Journal of Cleaner Production 366 (2022) 132924

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Extraction and characterization of waste plastic pyrolysis oil for

diesel engines
Krishnaraj Janarthanan a, *, Periyasamy Sivanandi b
a
Department of Automobile Engineering, Hindusthan College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Government College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: M.T. Moreira In this research work, the fuel extraction process from waste plastics through the thermal cracking method is
explored. The pyrolysis process was carried out at a wide range of temperatures in the absence of oxygen. About
Keywords: 78% (w/w) of the liquid yield was extracted between the effective pyrolysis temperatures of 370 ◦ C - 380 ◦ C,
Pyrolysis resulting in a calorific value of 38.53 MJ/kg. The obtained plastic pyrolysis fuel was then characterized by
CI engine
thermogravimetric study, FTIR and GC-MS analysis. Thermogravimetric analysis indicates that the structures of
Emissions
natural plastic break at 200 ◦ C and fully decompose at 300 ◦ C. The presence of alkanes and aromatic components
Performance
Environment in the plastic pyrolysis fuel was confirmed through FTIR analysis. Further GC-MS studies on fuel samples have
Pollution. proven that hydrocarbon compounds exist within the C7–C40 range. Plastic pyrolysis fuel obtained from waste
plastics is found to have similar fuel properties to diesel. The plastic pyrolysis fuel was tested in a single cylinder
four stroke variable compression ratio diesel engine with different blends of plastic pyrolysis fuel and diesel
ranging from 0% to 100% at varied engine loads ranging from 25% to 100%. The engine performance and
exhaust emissions were studied and compared with conventional diesel fuel operation. The research revealed
that the engine can operate on plastic pyrolysis fuel at full load, has a 6% improvement in brake thermal effi­
ciency as well as 4% reduction in UBHC and 2% reduction of CO emissions, albeit NOx emissions were signif­
icantly greater. The results confirmed that plastic pyrolysis fuel could be a viable replacement option for diesel.

In general, fires involving organic compounds are insufficient in their

1. Introduction
Pollution caused by plastic landfills are increasing due to residues
and harmful ingredients present in them endanger the environment and
humans. Plastic production has increased dramatically over the last 60
years because of its multipurpose usage, those plastics are common type
of domestic waste that must be disposed and it becomes a major source
of pollution. Such indecorousness has a negative impact on the envi­
ronment, so precautions are taken to convert these unavoidable sources
of pollution into something useful and renewable. Such waste is treated
for its utility, yielding fuel. Taking advantage of a readily available
resource with a primary application in the entire field of fueling (Zhang
et al., 2021; Nikiema and Asiedu, 2022; EIA, 2017).
Incinerated energy recovery has become one of the waste-to-energy
(WTE) technology method. The burning of plastic can give off less car­
bon dioxide (CO2) than burying. The CO2 produced during plastic
incineration is recoverable compared with leaving plastics in landfills.
Waste materials are incinerated, which produces ash, flue gas, and heat.
supply of O₂. Plastics do not burn well, resulting in more carbon mon­
oxide (CO) in the combustion product (Dan et al., 2022; Kumar and
Sankaranarayanan, 2016). According to a detailed study of the literature
work, alternative forms of basic constituents in petroleum production
are available at an affordable cost in different forms. Rubber and plastic
are used as raw materials for petroleum products, which have finite
natural supplies (Sipra et al., 2018; Gaurh and Pramanik, 2018; Kar­
thikeyan et al., 2016). Plastic wastes were treated through elemental
analysis to find the natural products to ascertain their C, H, and N
concentrations in (w/w) % Nikiema and Asiedu (2022). The hydrogen to
carbon mass ratio of the plastic wastes was 5.9 for polyethylene, 6.0 for
polypropylene, and 11.7 for polystyrene. On proximate analysis poly­
ethylene has a fixed carbon content of 0.1 percent, zero percent mois­
ture, and 0.1 percent ash, a volatility of 99.8%, and a heating value of
46.4 MJ/kg polypropylene has fixed carbon content of 0.1 percent,
moisture content 0.1 percent, ash content 17.2 percent, and volatile
matter 82.6 percent, with a lower heating value of about 37.6 MJ/kg
polystyrene has a carbon content of 0.2 percent, moisture of 0.3 percent,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: krishnaraj_j@yahoo.co.in (K. Janarthanan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.132924
Received 25 February 2022; Received in revised form 26 May 2022; Accepted 26 June 2022
Available online 1 July 2022
0959-6526/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
K. Janarthanan and P. Sivanandi
Abbreviations
TGA Thermogravimetric analysis
DTA Differential thermal analysis
FTIR Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
GCMS Gas chromatography mass spectrometry
PPO Plastic pyrolysis oil
PPF Plastic pyrolysis fuel
CO Carbon monoxide
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
NOX Nitrogen Oxides
UBHC Unburnt Hydrocarbon
VCR Variable compression ratio
DI Direct injection
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BTE Brake Thermal Efficiency
BSFC Brake specific fuel consumption
zero percent ash, and 99.5 percent volatile matter with a reduced
heating value of around 39.0 MJ/kg. Pyrolysis is a technology that al­
lows any organic (i.e., non-biodegradable) waste to be converted into
new organic products that can be used in a variety of sectors as a sub­
stitute for conventional fuels (Chandni et al., 2019; DeNeve et al., 2017;
Patil et al., 2017; Hita et al., 2016). The recovery of tyre and plastic
waste can be achieved by breaking down polymeric structures with
further reactions being liquid or gaseous (Dębek and Walendziewski,
2015; Duan et al., 2015; Hadi et al., 2016).
Plastic waste pyrolysis has higher liquid yields than waste tyre py­
rolysis. When compared to tyre pyrolysis, the nature of polyethylene
(PE) earns a 90 percent w/w higher yield and a lower gas yield of around
10% w/w with no solid obtained. Tyre pyrolysis is carried out in the
absence of a catalyst. The output of the tyre pyrolysis oil is minimal and
the gas production is significant. The liquid yields from tyre pyrolysis
contained 7.7% v/v toluene, 1.4 percent v/v benzene, 6.4 percent v/v
m/p xylenes, and 2.2 percent v/v o-xylene (Hu et al., 2020; Singh et al.,
2016). Kalargaris et al. (2017) carried out pyrolysis experiments on
waste plastic at two different temperatures: 700 ◦ C and 900 ◦ C. There is
a significant difference in the physical properties of the oil produced at
700 ◦ C and 900 ◦ C. Higher pyrolysis temperatures promote cracking,
leading to the generation of lighter hydrocarbons. The slow plastic py­
rolysis process produces the most fuel, with a calorific value equivalent
to diesel fuel and no sulphur content. Given the long vapour holding
time, slow pyrolysis is usually conducted at temperatures ranging from
350 ◦ C to 550 ◦ C. Fast pyrolysis is carried out at temperatures ranging
from 500 ◦ C to 700 ◦ C. The fast pyrolysis process produces wax rather
than oil, but with the right catalyst, the wax products can be converted
into pyrolysis oil. Another type of waste plastic pyrolysis process is flash
pyrolysis, in which the temperature is kept at around 1000 ◦ C but the
effective recovery from waste plastic into oil is only 50% and only
short-term vapours are produced. Flash pyrolysis produces more gas
than liquids (Papari et al., 2021). The use of bentonite clay pellets as a
catalyst in plastic pyrolysis improves the catalytic cracking process,
resulting in a higher fuel yield. There is no wax formation during the
process, and the plastic pyrolysis oil contains more aromatic hydrocar­
bons (Supattra et al., 2019).
The C5–C16 fractions were produced via β scission of rearranged ions
in polypropylene. According to (Almas et al., 2020) the decomposition
of the C9 liquid fraction yields 51.19 wt percent oil, 41.79 wt percent
gas, and 7.00 wt percent char. The oil was characterized using proxi­
mate, ultimate, and thermal analysis. The authors take a similar
approach to optimization by using response surface methodology to
characterization and determine the optimal process temperature for
various types of plastics and their mixtures. Plastic waste pyrolysis
2
Journal of Cleaner Production 366 (2022) 132924
yielded four distinct products: incondensable gas, light liquid, heavy
liquid, and solid polymer, all with relatively lower molecular weights
than the original materials. A kinetic study of pyrolysis products was
done for waste plastic mixtures in consideration of the formation of
solids, liquids, and gaseous products (Silvarrey and Phan, 2016; Tuffi
et al., 2018). The pyrolyzed output can be treated with the desulfur­
ization process, and this could lower the total amount of sulphur and its
compounds. So, this can be implemented with a moderate expenditure
to manage sulphur released into the environment. Desulfurization of the
pyrolysis fuels can be performed by two methods.
1. oxidation and methanol extraction using ultrasound.
2. oxidation with Fenton, ultrasound irradiation and adsorption
(Nikiema and Asiedu, 2022; Chin et al., 2014).
Pyrolysis experimental studies were performed through Thermog­
ravimetric Analysis (TGA), which refers to weight variations related to
the transformation of decomposed wastes. Differential Thermal Analysis
(DTA) and Fourier Transmission Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) was used
to identify the bonding structures and functional groups. Further
confirmation was done by GC-MS studies (Bacila et al., 2019).
Plastic pyrolysis fuel, a liquid with characteristics comparable to
petroleum, capable of running in IC engines. Diesel engines are getting a
lot of attention these days because of their excellent drivability and high
efficiency across a wide range of applications. Pratoomyod and Laoha­
lidanond (2013) investigated the effects of PPO blends with diesel in
large capacity DI engines but did not examine the combustion perfor­
mance. Kumar et al. (2013) conducted research by blending oil pro­
duced from recycled plastic with heavy crude for marine use. According
to their findings, blending high-density polyethylene plastic oil with
heavy crude oil greatly decreases viscosity and enhances engine per­
formance. Kalargaris et al. (2017) ran engine tests on a four-cylinder
direct injection diesel engine with various plastic pyrolysis oil produc­
tion temperatures. Oil produced at a lower temperature shows better
performance in engine operation under all conditions of high load.
Lower temperature developed plastic pyrolysis oil has higher brake
thermal efficiency, a reduced ignition delay period, and lower exhaust
gas emissions than high temperature produced plastic pyrolysis oil.
When compared to uncatalyzed pyrolysis oil and diesel fuel, catalyti­
cally treated plastic pyrolysis oil improves engine power while emitting
less exhaust gas Supattra et al. (2019). Pyrolysis oil seemed to have a
lower cetane number than diesel fuel. The NOx emissions from plastic
pyrolysis oil are higher. Smoke emissions were primarily low when
using plastic oil and are further reduced by using oxygenated additives.
They eventually decided that plastic pyrolysis oil was a suitable alter­
native for diesel fuel and discovered that the fuel operates properly in CI
engines Williams (2020).
1.1. Research gap and methodology
Researchers are taking steps to reduce CO emissions in the envi­
ronment through various methodological approaches such as waste
management of non-degradable materials, through protection and
conservation technology in the field of logistics (Yadav et al., 2021;
Sarkar et al., 2021). Closed loop supply chain management for rema­
nufacturing was introduced by Ullah et al. (2021) to reduce the dele­
terious ecological impact of disposals. In other areas of transportation, a
lack of proper supply chain network will result in more undesirable CO
emissions being emitted into the environment as a national concern.
Sarkar et al. (2021) created a supply chain network model to address the
transportation issue in the biofuel and bioenergy production areas. The
developed concept of multi setup multi delivery reduces both time lead
and transportation carbon emissions. Sarkar et al. (2021) is taking steps
to reduce energy consumption and carbon emissions by introducing a
multi-fuel manufacturing system with an initiative to produce sheer
biofuel with lower carbon emissions via a smart suspension
K. Janarthanan and P. Sivanandi
manufacturing frame network.
From the perspective of waste management, all researchers are
concerned with leaving a carbon-neutral ecological footprint. We
discovered a research gap for bio energy from unrecyclable plastics after
completing their useful form. After the effective use of any type of plastic
that is recycled according to conditions, the plastics are discarded,
causing environmental pollution. The thermal cracking process will
convert the waste plastic into another useful form of energy known as
fuel. The exploratory study we discovered from previous studies is that
many of them investigated converting waste plastics into pyrolysis oil,
which is not a useful form of conventional fuel, and they noticed higher
yield production at a high temperature fast pyrolysis process. In this
study, we perform a slow pyrolysis process with a detailed time study to
get the maximum fuel yield from the waste plastic. The present inves­
tigation was carried out to conduct a kinetic study of waste plastic py­
rolysis fuel at various temperature and time duration ranges in order to
obtain the highest yield. The various functional groups present in py­
rolysis fuel were also identified through characterization. This study
highlights an optimistic way to convert waste plastic into a useful form
of fuel with less energy spent on the conversion process, which could
provide economic support when this process is scaled up. Furthermore,
there has been very little research on plastic pyrolysis fuel engine
studies, with limited experimental investigations on engine performance
and emission characteristics for PPF with diesel blends. Because of the
physicochemical properties of pyrolysis oil, previous researchers
attempted engine studies with diesel and plastic pyrolysis fuel blends. To
the extent practicable, no research has been conducted to run an internal
combustion engine on pure PPF. In this study, an attempt was made to
characterize the PPF in order to meet the diesel fuel properties, and then
among the diesel fuel PPF blends, the 100 percent PPF was used to test
the engine performance and emission characteristics. As a result, this
study focuses on the processing of plastic pyrolysis fuel, as well as the
characterization and performance exhaust emissions of a single-cylinder
DI diesel engine powered by PPF and diesel blends.
1.2. Managerial benefits
The managerial economic benefit is to support alternative fuels for
the internal combustion engine in order to meet the current fuel de­
mand. Making this a multi-scale developed model allows us to increase
the production rate, which will help with fuel depletion and fuel prices.
In the context of social benefit, such a larger version should be intro­
duced so that everyone can be made aware of the process of conversion
and reuse of waste plastics instead of dumping materials into some other
useful form of fuel. Everyone is more socially responsible if they know
that waste plastic can be properly recycled and reused instead of being
thrown out into the environment. If commercially adopted into a scale
model, environmental sustainability will undoubtedly reduce environ­
mental pollution such as land pollution and CO emissions, resulting in a
carbon-free ecological footprint.
2. Materials and methods
Plastic garbage from residences was collected, washed with distilled
water to remove impurities, and then mechanically processed into small
pieces. Among the trash were polypropylene, polyethylene, and poly­
styrene, which were processed into plastic powders and then formed
into pellets with an average size of 0.5 cm with the application of
pressure and heat. They are subjected to the pyrolysis process after being
formed into small pellets.
2.1. Pyrolysis experimental setup and sampling
A pyrolysis reactor can withstand high temperatures and pressures
while heating plastics. Pyrolysis reactors are made up of the following
basic components: a pyrolysis chamber, a burner, a fractioning column,
3
Journal of Cleaner Production 366 (2022) 132924
a condenser, insulators, a thermometer, and a fuel collector. To create an
oxygen-free environment, nitrogen gas is supplied to the pyrolysis
reactor at a flow rate of 10 ml/min. This will keep the plastic from
burning during the reaction. The strategy is to dump a large amount of
plastic waste into the reactor and tightly seal the reactor for incinera­
tion. The reactor was built using a 3 mm thick Mild-Steel (MS) plate with
a 150 mm inner diameter, 153 mm outer diameter, and 300 mm height.
The high-pressure burner could quickly heat the pyrolysis reactor by
supplying 2 kW of external power and controlling the temperature. The
heating rate was kept constant at 10 K/min, and the feedstock residence
time was 130 min.
2.2. Thermal cracking process
The heating parameters can be used to obtain the plastic phase
change conversion. The phase change occurs during the thermal
cracking process as a result of temperature and time variations. Imple­
menting plastics in such phase changes to bring about the proper use of
their derived purpose is based on the conversion mechanism. In Fig. 1 a
schematic layout of the thermal cracking process of plastic fuel is
depicted. The plastic phase change from solid to vapour occurs when it is
heated. The conversion mechanism begins when the plastic is heated
above 100 ◦ C in the absence of oxygen. When the polymers melt, the gas
separates, and as the gas cools, it forms fuel. Vapours are collected
directly within a cool environment with multiple flow connections to
allow excess vapours to be collected. The experiment was carried out in
a fully functional setup with no interruptions. Separate beakers were
used to collect the extracted fuel for further filtration. The vapours
produced during the thermal cracking process are condensed into liquid
fuel with few impurities. The uncondensed vapours are burnt externally.
The high levels of carbon and moisture found in fuel during the pyrolysis
process is shown in Fig. 2. During the plastic pyrolysis process, plastic
pyrolysis fuel, char, pyrolysis gas, and moisture content were to be found
as listed in Table 1. Char is the main product of slow pyrolysis because a
slow heating rate supports solid formation between a variety of
competitive reactions Papari et al. (2021).
The extracted plastic pyrolysis fuel contains high carbon, moisture
and foreign particle. For an hour, the fuel was stirred by a magnetic
stirrer. Heat was applied to the fuel and extensively stirred to evaporate
the moisture content of the PPO. The water content of the fuel is
evaporated during this process. The fuel is then vacuum filtered. During
this process, the fuel sucks over a vacuum filter with cellulose membrane
filter paper, which retains residues, carbon, and foreign particles.
Filtration was repeated with various pore size cellulose membranes to
achieve the highest quality. The purified fuel was placed in an airtight
bottle to be tested for efficacy and properties.
2.3. Experimental setup and engine study
In this investigation, a single-cylinder, four stroke VCR diesel engine
was used. The engine is connected to the electrical loading eddy current
dynamometer. The setup includes the necessary equipment for
measuring combustion pressure and crank angle. Through a data
acquisition device, the signals are connected to the computer. The flow
of air, the rate of fuel flow, temperature levels, and load quantification
are also possible to communicate. Separate diesel and PPO fuel tanks, as
well as communication devices for air and fuel flow data, are provided.
The AVL 5 gas analyzer is installed on this engine configuration to
monitor exhaust gas emissions. Table 2 displays the test engine speci­
fications. For the experiments, the engine was set to run at a constant
speed of 1500 rpm with different loads ranging from 25% to 100% at
various PPO and diesel fuel blends. The results of engine performance
and emission characteristics for PPO25 (PPO 25+DIESEL 75), PPO50
(PPO 50+DIESEL 50), and PPO75 (PPO 75+DIESEL 25) having com­
bined fuel property, 100PPO, and diesel fuel at various engine load
conditions are discussed in the following section.
K. Janarthanan and P. Sivanandi Journal of Cleaner Production 366 (2022) 132924

Fig. 1. Fuel extraction by pyrolysis.

Fig. 2. Pyrolysis products, (a) high carbon plastic fuel, (b) plastic fuel with high moisture and foreign particle, (c) purified plastic fuel.

Table 1 Table 2
Output percentage of pyrolyzed product. Test engine specifications.
Pyrolysis product PPF Char Pyrolysis gas Moisture Power 3.50 kW

% 69 18 12 1 Rated Engine speed 1500 rpm

Number of cylinders 1
Compression ratio 17.50
Errors and uncertainties from the instruments can occur during the Cylinder Bore dia 87.50 mm
Cylinder Stroke length 110.00 mm
experiment for various reasons. In result interpretation, instrument
Swept volume 661.45 cc
uncertainty is considered to show the accuracy of experimentation work Connecting Rod length 234.00 mm
and its impact on observed values. The instrument uncertainty of the
methodologies performed in this study is shown in Table 3.

4
K. Janarthanan and P. Sivanandi Journal of Cleaner Production 366 (2022) 132924

Table 3 Table 5
Uncertainty of instruments. Fuel yields % (w/w) at various temperature and time.
Instrument Parameters Measurement range Accuracy S. Temperature Time Fuel Time Fuel Time Fuel
No ◦
C min yields min yields min yields
AVL Gas analyser HC 0-10,000 ppm ±10 ppm
% (w/ % (w/ % (w/
NO 0–5000 ppm ±10 ppm
w) w) w)
CO 0–10% vol ±0.03%
Temperature sensor K Type Thermocouple 0–1000 ◦ C ±2 ◦ C 1. 350 10 69.2 15 72.1 20 70.6
Speed sensor Engine speed 0-10,000 rpm ±10 rpm 2. 360 10 73.8 15 76.6 20 74.5
Digital stop watch Time ±0.5 sec 3. 370 10 76.7 15 78.2 20 76.5
Burette Fuel quantity 0–50 cc ±0.1 cc 4. 380 10 76 15 78.2 20 75.9
Fuel flow meters Manometer ±1% 5. 390 10 75.2 15 77.8 20 75.4
6. 400 10 74 15 75.6 20 75.1
7. 410 10 73.7 15 75.2 20 75
3. Results and discussions 8. 420 10 73.2 15 74.6 20 74.7
9. 430 10 72.8 15 74.4 20 74.5
10. 440 10 72.7 15 73.9 20 73.7
A feedstock of 3.5 kg plastic waste was used, yielding 2.42 kg of PPF 11. 450 10 72.3 15 72.5 20 72.3
(ie) 2097 ml at 69%, 0.6 kg of measured final weight of char at 18%, and
a mass balance of 12 %as pyrolysis gas and 1% moisture were the output
of the process. Thermal conversion at various temperatures resulted in Table 5. The fuel yield percent at various temperatures and time are
liquid formation. The estimated kinetic parameters for plastic pyrolysis depicted in Fig. 3 that represents the highest fuel yield at temperatures
over a wide range of temperatures and time durations as listed in of 370 ◦ C and 380 ◦ C with a time interval of 15 min. The remaining time
Table 4. The interval of every 10 min, the temperature and fuel con­ intervals of 10 and 20 min produce nearly the same liquid yield but less
versions are noted. The temperature range of 350 ◦ C - 400 ◦ C was than the time interval of 15 min of study. During a 10 min interval, the
deemed optimal, because at these temperatures, the maximum fuel yield process starts to produce fuel and reactions start during this time. At
conversion was noted as 390 ml and 395 ml, respectively. The maximum 20-min intervals, almost the maximum fuel yield was delivered, so that
fuel yield was obtained at above mentioned temperatures because the the fuel yield conversion process was reduced. The rapid reaction occurs
plastic begins melting with lower molecular vibration. Due to long only at 15-min intervals, with 370 ◦ C & 380 ◦ C delivering the maximum
retention time, reduced heating rates are obtained as a resulted in sec­ fuel yield of 78.2 percent w/w. A test was performed on the collected
ondary reactions of both the liquid and solid products. In order to the sample and diesel fuel to determine its suitability as a fuel alternative. As
above reaction vapour phase gas yield rises as well as the fluid product per ASTM standards, the PPF and diesel are tested. The obtained plastic
yield rises Supattra et al. (2019). The feedstock was then treated at pyrolysis fuel and diesel physical characteristics are compared and
350 ◦ C–450 ◦ C for a fixed period of time to obtain the maximum fuel shown in Table 6.
yield as listed in Table 5. According to Table 6, the majority of plastic pyrolysis fuel properties
Wathakit et al. (2021) reported the distillation curves of standard are closer to diesel values, such as viscosity 4.3 s, fire point 55 ◦ C, flash
diesel fuel with a percentage of recovery volume, the effective temper­ point 53 ◦ C, specific gravity 0.8517, density 0.8654 kg/L and carbon
ature of diesel yield was found to be between 188 ◦ C and 324 ◦ C. 0.044%. The calorific value of plastic pyrolysis fuel was determined to
Compared with the reference of standard diesel fuel distillation curves in be 38.53 MJ/kg, which is very close to the diesel fuel calorific value of
this work, the optimum plastic pyrolysis oil extracted at 370 ◦ C–380 ◦ C 42.6 MJ/kg. Plastic pyrolysis fuel has a moisture content of about 0.21
had increased fuel yield. The effective reaction temperatures of the percent, whereas diesel has a moisture content of 0.05 percent. The
plastic pyrolysis process are higher than the standard distillation curves obtained PPF has a higher moisture content due to the derived process.
of diesel because solid wastes are used in conversion process. Thermal The moisture content can be reduced further by heating the plastic py­
conversion below 300 ◦ C produces very little liquid fuel. The increased rolysis fuel. PPF has a sulphur content of 0.0046 by weight percent,
thermal cracking mechanism occurs between 350 ◦ C - 400 ◦ C. Above whereas diesel fuel has a sulphur content of 0.05 by weight percent. PPF
400 ◦ C the maximum amount of liquid product was not found. Plastic has registered with a lower sulphur content than diesel. The
ignited quickly at 450 ◦ C, producing CO gas instead of HC vapour. The
maximum fuel production at temperatures ranging from 350 ◦ C to
400 ◦ C is to be recorded in Table 4. As a result, this temperature range
has been used in the kinetic study of the pyrolysis process for time in­
tervals of 10, 15, and 20 min with incremental temperatures of 10 ◦ C to
obtain the optimum temperature with the highest fuel yield, as shown in

Table 4
PPF production at different temperature and time.
Time (min) Temperature (◦ C) Amount of PPF (ml) Total fuel received (ml)

0 30 0 0
10 62 0 0
20 98 0 0
30 124 35 35
40 152 85 120
50 190 155 275
60 246 210 485
70 302 320 805
80 354 390 1195
90 396 395 1590
100 440 265 1855
110 478 180 2035
120 503 65 2097
130 550 0 2097
Fig. 3. Fuel yields % vs temperature.

5
K. Janarthanan and P. Sivanandi Journal of Cleaner Production 366 (2022) 132924

Table 6 rises, so does the rate of degradation. Plastics were completely decom­
Comparison of plastic pyrolysis fuel and diesel fuel based on ASTM standard. posed at a temperature of 300 ◦ C. These characteristics provide the
S.No Parameters ASTM Standard PPF Diesel overall effect of heat transfer and changes in decomposition rate. The
results show that increasing the heating rate may hasten the pyrolysis
1. Viscosity (sec) D445 4.3 2–4
2. Calorific Value (kcal/kg) D240 9201.72 10191.20 reaction.
3. Fire Point (◦ C) D92 55 52
4. Flash Point (◦ C) D93 53 40
5. Moisture (%) D7261 0.21 0.05 3.2. FTIR analysis
6. Sulphur (% wt) D7039 0.0046 0.05
7. Specific Gravity D1298 0.8517 0.85
8. Carbon (%) D4530 0.044 0.035 The FTIR analysis was used to identify the functional groups in PPF,
9. Density (kg/L) D1298 0.8654 0.8600 which supported determining the main chemical properties of the
plastic pyrolyzed fuel. The main functional groups of plastic pyrolysis
fuel were determined using a PerkinElmer Spectrum-65 spectropho­
experimental tests on the fuel properties closely matched the properties tometer. The FTIR analysis spectra of PPF are shown in Fig. 5. Plastic
of diesel fuel. However, to confirm PPF fueling property, a sample of the pyrolysis fuel FTIR spectra were recorded between 3420 cm-1 and 1460
obtained plastic fuel should be tested for other parameters. cm-1. The maximum peak of 3420.30 cm-1 was attributed to the O–H
stretch, and the H-bonded strong and broad bond that was attributed to
3.1. Thermogravimetry analysis the alcohol-phenol mixture. Three peaks were observed at 2956.41 cm-
1, 2923.24 cm-1, and 2852.61 cm-1, confirming the existence of O–H
The thermochemical behavior of waste plastic pyrolysis fuel was stretch and C–H stretching vibration modes of carboxylic acids and al­
investigated with thermogravimetry analysis, represented in Fig. 4. kanes respectively. C=O stretching strong bonds are formed at the peak
PerkinElmer thermal analysis was used for the TGA. The experiments frequency of 1700.06 cm-1 with the functional group of carbonyls,
were carried out in a nitrogen environment under non-isothermal con­ carboxylic acids, α, β unsaturated aldehydes, and ketones. These are the
ditions. The gas flow rate was set to 20 ml/min, and the heating range to most important members of the carbonyl compound group, and they are
35 ◦ C–500 ◦ C, with a temperature rise rate of 10 ◦ C/min. A thermoba­ in unsaturated form when conjugated with alkenes. Another peak can be
lance measures the mass change of liquid or solid samples as a function found at 1460.08 cm-1 frequency, which corresponds to the C–C
of temperature or time in a defined and controlled environment in terms stretching of aromatic rings and the C–H bond of alkanes. The main
of heating rate. Between 250 and 480 ◦ C, the thermal stability and absorption bonds and functional groups identified in the spectra analysis
composition of solid state polystyrene degraded. Polyethylene and are summarized in Table 7. Fourier transform infrared analysis of the
polypropylene were degraded at temperatures ranging from 280 ◦ C to catalytic high density polyethylene pyrolysis oil revealed alkanes with
520 ◦ C and from 280 ◦ C to 580 ◦ C, respectively (Supattra et al., 2019). C–H stretching, C=C stretching, C–H scissoring and bending (Kumar
In a liquid sample of PPO, the TGA profile shows that as the tem­ et al., 2013). Five peak values are registered based on their observations
perature rises, there is a derivative weight loss and at 300 ◦ C the PPO to specify the fuel characteristic functional group. In comparison to that
sample becomes fully decomposed. The rate of weight loss is observed to work, alcohol and aromatic functional groups will be identified in this
vary with temperature. The mixture decomposes more quickly as the study, which will strengthen the fueling property. Supattra et al. (2019)
heating rate increases. At temperatures ranging from 50 to 200 ◦ C, the discovered aliphatic and aromatic compounds with wave numbers
natural plastic structure degrades. This means that as the temperature ranging from 695 cm-1 to 3084 cm-1. The presence of alkanes and

Fig. 4. Thermogravimetry analysis of plastic pyrolysis fuel.

6
K. Janarthanan and P. Sivanandi Journal of Cleaner Production 366 (2022) 132924

Fig. 5. FT-IR analysis of plastic pyrolysis fuel.

in the presence of inert helium gas. The initial heating temperature was
Table 7
set at 50 ◦ C for 1 min, then increased at a rate of 10 ◦ C per minute for 5
Functional groups of plastic pyrolysis fuel.
min to 300 ◦ C. The GC-MS study confirms the chemical composition of
Number of Wavenumber Bond Functional group the plastic pyrolyzed fuel and the functional groups observed in the FTIR
waves cm− 1
study. Furthermore, the chromatographic approach reveals components
1. 3420.30 O–H stretch, alcohols, phenols with different functional groups that the FTIR analysis missed. The
H–bonded chromatograms of the PPF obtained by GC-MS analysis are shown in
2. 2956.41 O–H stretch carboxylic acids
3. 2923.24 C–H stretch Alkanes
Fig. 6. Nine compounds discovered by GC-MS as listed in Table 8. The
4. 2852.61 C–H stretch Alkanes results revealed that the PPF was a mixture of C7–C40 compounds, and
5. 1700.06 C=O stretch Carbonyls, carboxylic acids, the above 9 compounds were proven to be alkanes or aliphatic com­
α, β–unsaturated aldehydes, pounds by FTIR analysis. According to Kumar et al. (2013), the majority
ketones
of the compounds present in catalytic high density polyethylene pyrol­
6. 1460.08 C–C stretch Aromatics Alkanes
(in–ring) C–H ysis fuel are aliphatic hydrocarbons with carbon numbers of C10–C25.
bend The same aliphatic hydrocarbon was discovered in this GC-MS study,
but the carbon number ranges C7–C40 discovered more compounds.
Considering area percentage, the highest peak areas in the chromato­
aromatic compounds was identified by the bonds observed in the FTIR gram registered 1-heptene, 5-methyl, 3-octanone, tetracontane, 3,5,
spectra analysis. The TGA and FTIR results, which provided a more 24-trimethyl, triacontane, cycloheptadecane, tetracontane, hexa­
detailed compound summary and product information, were confirmed triacontyl, trifluoroacetate, tetracontane. The carbon number C4–C12
by the GC-MS study. denotes light hydrocarbon petroleum fuels, while the carbon number
C12–C20 denotes middle hydrocarbon diesel fuel, and the obtained
3.3. GC-MS analysis GC-MS study of plastic pyrolysis oil chemical composition follows a
similar trend as diesel fuel (Wathakit et al., 2021).
A sample of 2 mg PPF was used in the GC-MS analysis. PPF was
thermally decomposed in the pyroprobe 5000 CDS Analytical pyrolyzer

Fig. 6. GC-MS of plastic pyrolysis fuel.

7
K. Janarthanan and P. Sivanandi Journal of Cleaner Production 366 (2022) 132924

Table 8
GC-MS of plastic pyrolysis fuel compounds.
No of peaks Retention Time Area % Compound Name Compound Formula CAS Number Molar Mass g/Mol Density g/cm3

1 1.931 7.69 CYCLOHEPTADECANE C7H10 4054-38-0 94.157 0.868

2 2.495 4.29 TETRACONTANE C40H82 4181-95-7 563.08 0.817
3 3.489 6.3 TETRACONTANE C40H82 4181-95-7 563.08 0.817
4 4.144 39.25 1-HEPTENE,5-METHYL C7H16 142-82-5 100.205 0.6795
5 4.88 8.36 TRIACONTANE C30H62 638-68-6 422.82 0.81
6 6.459 10.73 3-OCTANONE C8H16O 111-13-7 128.21 0.82
7 8.066 7.99 TETRATRIACONTANE, 17-HEXADECYL C40H82 4181-95-7 563.08 0.817
8 9.61 4.88 HEXATRIACONTYL TRIFLUOROACETATE C38H73F3O2 29740067 618.98
9 11.206 10.51 TETRACONTANE, 3,5,24-TRIMETHYL C40H82 4181-95-7 563.08 0.817

3.4. Engine performance characteristics low calorific value of the fuel, higher exhaust gas temperature and high
fuel consumption. In comparison to the above study results, our findings
3.4.1. Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) in this research work have a calorific value that is nearly equivalent to
Brake specific fuel consumption is a better criterion to compare an diesel fuel. Furthermore, PPO physical properties cause less fuel con­
engine’s performance when different heating values of diesel blends are sumption due to the faster heat release rate, so the in-cylinder temper­
employed (Sekar et al., 2021). Fig. 7 depicts the brake specific fuel ature would rise in PPO, causing the BTE to increase. These findings
consumption (BSFC) as well as brake thermal efficiency (BTE) of various suggest that such operating conditions for using this plastic pyrolysis
fuel blends at various loads. At all loading conditions, the BSFC of the fuel in diesel engines are possible.
blended fuels decreases significantly. PPO blends have almost the same
BSFC value at all loading conditions. There was a significant difference
3.5. Engine emissions characteristics
between diesel and 100 percent PPO. Diesel fuel BSFC was found to be
higher than PPO blends at all loading conditions because diesel fuel has
3.5.1. Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
a lower density and viscosity than PPO, allowing for greater utilisation
The discrepancy of nitrogen oxides (NOx) to different loading con­
during engine operations. Even when the engine is running at 100% PPO
ditions for PPO diesel blends is depicted in Fig. 8. There are three NOx
under different loading conditions, the BSFC decreases. When compared
development mechanisms in combustion theory: the thermal mecha­
to conventional diesel, a 100% PPF has greater viscosity and density,
nism, the rapid mechanism, and the fuel mechanism (Sekar et al., 2021;
which reduces BSFC and results in improved combustion. According to
Mariappan et al., 2021). Most of the NOx emission produced by the
Wathakit et al. (2021) the BSFC decreases at higher engine load because
thermal process in diesel engines due to the higher temperature and high
higher engine load raises in-cylinder temperature and efficiency. This
oxygen availability. At full load, NOx emissions from diesel fuel, PPO25,
will shorten the delay period for proper combustion at high loads.
PPO50, PPO75, and 100PPO are 26 ppm, 39 ppm, 27 ppm, 35 ppm, and
31 ppm, respectively. As the temperature of the cylinder rises, the NOx
3.4.2. Brake thermal efficiency (BTE)
emission produced by the same also increases. As the load increases, the
The brake thermal efficiency of an engine defines how efficiently fuel
temperature of the apex cylinder rises due to higher fuel combustion
energy is converted into mechanical output. The variations of brake
temperatures. The greater NOx in the specific instance of PPO is due to a
thermal efficiency (BTE) and load are depicted in Fig. 7. The brake
faster heat release rate. As shown in Table 7, PPO is a ring-structured
thermal efficiency values for PPO25, PPO50, PPO75, 100PPO, and diesel
hydrocarbon with a higher aromatic concentration. Ring-structured
are 32.35, 31.8, 32.22, 34.44, and 28 percent, respectively. Compared to
fuels have a higher adiabatic flame temperature, resulting in a faster
diesel fuel, 100 percent PPO produces higher brake thermal efficiency
heat release rate. Due to a faster heat release rate, the in-cylinder tem­
because PPO contains more aromatic compounds when aromatic com­
perature would rise as the PPO concentration in the blend increased.
pounds breaks, resulting in higher combustion temperatures, better
This causes the increased NOx production. Williams (2020) also
combustion, and increased BTE. Kumar et al. (2013) reported that waste
plastic oil has lower brake thermal efficiency in diesel engines due to the

Fig. 7. Comparison of BSFC and BTE with load. Fig. 8. NOx vs load.

8
K. Janarthanan and P. Sivanandi
reported the same but they used oxygenated additives during the engine
operations. Another factor contributing to increased NOx emissions is
the higher nitrogen concentration in fuel, which increases NOx gener­
ation via the fuel mechanism. Diesel engines always run with lean air
fuel mixtures, and having a higher compression ratio causes higher
combustion temperatures, resulting in increased NOx emissions (Mani
et al., 2011).
3.5.2. Unburnt hydro carbon (UBHC)
The main cause of UBHC emissions in exhaust gas is undermixing or
over-leaning, which occurs in the bulk-quenching area and wall flame
quenching (Sekar et al., 2021; Mariappan et al., 2021). Fig. 9 illustrates
the disparity in unburned hydrocarbon emissions for diesel and PPO
blends with respect to different loads. The HC at full load varies between
6 ppm, 1 ppm, 3 ppm, 1 ppm, and 2 ppm for diesel fuel, PPO25, PPO50,
PPO75, and 100PPO, respectively. At all load conditions, the HC emis­
sion of PPO blends was lower than that of diesel fuel. In a light load
condition, less fuel and more air are admitted into the cylinder, causing
the hydrocarbon to escape into the exhaust. However, at high engine
loads, complete combustion occurs, resulting in a reduction in unburned
hydrocarbons. When compared to diesel fuel, PPO has more aromatic
compounds that require complete combustion. However, PPO and PPO
blends produce marginally UBHC emissions because PPO contains un­
saturated hydrocarbons, as seen in Table 7. Wathakit et al. (2021) also
reported that under increasing engine peak load, HC emissions decrease
significantly due to complete combustion.
3.5.3. Carbon monoxide (CO)
Normally, compression ignition engines run on a lean mixture, which
reduces CO emissions (Mani et al., 2009). The variations of CO emissions
with reference to different loads for diesel and PPO diesel blends are
depicted in Fig. 10. Carbon monoxide emissions are caused primarily by
incomplete combustion and a lack of oxygen. According to the experi­
mental data, CO emission decreases as load increases; at the same time,
100 percent PPO and PPO diesel blends emit less CO than diesel fuel.
With increased power outputs, the ignition delay decreases, the amount
of fuel present during the delay period decreases, and CO emissions
decrease. Furthermore, PPO contains more aromatic compounds, which
when broken down result in a higher combustion temperature, which
raises the BTE. This results complete combustion, which reduces CO
emissions significantly. Higher engine load results in lower CO emis­
sions caused by increased combustion efficiency, CO emissions de­
creases for all PPO fuel blends because of improved combustion rate
Fig. 9. UBHC vs load.
9
Journal of Cleaner Production 366 (2022) 132924
Fig. 10. CO vs Load.
(Kalargaris et al., 2017; Wathakit et al., 2021).
4. Future scope of research
The current research was carried out as a pilot scale model with a
recycling capacity of up to 25 kg. Outcome of the research is incorpo­
rated into future work for large-scale study. Researches on plastic py­
rolysis are done only in lab models. The practical implications of a
commercial production of PPO is challenging in the aspect of designing a
large scale setup due to safety concerns, those draw backs will be
rectified while moving onto large scale production. The important
aspect to consider when designing a large-scale reaction chamber and
outlet passage is the condensing of vapours. If the large reaction
chamber size allows for the possibility of condensing the vapour into
fuel in the chamber itself due to the design shape and size, additional
intentions are required. If suction chambers are provided for collecting
evaporating gases, there may be possibilities for vapour lock because
pressure difference may occur during the reaction process, which will
lead to vapour lock. Another important consideration is that this entire
process is a continuous operation that must be carried out without
interruption; if an interruption occurs, the entire energy conversion rate
suffers, as well as the energy spent on the conversion process. So, once
the process is initiated in the commercial scale model, it must run
continuously to reap the maximum yield of pyrolysis oil. Sarkar et al.
(2022) introduced the concept of using a sustainable smart multi-type
biofuel manufacturing process with a traditional optimization
approach for continuous operations to increase profits and retail value of
biofuel. Proper process simulation will improve continuous process
flow. These issues can be easily identified in a lab scale model, but in a
commercial production unit, it is more difficult and it is expensive.
Because heat is the primary source of energy for the entire process, any
disruptions must be tolerated until the process environment returns to
normal.
The testing of plastic pyrolysis fuel on engines instils confidence in
consumers by providing key information on performance and emissions.
In terms of the physicochemical properties of fuel and engine studies,
this research works the characterization of fuel and engine studies re­
veals that plastic pyrolysis fuel will be comparable or better than diesel
fuel. This research looks into the possibility of converting waste plastic
into a useful form of fuel that can also be used to power a compression
ignition engine. It is suggested that an economic analysis point of view at
a pilot scale study aids in the promotion of such innovations into the new
production models. Such techniques and observed results are aimed at
providing a viable solution for global dump plastic material issues while
K. Janarthanan and P. Sivanandi
also supporting fuel demand. This could be more dependent on
providing a proper waste plastics collection system with the use of a
proper supply chain network. This will optimise the work and reduce
unnecessary transportation, making the work flow process more
streamlined. To confront the transportation issue in the biofuel and
bioenergy production systems, a supply chain network model was
developed to create an efficient work flow (Sarkar et al., 2021).
Usage of waste plastic for fuel production will be a better solution in
the long run, converting the pilot study into a commercial-scale plant is
the only way to address the growing pollution of plastic accumulation in
the environment. The government should encourage, support, and
develop commercial scale models of plastic pyrolysis oil in order to
create carbon-free ecological footprints.
5. Conclusion
The valuable recovery of fuel production from the mixed waste
plastics leads to the thermal pyrolysis process, which reduces waste
plastic disposal. At 370 ◦ C - 380 ◦ C, the maximum fuel yield production
of 78.2 (w/w) was discovered. The TGA results showed that the plastic
mixture fully decomposed at 300 ◦ C, and the FTIR data revealed the
presence of functional groups of alkanes and aromatic compounds,
which were confirmed by the GC-MS results, indicating that the plastic
pyrolysis fuel was a mixture of C7–C40 hydrocarbon compounds. The
fuel characteristics and physical properties of plastic pyrolysis fuel, such
as the calorific value of 38.53 MJ/kg and the density of 0.8654 kg/l,
were found to be comparable to the conventional diesel. As a result, the
produced liquid plastic pyrolysis fuel can be used as a viable alternative
source for diesel.
• The engine on 100% plastic pyrolysis fuel was able to run continu­
ously at full load.
• At all loads, the engine fueled with plastic pyrolysis fuel has a higher
brake thermal efficiency.
• Plastic pyrolysis fuel has a lower specific fuel consumption than
diesel fuel.
• In all plastic pyrolysis fuel blends, CO and HC emissions decrease as
load increases, whereas NOx emissions increase.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Krishnaraj Janarthanan: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal
analysis, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Preparation, Writing –
review & editing, Resources. Periyasamy Sivanandi: Writing – review
& editing, Supervision, Project administration.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
References
Almas, S., Lal, N., Varma, A.K., Thakur, L.S., Mondal, P., 2020. Pyrolysis of waste milk
packets in a screw-type continuous reactor: optimization through response surface
methodology and products characterization. Environ. Prog. Sustain. Energy. https://
doi.org/10.1002/ep.13446.
Bacila, D.M., Lazzarotto, M., Hansel, F.A., et al., 2019. Thermal profile of 4,40-dinitro­
carbanilide determined by thermogravimetry-differential scanning calorimetry-mass
spectrometry (TG-DSC-MS) and pyrolysis- gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
(Py-GC-MS). J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 138, 697–701. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10973-019-08194-9, 2019.
Chandni, A.Joshi, Jeffrey, R.Seay, 2019. Total generation and combustion emissions of
plastic derived fuels: a trash to tank approach. Environ. Prog. Sustain. Energy.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ep.13151.
Chin, B.L.F., Yusup, S., Al Shoaibi, A., Kannan, P., Srinivasakannan, C., Sulaiman, S.A.,
2014. Kinetic studies of Co pyrolysis of rubber seed shell with high density
10
Journal of Cleaner Production 366 (2022) 132924
polyethylene. Energy Convers. Manag. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
enconman.2014.07.043.
Dębek, C., Walendziewski, J., 2015. Hydro refining of oil from pyrolysis of whole tyres
for passenger cars and vans. Fuel. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.07.024.
DeNeve, D., Joshi, C., Higgins, J., Seay, J., 2017. Optimization of an appropriate
technology based process for converting waste plastic in to liquid fuel via thermal
decomposition. J. Sustain. Dev. https://doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v10n2p116.
Dan, Z., Zhou, W., Zhou, P., et al., 2022. Characterization of municipal solid waste
incineration and flue gas emission under anoxic environment in Tibet Plateau.
Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 29, 6656–6669. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-
15977-x.
Duan, P., Jin, B., Xu, Y., Wang, F., 2015. Co-pyrolysis of microalgae and waste rubber tire
in supercritical ethanol. Chem. Eng. J. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2015.01.108.
EIA, 2017. Global transportation energy consumption: examination of Scenarios to 2040
using ITEDD. U.S. Energy Inf. Adminis. Independent Stat. Anal. https://www.eia.
gov/analysis/studies/transportation/scenarios.
Gaurh, P., Pramanik, H., 2018. A novel approach of solid waste management via
aromatization using multiphase catalytic pyrolysis of waste polyethylene. Waste
Manag. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2017.10.053.
Hu, Q., Tang, Z., Yao, D., Yang, H., Shao, J., Chen, H., 2020. Thermal behavior, kinetics
and gas evolution characteristics for the co-pyrolysis of real-world plastic and tyre
wastes. J. Clean. Prod. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121102.
Hita, I., Arabiourrutia, M., Olazar, M., Bilbao, J., Arandes, J.M., Sanchez, P.C., 2016.
Opportunities and barriers for producing high quality fuels from the pyrolysis of
scrap tires. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
rser.2015.11.081.
Hadi, P., Yeung, K.Y., Guo, J., Wang, H., McKay, G., 2016. Sustainable development of
tyre char-based activated carbons with different textural properties for value-added
applications. J. Environ. Manag. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.01.005.
Kalargaris, I., Tian, G., Gu, S., 2017. The utilisation of oils produced from plastic waste at
different pyrolysis temperatures in a DI diesel engine. Energy. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.energy.2017.05.024.
Kumar, P.S., Sankaranarayanan, G., 2016. Investigation on environmental factors of
waste plastics into oil and its emulsion to control the emission in DI diesel engine.
Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2016.01.021.
Karthikeyan, O.P., Heimann, K., Muthu, S.S., 2016. Recycling of solid waste for biofuels
and bio-chemicals. Environ. Footprints Eco-Des. Prod. Process. https://doi.org/
10.1007/978-981-10-0150-5.
Kumar, S.S., Kumar, R., Prakash, R., Prakash, S., Murugan, S., Singh, R.K., 2013.
Performance and emission analysis of blends of waste plastic oil obtained by
catalytic pyrolysis of waste HDPE with diesel in a CI engine. Energy Convers. Manag.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2013.05.028.
Mani, M., Subash, C., Nagarajan, G., 2009. Performance, emission and combustion
characteristics of a DI diesel engine using waste plastic oil. Appl. Therm. Eng.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2009.01.007.
Mariappan, M., Panithasan, M.S., Venkadesan, G., 2021. Pyrolysis plastic oil production
and optimisation followed by maximum possible replacement of diesel with bio-oil/
methanol blends in a CRDI engine. J. Clean. Prod. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jclepro.2021.127687.
Mani, M., Nagarajan, G., Sampath, S., 2011. Characterisation and effect of using waste
plastic oil and diesel fuel blends in compression ignition engine. Energy. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.energy.2010.10.049.
Nikiema, J., Asiedu, Z., 2022. A review of the cost and effectiveness of solutions to
address plastic pollution. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-
021-18038-5.
Patil, L., Kumar Varma, A., Singh, G., Mondal, P., 2017. Thermocatalytic degradation of
high density Polyethylene into liquid product. J. Polym. Environ. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s10924-017-1088-0.
Papari, S., Bamdad, H., Berruti, F., 2021. Pyrolytic conversion of plastic waste to value-
added products and fuels: a review. Materials. https://doi.org/10.3390/
ma14102586.
Pratoomyod, J., Laohalidanond, K., 2013. Performance and emission evaluation of
blends of diesel fuel with waste plastic oil in a diesel engine. Int. J. Eng. Sci. Technol.
2319-5967.
Sarkar, B., Mridha, B., Pareek, S., 2022. A sustainable smart multi-type biofuel
manufacturing with the optimum energy utilization under flexible production.
J. Clean. Prod. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.129869.
Sarkar, B., Mridha, B., Pareek, S., Sarkar, M., Thangavelu, L., 2021. A flexible biofuel and
bioenergy production system with transportation disruption under a sustainable
supply chain network. J. Clean. Prod. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jclepro.2021.128079.
Singh, N., et al., 2016. Recycling of plastic solid waste: a state of art review and future
applications. Compos. B Eng. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2016.09.013.
Silvarrey, L.S.D., Phan, A.N., 2016. Kinetic study of municipal plastic waste. Int. J.
Hydrogen Energy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.05.202.
Sipra, A.T., Gao, N., Sarwar, H., 2018. Municipal solid waste (MSW) pyrolysis for bio-fuel
production: a review of effects of MSW components and catalysts. Fuel Process.
Technol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2018.02.012.
Sekar, M., Praveenkumar, T.R., Dhinakaran, V., Gunasekar, P., Pugazhendhi, A., 2021.
Combustion and emission characteristics of diesel engine fueled with nano catalyst
and pyrolysis oil produced from the solid plastic waste using screw reactor. J. Clean.
Prod. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128551.
Supattra, B., Andrew, J.H., Yuvarat, N., 2019. Catalytic pyrolysis of plastic waste for the
production of liquid fuels for engines. R. Soc. Chem. https://doi.org/10.1039/
C8RA10058F.
K. Janarthanan and P. Sivanandi
Tuffi, R.D., Abramo, S., Lorenzo, Cafirero, Emiliano, Trinca, Stefano, Vecchio, 2018.
Thermal behavior and pyrolytic degradation kinetics of polymeric mixtures from
waste packaging plastics. Express Polym. Lett. https://doi.org/10.3144/
expresspolymlett.2018.7.
Ullah, M., Asghar, I., Zahid, M., Omair, M., AlArjani, A., Sarkar, B., 2021. Ramification of
remanufacturing in a sustainable three-echelon closed-loop supply chain
management for returnable products. J. Clean. Prod. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jclepro.2020.125609.
Wathakit, K., Sukjit, E., Kaewbuddee, C., Maithomklang, S., Klinkaew, N., Liplap, P.,
Arjharn, W., Srisertpol, J., 2021. Characterization and impact of waste plastic oil in a
variable compression ratio diesel engine. Energies. https://doi.org/10.3390/
en14082230.
11
Journal of Cleaner Production 366 (2022) 132924
Williams, P.T., 2020. Hydrogen and carbon nanotubes from pyrolysis-catalysis of waste
plastics: a review. Waste Biomass-Valorization. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-
020-01054-w.
Yadav, D., Kumari, R., Kumar, N., Sarkar, B., 2021. Reduction of waste and carbon
emission through the selection of items with cross-price elasticity of demand to form
a sustainable supply chain with preservation technology. J. Clean. Prod. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126298.
Zhang, W., Zhang, J., Ding, Y., He, Qize, Lu, Kaihua, Chen, Haiyan, 2021. Pyrolysis
kinetics and reaction mechanism of expandable polystyrene by multiple kinetics
methods. J. Clean. Prod. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.125042.