Mater. Res. Express 8 (2021) 096521
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PAPER
Study on fatigue crack growth of electron beam selective melting of
titanium alloy
Zihao Gao1, Shanglei Yang1,2,∗ , Xuan Meng1, Zhentao Wang1 and Zeng Peng1
1
School of Materials Engineering, Shanghai University of Engineering Science, Shanghai 201620, People’s Republic of China
2
Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center For Laser Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Shanghai 201620, People’s Republic of China
∗
Author to whom any correspondence should be addressed.
E-mail: yslyangshanglei@163.com
Keywords: electron beam selective melting, titanium alloy, fatigue properties, secondary cracks
Abstract
In the application of additive manufacturing, it is inevitable to use some formed parts with a smaller height.
The analysis of various mechanical properties of these formed parts is the focus of research. In this paper,
the fatigue performance of a titanium alloy specimen with a 10 mm height and electron beam selective
melting is studied. By analyzing the structure and phase of the overall fatigue specimen, and then cutting
the overall specimen parallel and perpendicular to the additive manufacturing direction, the tensile and
fatigue tests in different directions are performed to detect the fatigue cracks at the fracture propagation the
way to research. It is found that there are two ways of secondary crack propagation between fatigue bands,
and three cracks are generated during the fatigue secondary crack propagation.
1. Introduction
Electron beam selective melting (SEBM) is a new additive manufacturing (AM) method in which a 3D part can
be fabricated with quite complex features [1–3]. Titanium Ti-6Al-4V is widely used in the special field, such as
aerospace, automotive, biomedical and so on [4–7]. However, there are formidable challenges in refining,
casting and forming, which cause the products are propagation than other metallic material. Given those
questions, high performance and lightweight titanium components produced using SEBM have attracted the
attention of many scholars [8–10].
SEBM is a near-net-shape production method in which a assembly is built by melting continuous layers of
metal powder into a workpiece [11, 12]. In the SEBM processes, a focused electron beam is scanned in a
preprogrammed pattern to melt the metal powder and produce component. In the process of SEBM, each
location of the component will undergo rapid melting and solidification with a complex thermal processes,
which can obvious change the component geometry and scan path [13].
Currently, many researchers [14–16] have investigated the microstructure of titanium Ti-6Al-4V using
SEBM, and they have found that the as-fabricated microstructure include columnar grains and equiaxed crystal
region, which gradient change from bottom to top along as-fabricated. In addition, many authors [17, 18]
reviewed the mechanical properties of titanium Ti-6Al-4V using SEBM, these authors provided an important
guideline for the tensile and fatigue properties of titanium Ti-6Al-4V. They have found that the mechanical
properties of titanium Ti-6Al-4V are related to the microstructure. However, the detailed influence of the
microstructure on the tensile properties has not been fully understood.
This paper mainly studies the fatigue crack growth method of fatigue fracture, and studies the effect of crack
growth on fatigue life through the difference of the three-stage secondary crack growth.
2. Materials and methods
The specimen is produced by the EBM A2XX system (ArcamEBM, Sweden) SEBM, the powder layer thickness is
50 μm, the sample size is 80×30×10 mm, and the beam spot size during the SEBM process is 100 μm, the
© 2021 The Author(s). Published by IOP Publishing Ltd
Mater. Res. Express 8 (2021) 096521 Z Gao et al

Figure 1. SEM morphology of Ti-6Al-4V powder.

parameters of preheating are: beam intensity 30 mA, scanning speed 1.3×104, the parameters of the printing
process: beam intensity 15 mA, scanning speed 4.53×103, the diameter of the powder is between 75–150 μm,
and the sphericity of the powder is good. Figure 1 is a powder SEM image.
In the SEBM process, a mezzanine crossing serpentine scanning path is used. When the scanning of each
layer is over, the scanning direction is rotated by 90 °C. This scanning path can produce uniform microstructure
and reduce residual stress. The electron beam drives the molten pool to move along the scanning direction, so a
smooth melting track direction is generated, and the additive manufacturing process is completed every four
cycles.
Cut the whole specimen of the titanium alloy melted by the SEBM. The cutting method is shown in figure 2.
Figure 2(a) is the cutting method parallel to the additive manufacturing direction, and figure 2(b) is
perpendicular to the additive manufacturing directional cutting method, figure 2(c) is the size of the fatigue
specimen.

3. Results and discussion

The bottom, middle and top three regions of the titanium alloy specimen melted by the SEBM are analyzed for
the microstructure. Figure 3 shows the microstructure and phase of the specimen. Figure 3(a) is the bottom
microstructure. The bottom microstructure is mainly equal axis crystal. The average grain size is about
147.4 μm. Figure 3(b) is the middle microstructure, which is mainly composed of equiaxed crystals and
columnar crystals. The average grain size is about 77 μm and 51.5 μm, respectively. Figure 3(c) is the top
structure, which is mainly composed of columnar crystals. The average grain size is about 26.6 μm. It can be seen
from the figure that the top structure is finer and the grain area becomes smaller. The equiaxed crystal size at the
bottom is larger than the middle one, and the columnar crystal size at the middle is larger than the top one.
Figure 3(d) is the phase analysis of the three regions. It can be seen from the figure that as the height of the
additively manufactured specimen increases from the bottom to the top, the content of the residual β phase in
the titanium alloy decreases.
It can be seen from the figure that the middle microstructure is the transition part between the top and the
bottom. The microstructures at the bottom and the top are slightly different, which is caused by the number of
cycles of heat action at the bottom than at the top [19]. In the process of AM, heat is diffused from the current
printing position to the bottom until the temperature reaches equilibrium. The rapid cooling rate leads to phase
transitions and fine microstructural features [20]. The effect of multiple heat cycles causes the crystal grains to
grow. As the deposition height increases, the number of heat cycles gradually decreases. After each heat action,
the size of the crystal grains changes a little. The top microstructure is fine, while the bottom microstructure
becomes coarse due to multiple heat cycles.
Figure 4 shows the three stages of fatigue failure. It can be seen from the figure that the three stages of fatigue
failure are: crack initiation, fatigue crack growth, and instantaneous failure zone. Figure 5 is the fatigue fracture,
and figure 5(a) is the fatigue crack source parallel to the AM direction. It can be seen that the crack initiation all
occur near the surface. This phenomenon occurs because of the residual tensile stress near the surface of the

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Figure 2. SEBM titanium alloy specimens cutting method: (a) cutting the specimen parallel to the fabricated direction; (b) cutting the
specimen perpendicular to the fabricated direction; (c) specimen size.

Figure 3. Titanium alloy microstructure and phase: (a) bottom microstructure; (b) middle microstructure; (c) top microstructure;
(d) electron beam selective melting of titanium alloy phase.

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Figure 4. Three stages of fatigue failure.

Figure 5. Fatigue fracture morphology: (a) the crack source parallel to the AM direction; (b) the morphology of the stable propagation
zone parallel to the AM direction; (c) the instantaneous fracture zone shape parallel to the AM direction (d) The crack initiation
perpendicular to the AM direction; (e) the morphology of the stable propagation zone perpendicular to the AM direction; (f) the
morphology of the transient zone perpendicular to the AM direction.

specimen. Balichakra M et al pointed out in their research that microcracks are caused by residual stress that
exceeds the yield strength of this material [20]. Mian et al evaluated the severity of internal and external defects
on fatigue strength. The external and internal defects such as unmelted or partially melted powders that cause
surface defects near the surface or subsurface area, unfused defects that cause internal defects with acute
morphology, and pores that cause internal defects. The results showed that external surface defects are more
likely to be potential crack initiation points [21]. In addition, Vayssette et al investigated that the surface
roughness of additively manufactured samples significantly affects their fatigue strength [22]. The research
results of this article are in good agreement with the literature [20–22].
Residual tensile stress is easy to cause cracks on the surface and make it grow and reduce the fatigue strength.
Jin X et al used laser shot peening to process the electron beam smelting Ti-6Al-4V alloy to weaken the residual
stress of the sample and improve the fatigue performance [23]. As the electron beam moves on the powder bed, it
melts the powder and fuse it with a processing layer below. The heat in the hot molten pool is transferred to the
solid metal below, so that the molten metal cools and solidifies. The rapid cooling of the molten pool causes the
generation of residual stress [24]. The alloy is under the action of periodic, non-steady-state thermal cycling. The
surface temperature drops faster, so the shrinkage deformation is greater than the inner layer. Because the

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Figure 6. (a) Fatigue crack growth at defects; (b) Pore.

deformation of the surface layer is limited by the base metal, the morphological alloy usually has a large residual
tensile stress. The residual tensile stress in the surface layer of the workpiece reduces the wear resistance of the
workpiece surface and the fatigue strength under tensile stress.
Figure 5(b) is a stable propagation zone parallel to the AM direction. It can be seen that each cycle fatigue
strip propagation by 2 μm, and there are a large number of secondary cracks between the fatigue strips.
Figure 5(c) is the instantaneous area parallel to the AM direction, where there are a lot of dimples. Figure 5(d) is
the crack initiation perpendicular to the AM direction. The cause of the crack initiation is poor fusion.
Figure 5(e) is a stable propagation zone perpendicular to the AM direction, and the content of secondary cracks
between fatigue bands is less. Figure 5(f) is the instantaneous area perpendicular to the AM direction, where
there are many small and shallow dimples. By comparing the fracture morphology parallel to and perpendicular
to the AM direction, it can be seen that the fractures in the two directions are not much different, indicating that
the overall fatigue properties of the specimens with a smaller height are equal. The fatigue strength of the
specimen parallel to the AM direction (XOY) is slightly higher than the fatigue life perpendicular to the AM
direction (XOZ), because the increase of the secondary crack content can further reduce the crack growth energy
of the main crack and improve the fatigue life.
There are usually pores in additively manufactured samples [25]. Mj, M et al found that in different
construction directions, its internal porosity varied between 0.05% and 0.17% [21]. Figure 6 is a partial enlarged
view of the fracture, and unfused defects and pores can be observed. Under the action of cyclic stress, these places
are prone to stress concentration, which will become the source of micro-cracks, accelerate crack growth and
reduce fatigue life. This is consistent with the results of Haize Galarraga’s research, and Haize Galarraga’s
research shows that porosity is the main factor affecting mechanical properties [26].
The existence of porosity reduces the effective bearing area, causing stress concentration and forming
microcracks [27]. After the microcracks are initiated at the junction of the pores and the matrix, they not only
expand along the sample, but also extend along the pores to the inside of the pores [28]. The cracks on both sides
of the pore may meet internally, forming a crack that passes through the entire pore. If there are pores around the
pores, the two pore cracks may meet.
Figure 7 shows the propagation path of the secondary crack inside the specimen. Figure 7(a) is the fracture of
the secondary crack propagation. From the figure, it can be seen that the cause of the secondary crack is the
height of the crack propagation surface during the propagation of the fatigue crack. The stress concentration
part of the ‘tear ridge’ formed by the difference, the secondary crack initiation is generated in this part. There are
three regions in figure 7(a), namely I, II, and III. The enlarged views of these three regions are figure 7(b)–(d).
Figure 7(b) is an enlarged view of the place where the secondary crack occurs. In the figure, it can be seen that the
secondary crack needs to consume energy in the process of propagation, thereby reducing the driving force of
fatigue crack growth. The direction of the secondary crack propagation depends neither on the crystal plane nor
the crystal orientation, but on the resistance of the crack tip to the secondary crack propagation. The presence of
stress concentration at the ‘tear ridge’ will increase the stress at the crack tip, reduce the resistance to secondary
crack propagation, and lead to secondary crack propagation. In the process of secondary crack propagation,
when small grains are encountered, the secondary cracks begin to grow transgranularly.
Figure 7(c) is an enlarged view of zone II in figure 7(a). It can be seen from the figure that the secondary
cracks at this time propagation along the fatigue strip when they encounter the fatigue strip, because the
secondary crack propagation in the direction of the fatigue band requires less energy. After passing through the
fatigue band, the propagation mode of the secondary crack has changed. The main propagation crack of the
secondary crack meets the ‘tear ridge’ to form two tertiary cracks, and one of the two tertiary cracks grows along

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Figure 7. Secondary crack propagation inside the specimen: (a) the secondary crack propagation path in the I area; (b) the secondary
crack propagation path in the II area; (c) the secondary crack propagation path in the III area.

the ‘tear ridge’; One stretches through the ‘tear ridge’. A third crack propagates along the larger ‘tear ridge’,
because this ‘tear ridge’ is larger, and the energy required for the three cracks to pass through is larger, so it
propagations along the ‘tear ridge’. However, the ‘tear ridge’ encountered by the other three cracks is smaller,
and there is a stress concentration at the intersection of the ‘tear ridge’ and the crack, so the third crack spreads
through the ‘tear ridge’. In the process of propagation, the two third cracks propagation along the ‘tear ridge’,
and finally at a large ‘tear ridge’ the two third cracks finally meet at one place to form a second crack.
Figure 7(d) is an enlarged view of zone III in figure 7(a). It can be seen from the figure that when the
secondary crack encounters a relatively straight grain boundary during the propagation process, the secondary
crack propagation path it is also straighter. When the secondary crack meets the finer grains, the path of the
secondary crack is blocked many times, so the propagation path of the secondary crack at the fine grains is more
tortuous and propagations in a ‘Z’ shape.

4. Conclusion

In this paper, the fatigue test of Ti-6Al-4V formed by EBM was done. The article focuses on the analysis of the
fatigue crack growth mode at the fracture. Through the research and analysis of the microstructure and
mechanical properties, the following conclusions are drawn:

(1) Comparing and analyzing the results of microstructure, grain size and XRD phase detection at different
positions, it can be seen that the β phase content at the top is the least, and the top structure is smaller than
the bottom structure.
(2) The specimens parallel to the AM direction have more secondary cracks in the fatigue stable growth zone.
The increase of the secondary crack content increases the fatigue life.
(3) In the process of secondary crack propagation, the secondary crack propagation consumes a part of the
expansion energy. When the third crack occurs, the crack propagation energy is further reduced, which
improves the fatigue life.

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Acknowledgments

This project is sponsored by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51971129) and the
Shanghai Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 19ZR1421200).

Data availability statement

All data that support the findings of this study are included within the article (and any supplementary files).

ORCID iDs

Shanglei Yang https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7006-6994

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