7/17/19

FUELS AND COMBUSTION

by

Engr. Alexis T. Belonio, MS

Agricultural and Biosystems Engineer
ASEAN Engineer

AGRICULTURAL POWER AND ENERGY SOURCES

Disclaimer

Photos , illustrations and schematic diagrams of equipment or machine parts are shown in the
presentation solely for educational purposes to facilitate comprehension of the topics by the
students. Showing them does not endorse a product nor imply criticism of similar products not
mentioned.

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INTRODUCTION
• Fuel is any material that stores energy which is subsequently extracted
to perform mechanical work in a controlled manner. Most fuels
undergo combustion process in which a combustible substance
releases energy (exothermic process) after it ignites and reacts with
oxygen in the air.
• Fuel is important in agricultural mechanization to increase production
as well as to obtain quality product. Without fuel, mechanization will
be hampered.
• Fuels used in agricultural engines are made from crude oil which are
composed of hydrogen and carbon having definite specific gravity and
boiling point.
• Proper combustion of fuel will result in a more efficient way of utilizing
the energy and, at the same time, of reducing the operating cost.

Biomass LPG

Coal Crude Oil

Various Kinds of Fuel

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SOURCES OF FUEL
• Non Renewable
– Crude Oil is a naturally occurring flammable liquid consisting of a
complex mixture of hydrocarbons with various molecular weights and of
other liquid organic compounds that are found in geologic formation
beneath the earth’s surface. Gasoline, kerosene, and diesel are derived
from crude oil.
– Natural Gas is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting
primarily of methane, with other hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, and hydrogen sulfide.

– Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is a flammable mixture of

hydrocarbon gases used as fuel in heating appliances and
vehicles. It consists of propane and butane.
– Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary
rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins
called coal beds or coal seams.
– Nuclear Energy (Uranium) is usually referred to the part of
the energy of an atomic nucleus which can be released by
fusion or fission or by radioactive decay.

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• Renewable Fuel
– Solid Biomass
• Woodfuel – This is a wood intended for use as fuel.

• Agri-Residue – This includes field and processed residues from agriculture such
as hay, stalks, husk, shell, etc.

• Forest residue – This consists of small trees, branches, tops and un-
merchantable wood left in the forest after cleaning, thinning or final felling of
forest stands used as fuel.
• Municipal Solid Wastes – They are commonly known as trash or garbage
consisting of everyday items that are discarded by the public.

– Biofuel is a type of fuel in which its energy is derived from

biological carbon fixation. Biofuels include fuels derived
from biomass conversion as well as solid biomass, liquid fuel
and biogases.
• Bioethanol – It is an alcohol made by fermentation of carbohydrates produced in sugar and
starch from crops such as corn, sugar cane and cassava. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for
vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane content
and improve emissions of vehicles.

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• Biodiesel – It is made from vegetable oil and animal fats. It can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its
pure form, but it is usually used as a diesel additive to reduce the levels of particulates, carbon
monoxide, and hydrocarbon from diesel-powered vehicles.
• Bio-oil (also called pyrolysis oil or biocrude) - It is a synthetic fuel used as substitute
for petroleum. It is extracted from biomass by subjecting the reactor to high temperature of
about 500°C and subsequent cooled. It is a tar and normally contains very high level of oxygen
to be a hydrocarbon.

– Biomass Producer Gas – It is a gaseous fuel derived from

burning of fuel at a temperature of around 900°C and with
limited amount of air. The gas produced is rich in carbon
monoxide, hydrogen and methane. When burned, it
produces a light-blue-to-pinkish flame. When the fuel is
gasified using pure oxygen, the gas is called synthetic gas.
– Biogas – It is a gas produced by breaking down of organic
matter sin the absence of oxygen. Organic wastes such as
dead plant and animal material, animal feces, and kitchen
wastes are used as feedstock to produce biogas. The gas can
be used as source of heat for cooking or as fuel for internal
combustion engine to produce power and/or electricity.

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CLASSIFICATIONS OF FUEL
• Solid Fuel
– Coal, Coke, and Peat
– Wood and Wood Charcoal
– Agri and Forest Wastes
• Liquid Fuel
– Crude Oil (gasoline, diesel, and kerosene)
– Bunker Oil
– Biofuel (bio-ethanol, vegetable oil, bio-oil, and biodiesel)
• Gaseous Fuel
– LPG
– Natural Gas
– Producer Gas (CO, H2, and CH4)
– Biogas (CH4 & CO2)

Solid Fuel
• Solid fuel is mainly classified into: (a) natural fuel such as coal,
wood, etc., and (b) manufactured fuel such as charcoal, coke,
briquette, etc.
• Advantages are: (a) Easy to transport, (b) Convenient to store
without any risk of spontaneous explosion, (c ) Low
production cost, and (d) Poses moderate ignition
temperature.
• Disadvantages are: (a) High ash content, (b) Large proportion
of heat is wasted, (c ) Form clinkers when burned, (d) Not easy
to control combustion operation, and (e) High handling cost.

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Liquid Fuel
• Liquid fuel is classified into: (a) Natural or crude oil, and (b) Artificial
or Manufactured Oil.
• Advantages are: (a) Possess higher calorific value per unit mass, (b)
Burn without dust, ash, clinkers, (c ) Easy to fire and also easy to
extinguish by simply stopping the supply of fuel, (d) Easy to
transport through pipes, (e) Can be stored indefinitely without any
loss, (f) Clean to use and economical to handle, (g) Heat loss is very
low, (h) Require less excess air for complete combustion, and (i)
Require less space for combustion.
• Disadvantages are: (a) Relatively higher cost as compared with solid
fuel, (b) Costly storage tank, (c) Fire hazard, especially in case of
inflammable and volatile liquid fuel, (d) Emits bad odor, and (e)
Requires especially-constructed burner for efficient burning of fuel.

Gaseous Fuel
• Gaseous fuel occur in nature besides from being
manufactured from solid and liquid.
• Advantages are: (a) Easy to convey through pipe lines to
actual place of need hence no need of manual labor in the
transport of fuel, (b) Easy to ignite or lighted, (c ) High heat
content giving high temperature, (d) Economical for it can be
preheated using waste heat, (e) Easy to control the quantity
and quality of flame, (f) Clean operation, (g) Does not require
special burner, (h) Burn without any soot, smoke, or ashes,
and (i) Free from impurities found in solid and liquid fuels.
• Disadvantages are: (a) Need large storage tanks, and (b)
Highly inflammable with high chances of fire hazard.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF FUEL

• Density – It is the ratio of the mass of fuel to its volume at a

reference temperature of 15°C. It is important in the
quantitative calculation and in assessing the ignition qualities
of fuel.
• Specific Gravity – It is the ratio of weight of a given volume of
fuel to the weight of the same volume of water. It is
important in the calculation involving weight and volume.
The gravity of liquid fuel is usually expressed in API (American
Petroleum Institute) degrees.

API = (141.5 / specific gravity at 15°C) - 131.5

(Specific gravity of gasoline is 0.69 - 0.77)

• Flash Point – It is the lowest temperature at which liquid fuel is

heated in order to give off sufficient vapor forming an inflammable
air-gas mixture.
• Pour Point – It is the lowest temperature at which liquid fuel flow
under prescribed condition. It is a very rough indication of the
lowest temperature at which fuel is ready to be pumped.
• Cloud Point – It is the temperature at which the sample has visibly
shown cloudiness.
• Vapor Pressure –Too low vapor pressure may cause liquid fuel to
undergo vapor lock problem.
• Thermal Stability – It is the resistance of the fuel to thermal
degradation measure by heating the fuel to specified temperatures
filtering and comparing residue with standard coloration filters.

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• Viscosity – It is the measure of the resistance of liquid fuel to flow. It

decreases as the temperature increases. It is important in the
storage and in the use of fuel. It influences the degree of preheating
required for handling, storage and satisfactory automation. Too
viscous fuel is difficult to pump, hard to light the burner, and difficult
to handle.
• Specific Heat – It is the amount of heat in kcal needed to raise one
kilo of fuel one degree C. It determines the amount of electrical
energy needed to heat the fuel to a desired temperature. Usually,
light oil has low specific heat compared with heavy oil.
• Calorific Value – It is the measurement of heat or energy produced.
Gross calorific value assumes all vapor produced during the
combustion process is fully condensed. Net calorific value assumes
all the water leaves from the fuel without fully condensed.

Calorific Value of Fuel

Fuel Gross Calorific Fuel Gross Calorific
(kcal/kg) (kcal/m3)
Kerosene 11,100 Propane 22,200

Diesel 10,800 Butane 28,500

Coal, Lignite 4,500 LPG 11,010

Wood 5,310 Natural Gas 9,350

Gasoline, Premium 11,389 Biomass ProducerGas 1,450

Gasoline, Regular 11,528 Biogas 4,538

Sugar Bagasse 4,322 Acetylene 13,980

Rice Husk 3,000 Carbon Monoxide 3,014

Sawdust 4,616 Hydrogen 3,050

Coco Husk 4,444

Ethanol 6,415

Biodiesel 8,633
1 kJ/kg = 1 J/g = 0.4299 Btu/ lbm = 0.23884 kcal/kg

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• Volatility - Gasoline is more volatile than diesel oil or

kerosene not only because of the base constituents, but also
because of additive. In hot weather, less volatile fuel is
needed to minimize the problem of what is called vapor lock,
which is the failure of the fuel to start for liquid fuel tend to
become vapor in fuel lines. In cold weather, on the other
hand, low volatile fuel is difficult to start.
• Sulfur –The amount of sulfur determines the risk of corrosion
as a result of sulfuric acid formed during and after combustion
and condensation in cool parts of the machine such as
chimney or stock, air pre-heater and economizer.
• Ash Content - It is an impurity in fuel which does not burn. It
reduces handling and burning capacity of the fuel and
increases handling cost.

• Octane Number – It measures the

ignition quality of fuel in the engine.
The higher the number, the lesser the
fuel is susceptible to 'knocking' (i.e.,
explosion caused by its premature
burning in the combustion chamber)
when burned in a spark-ignition
engine.
• Cetane Number - It measures the
ignition quality of diesel fuel. The
higher the number, the easier it is to
start a compression-ignition engine.
Also, fuel with higher cetane number
has shorter ignition delay periods
than fuel with lower cetane number.
They are used only for the relatively

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• Corrosion - Sulfur compounds are corrosive to metals.

• Existent gum - Fuels have a tendency to form viscous liquids
or solids called gum. The presence of large quantities of
gum usually causes sticking of intake valve and heavy
deposit at intake manifold of the engine.
• Proximate Analysis – It provides a good indication about
heating and burning of fuel. It gives the composition of fuel
with respect to moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon, and
ash content.
• Ultimate Analysis – It indicates the various elemental and
chemical constituents of the fuel such as carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, sulphur, etc. It is useful in determining the amount
of air required for combustion and the volume and
composition of combustion gases.

COMMONLY USED FUEL

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Gasoline

• Gasoline is a product of distillation of crude oil. It is a

transparent, petroleum-derived liquid that is used
primarily as fuel for small internal combustion engines
commonly used in agriculture operations. It consists
mostly of organic compounds obtained by the fractional
distillation of petroleum, enhanced with a variety of
additives.

• Classifications
– Natural gas gasoline - is manufactured from the gas that is
taken from oil well or is obtained from the distillation of
crude oil.
– Straight-run gasoline or raw gasoline - is produced from
distillation of crude oil.
– Cracked gasoline - is manufactured from heavier distillation
fraction ,particularly gas oil.
– Blended gasoline - consists of all types of natural raw or
cracked gasoline and are mixed together in the refining
process.

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Diesel
• Diesel fuel is obtained between 250°C to 320°C during fractional
distillation of crude oil. It generally contains 85% C and 12% H.
Density is around 0.82 - 0.89 g/cc while the calorific value is about
11,000 kcal/kg.
• The suitability of diesel fuel is determined by its cetane number. It
consists of longer hydrocarbons and has low value of ash,
sediments, water, and sulphur content.
• Diesel includes the heaviest oils used in compression-ignition
internal combustion engine. They are commonly used in larger
engines since they are cheaper than gasoline or kerosene fuel.

• Ignition characteristic (cetane number) takes place in an

engine in three stages: i.e., ignition lag, burning injection, and
burning after injection. Excessive ignition lag results in the
accumulation of unburned fuel which, when subjected to high
pressure and temperature, may detonate giving rise to diesel
knock.

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Kerosene
• Kerosene is a heavier product of the distillation of crude oil than gasoline. It is
obtained between 180 to 250°C during fractional distillation of crude oil.
• The density is 0.78 - 0.84 g/cm3 while the Octane Number = 30 – 40. It is use d as
illuminant and fuel for tractors.
• Spark-ignition engine cannot start with kerosene fuel only because the initial
point of kerosene is higher than that of gasoline.
• Gasoline is used as a start-up fuel for kerosene engine.
• When used for domestic appliances, it is always vaporized before the fuel is set
for combustion.

Bioethanol
• Bioethanol (C2H5OH) is a biofuel substitute for gasoline. It is
an ethanol obtained from biomass and is used as a gasoline
blend (E10 up to E20).
• Bioethanol is produced from fermentation of biomass which
is rich in sugar, carbohydrates, and cellulosic materials
followed by distillation process.
• Anhydrous ethanol (99% and above) is required for gasoline
mixture whereas for use-alone , up to 10% of water is
accepted.

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Biodiesel
• Biodiesel is a biomass-derived fuel which can be used as direct
substitute for diesel oil in CI engines. However, biodiesel is
more expensive than diesel fuel.
• It is a mono-alkyl-ester mixture obtained from natural oil
currently produced through the process of transesterification.
• Biomass oil or used cooking oil is filtered and then pre-process
with alkali (KOH) to remove free fatty acids then mixed with
alcohol and catalyst to form esters and glycerol. The product is
then separated and purified.

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

• LPG consists of propane and butane. They are hydrocarbons which

are gaseous at normal atmospheric pressure and, by the application
of moderate pressure, may condense to liquid state at normal
temperature.
• LPG is used as fuel for cooking, baking, drying, and other heating
applications. As engine fuel, the fuel supply system for LPG
engines differs from that of the gasoline engine.
• LPG are stored and transported as liquids under pressure for
convenience and ease of handling.

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• Liquid LPG evaporates about 250 times the volume of gas. Its
vapor is denser than that of air.
• Butane is about twice the weight of the air while propane is
one and a half times heavier than that of air which allows the
gas to flow on the ground making it possible to be ignited
even at a considerable distance.
• LPG can be detected against atmospheric leak because of the
odor it emits.

Producer Gas

• It is essentially a mixture of combustible gases containing

carbon monoxide and hydrogen with non-combustible gases
such as N2, CO2, etc. It is prepared by burning fuel with little
amount of air or with the use of steam in a reactor called “gas
producer.” If pure oxygen is used, a synthetic gas is produced.
• Coal and biomass fuel such as agri residues can be used as
feedstock in producing the gas.

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• The gas produced from the gasifier can be used for heating by
directly burning it with a mixture of air.
• Cleaning the gas can make it as fuel replacement for fossil-
fuel-based internal-combustion-engine either on a single
mode or dual mode operation.
• On the average, producer gas contains 22.3% carbon
monoxide and 8.12% hydrogen. Heating value is around 1,
300 kcal/m3 .

Natural Gas
• Natural gas is used directly as it comes from the oil well without
subjecting it to any complex refining or purifying process. It consists
largely of 95% methane and the remaining percentage of other
hydrocarbon gases such as ethane, propane, butane, pentane,
nitrogen, carbon dioxide, etc.
• It has the following characteristics: (a) It can be liquefied and
compressed, (b) High calorific value fuel requiring no storage facilities,
(c) It mixes with air readily and does not produce smoke or soot, (d ) It
has no sulphur content, and (e) It is lighter than air and easily
dispersed into the air in case of leak.

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Woodfuel
• Wood is the most commonly used and easily obtainable solid fuel. It
is made of vegetable tissue of trees and bushes consisting mainly of
cellular tissue and lignin and lesser parts of fat and tar as well as
sugar.
• Freshly fallen trees or branches have a moisture content of 40 to
60% and dry up to about 15 to 20% in 18 months.
• The calorific value of wood is around 4,000 to 5,000 kcal/kg. Ash
content is very low.
• The lighter the wood, the faster it burns. It ignites easily that is why
it is used as an igniter for other fuel. Ignition temperature ranges
from 250 to 300°C.

Biomass
• Biomass is a living matter used as fuel either grown for that purpose
or recovered from farming, forest, and food industries wastes.
• They can be directly burned in furnaces and boilers but they are
transformed into gas to minimize pollution and to facilitate handling
and transportation.
• Biomass is bulky and it has low calorific value of around 5,000 kcal per
kg.
• It is commonly used as fuel for drying, dehydration, kiln firing, and for
producing steam for agricultural and food processing operations.

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Biobutanol
• Biobutanol is butyl alcohol produced biologically which is
considered as primary alcohol with a 4 carbon structure and
molecular formula of C4H9OH. It usually used as fuel, solvent,
and an intermediate in chemical synthesis.
• Biobutanol with 85% strength can be used for spark-ignition
engine without modification.
• Pure butanol has 22% oxygen as compared with pure ethanol
of 36%. However, the lower heating value is 27.8 MJ per liter
as compared to ethanol 21 and gasoline of 31 MJ per liter.

COMBUSTION PROCESS
Heat and
light
• Combustion refers to the rapid
oxidation of fuel accompanied by
the production of heat and light. Gas Fuel

• Rapid fuel oxidation results in a

large amount of heat.
• Solid or liquid fuel must be changed
to gas before it is burned. Heat is Solid or
Liquid Fuel
required to change liquid or solid
fuel into gas.
• Gaseous fuel burns if enough air is Air
present. Heat

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Pictorials of Combustion

• Three Elements of Combustion: (a) Fuel, (b) Oxygen (Air is

21% O 2), and Heat.
• Complete combustion of fuel is possible if there is adequate
air.
• Nitrogen in the air reduces combustion efficiency by
absorbing the heat from the combustion fuel and by diluting
flue gases. It also combines with oxygen at a high flame
temperature to produce oxides of nitrogen (NOx).
• Good combustion can be attained by: (a) High temperature
enough to ignite and maintain ignition of fuel, (b) Turbulence
or intimate mixing of fuel and oxygen, and (c) Sufficient time
to complete combustion.

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Chemistry of Combustion
C + O2 → CO 2 + 8,084 kcal/kg of
Carbon
2C + O2 → 2CO + 2,430 kcal/kg of
Carbon
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O + 28, 922 kcal/kg of
• Hydrogen
Perfect Combustion – occurs when the amount of air
+ O 2 air)→
S(stoichiometric needed isSO
supplied
2 to the fuel.
+ 2,224 kcal/kg of
• Sulphur
Complete Combustion – occurs when excess air is provided into
the fuel. Too much excess air will result in heat losses which
may quench combustion of fuel. The amount of excess air
depends highly on the type of fuel and the firing system.
• Incomplete combustion – occurs when too little air is supplied
into the fuel resulting in the production of unburned carbon,
which forms CO instead of CO2.

• Spontaneous combustion is a type of combustion which

occurs by self-heating (increase in temperature due to
exothermic internal reactions), followed by thermal runaway
(self heating which rapidly accelerates to high temperatures)
and finally, ignition.
• Stoichiometric Air - is the amount of air needed to
completely burn the fuel and turn its by-product into ash.

S.A. = (2.67 C + 8 H + 1 S – O) / 0.23

where:
SA - Stoichiometric air, kg air per kg of fuel

C – Carbon, % by weight of fuel

H – Hydrogen, % by weight of fuel
S – Sulphur, % by weight of fuel
O - Oxygen, % by weight of fuel

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Stoichiometric Air-Fuel Ratio of Various Fuels

Fuel Stoichiometric Air-Fuel Fuel Stoichiometric Air-Fuel

Ratio Ratio
(Mass of Air: Mass of Fuel) (Mass of Air: Mass of Fuel)

Gasoline 14.7:1 Kerosene 15.6:1

Diesel 14.6:1 Biogas 10.1:1

Natural Gas 17.2:1 Bioethanol 12.7:1

Propane 15.5:1 Wood 6.2:1

Methanol 6.4:1 E100 9.0:1

Ethanol 9.0:1 Rice Husk 4.7:1

MTBE 11.7:1 Corn Cobs 5.7:1

ETBE 12.1:1 Pure Carbon 11.6:1

Hydrogen 34:1 Methane 17.3:1

Wood 6.1:1 Acetylene 13.3:1

Classification of Air for Combustion

• Primary Air – It is the air admitted Heat

to the fuel. In the case of solid fuel,
air passes through the fuel bed
while for gas or liquid, air is Volatile liquid
admitted and mixed to the fuel and
prior to combustion. combustible
• Secondary Air – It is the air fed into gases
the combustion system which doesSecondar
not pass through the fuel bed. y air
Instead, it is used to further or
completely burn volatile
combustible gases from the fuel. Fuel
Excessive amount of secondary air
may dilute the air necessary for Primary
combustion and reduce heat Air
transfer efficiency.

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Combustion Devices

Kiln
Stove Boiler

Oil Lamp
Furnace Gasifier
Reciprocating Reactor
Engine

REFERENCES
• PSME. 2008. Philippine Mechanical Code. Philippine Society
of Mechanical Engineers. The PSME code and Standard
Committee. Rm 300B, 3/F Don Lorenzo Bldg., 889 P. Paredes
Street, Sampaloc, Metro Manila, Philippines. 414pp
• UNEP. Energy Efficiency Guide for Industry in Asia.
www.energyefficiencyasia.org
• Yamazaki, M. Fuels and Lubricants. Handout Sheet. JICA
Agricultural Machinery Management Course. Japan. 25pp

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