-polar solvents but insoluble in polar
solvents.
- This is because like dissolves like, and covalent compounds usually dissolve better in
solvents with similar polarities.

Understanding the properties of covalent bonds is crucial for predicting the behavior and
properties of covalent compounds in various chemical reactions and interactions.

Ionic Bond

Ionic bonds are formed between ions (an atom or molecule with a net electric charge due
to loss or gain of molecules) , which are atoms or molecules that have gained or lost
electrons, becoming charged particles called ions. Ionic bonds occur between a positively
charged ion (cation) and a negatively charged ion (anion). Here are different types of ionic
bonds and their properties:

1. Simple Ionic Bond: This is the most basic form of ionic bond, where one atom donates one
or more electrons to another atom, resulting in the formation of oppositely charged ions.
For example, sodium chloride (NaCl) is formed when sodium (Na+) donates an electron to
chlorine (Cl-)

- Properties:
- High melting and boiling points: Ionic compounds have strong electrostatic forces
between ions, requiring a significant amount of energy to break the bonds.
- Brittle and hard: Ionic compounds form a crystalline lattice structure, making them hard
but brittle because when force is applied, the layers of ions can shift and cause repulsion
between similarly charged ions, leading to cleavage.
- Conductivity: Ionic compounds conduct electricity when dissolved in water or melted
because the ions become free to move and carry electric charge.

2. Complex Ionic Bond: In some cases, ions in ionic compounds can be more complex than
single atoms. For example, polyatomic ions, such as sulphate (SO2-4 )or ammonium (NH4+)
ionic bonds with other ions.

- Properties:
- Similar properties to simple ionic bonds but may have additional properties or
reactivity due to the complexity of the ions involved.
In summary, ionic bonds form between ions with opposite charges, leading to compounds
with distinctive properties such as high melting points, brittleness, and conductivity when
dissolved in water.

LEWIS STRUCTURE:-
A Lewis structure, named after the American chemist Gilbert N. Lewis, is a diagram that
represents the bonding between atoms in a molecule and the lone pairs of electrons that
may exist in the molecule. Here are some key points about Lewis structures:

1. Electron Dot Diagram: Lewis structures are also known as electron dot diagrams because
they use dots to represent valence electrons around atoms. These dots are placed around
the symbol of the element, with pairs of dots representing electron pairs, whether they are
shared in bonds or are lone pairs.

2. Valence Electrons: Lewis structures focus on the valence electrons, which are the
outermost electrons of an atom. Valence electrons are crucial in determining the chemical
behavior of atoms, particularly in forming chemical bonds.

3. Octet Rule: The octet rule states that atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons in order
to achieve a stable configuration of eight valence electrons, resembling the noble gas
configuration. This rule guides the arrangement of electrons in Lewis structures.

4. Steps for Drawing Lewis Structures:

- Determine the total number of valence electrons for all atoms in the molecule.
- Arrange the atoms to show how they are connected by covalent bonds.
- Place pairs of electrons (dots) around the atoms to represent covalent bonds.
- Complete the octet of each atom by distributing the remaining electrons as lone pairs.
- If there are not enough electrons to satisfy the octet rule for all atoms, form multiple
bonds (double or triple bonds) to achieve stability.

5. Exceptions to the Octet Rule:

- Some molecules may have fewer than eight electrons around an atom (such as boron
and beryllium), known as incomplete octets.
- Certain elements, especially those in periods 3 and beyond, can exceed the octet rule
due to the availability of d orbitals.

6. Formal Charge: In some cases, multiple valid Lewis structures can be drawn for a
molecule. The one with the lowest formal charges on the atoms is considered the most
stable.