Dr. Melissa J.

Standley Clemson University BCPS Meeting February 15, 2008 The Return of the Anusim: A Cultural Phenomenon of the Post-postmodern Age Post-postmodernism In 1966 linguistic philosopher/theorist Jacques Derrida confounded and changed the world of letters at a conference at Johns Hopkins University by his analysis of an ethnographic study by anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss. His analysis put into language a way of thinking that was already a part of the Zeitgeist, but his words gave scholars the language of description, a way to speak of deconstruction, [] the as yet unnamable which is proclaiming itself and which can do so, as is necessary whenever a birth is in the offing, only under the species of the non-species, in the formless, mute, infant, and terrifying form of monstrosity [Derridas own words concluding the paper] (294): The event I called a rupture [] would presumably have come about when the structurality of structure had to begin to be thought, that is to say, repeated, and this is why I said that this disruption was repetition in all of the senses of this word. From then on it became necessary to think the law which governed [] the desire for the center in the constitution of structure and the process of signification prescribing its displacements and its substitutions for this law of the central presence-but a central presence which was never itself, which has always already been transported outside itself in its surrogate. The surrogate does not substitute itself for anything which has somehow pre-existed it. From then on it was probably necessary to begin to think that there was no center, that the center could not be thought in the form of a being present, that the center had no natural locus, that it was not a fixed locus but a function, a sort of non-locus in which an infinite number of sign-substitutions came into play. This moment was that in which language invaded the universal problematic; that in which, in the absence of a center or origin, everything became discourse [] when everything became a system where the central signified, the original or transcendental signified, is

never absolutely present outside a system of differences. The absence of the transcendental signified extends the domain and the interplay of signification ad infinitum. (Derrida, Structure, Sign, and Play, online version) A more familiar way for many of us to think of Derridas deconstruction would be the words from Yeats poem The Second Coming: Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold;/ Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world,/ The blood-dimmed tide is loosed, and everywhere/The ceremony of innocence is drowned;/ The best lack all conviction, while the worst/Are full of passionate intensity (Yeats, The Second Coming, lines 3-8). Deconstruction gave rise to a whole new movement in philosophy, in art, and in literature: postmodernism. Postmodernism had been given form by the curse, or blessing in disguise, pronounced by M. Derrida. He told us that there was no center, that the structure was in collapse because the binary categories were not really mutually exclusive. Scholars treated Derridas remarks on the absence of center as the new center, and literary criticism became an enterprise of its own rather than one fixed upon literary output. Lee Morrissey reminds us gently that it is good to consider the particulars of Derridas own origins as well: According to Jacques Derrida, in 1942, when Derrida was 12 years old, the French government in Algeria, which had not been occupied by Germany, revoked the Crmieux Decrees; consequently, as it is put in one of the three accounts of it in Jacques Derrida, "they expelled from the Lyce de Ben Aknoun in 1942 a little black and very Arab Jew who understood nothing about it" (Bennington 58). In addition to being expelled from school, Derrida also lost his French citizenship. Overnight he was a Jew and was not French. Being both was seemingly no longer possible. A teacher said that day that "French culture is not made for little Jews" (326). [Morrissey, Derrida, Algeria, and "Structure, Sign, and Play," online version)

The Nazis were defeated, the Vichy government deposed and its leaders punished, and Derrida became one of the most famous thinkers of the twentieth century. The issue of what happened to Derrida and his family, and many otherstheir experience as displaced Sephardic Jewsthe issue central to this paper. In The Dismemberment of Orpheus: Toward a Postmodern Literature (1971), scholar Ihab Hassan further articulates the curse, suggesting that postmodernism comes out of the modern avant-garde expression of alienation (12), and that out of the introversion of the alienated will, emerge the arts of silence, of the void, and of death, emerge also the languages of omission, ambiguity, games, and numbers (12), that The negative, then, informs silence; and silence is my metaphor of a language that expresses, with harsh and subtle cadences, the stress in art, culture, and consciousness. The crisis is modern and postmodern, current and continuous, though discontinuity and apocalypse are also images of it. Thus the language of silence conjoins the need both of autodestruction and self-transcendence. (Hassan 12) While it must be said here that Hassan, in particular, and other postmodern scholars have refined the descriptive apparatus of postmodernism considerably since 1966 and 1971, it is easy to see why other scholars have grown discontented with postmodernism as a movement, as a descriptor of the state of affairs in letters and culture. Many are now calling for a consideration of post-postmodernism. Post-postmodernism appears to be a consideration of postmodernism from a perspective at once more pragmatic and more in the service of humankind, perhaps considering the possibility of Presence rather than a doctrinal insistence upon silence and absence. Robert McLaughlin argues in Post-postmodern Discontent: Contemporary Fiction and the Social World that [] many of the fiction writers who have come on the scene since the late 1980s seem to be responding to the perceived dead end of

postmodernism, a dead end that has been reached because of postmodernism's detachment from the social world and immersion in a world of nonreferential (sic.) language, its tendency, as one writer once put it to me, to disappear up its own asshole (McLaughlin 55). The change to post-postmodernism, he goes on to suggest, is motivated by a desire to reconnect language to the social sphere or, to put it another way, to reenergize literature's social mission, its ability to intervene in the social world, to have an impact on actual people and the actual social institutions in which they live their lives (55). He concludes his essay with the thought that Post-postmodernism seeks not to reify the cynicism, the disconnect, the atomized privacy of our society nor to escape or mask it (as much art, serious and pop, does), but, by engaging the language-based nature of its operations, to make us newly aware of the reality that has been made for us and to remind usbecause we live in a culture where we're encouraged to forgetthat other realities are possible. That, it seems to me, is the social purpose the writers I've been calling post-postmodern have claimed for themselves. (McLaughlin 66) Likewise, psychoanalytical theorist Anir Govrin, who considers many possible deleterious effects of psychoanalysis approached from a postmodern perspective, writes in The Dilemma of Contemporary Psychoanalysis: Toward a Knowing Postpostmodernism that the psychoanalytic community must move toward a new theory of knowledge that will be sensitive to postmodernist claims about knowledge, but also enable the creation of new theories and new knowledge (Govrin 529). In other words, he suggests that the postmodern genie [my metaphor, not his] cannot be put back in the bottle, and yet by itself the genie cannot create new approaches in the field of psychoanalysis because it is a genie of criticism, [rather than one of genesis]: One cannot create a new theory of mind, a new school of thought, and at the same time contend that one cannot be certain about anything (511). Govrin is not interested, he

says, in examining postmodernism as a philosophy; he intends only to examine the practical problems inherent in postmodern psychoanalysis. He suggests, however, that within psychoanalysis, postmodernism provides a way of conceptualizing the necessary pluralism of institutions, that [i]nstitutions should secure the pluralism of monolithic points of view [], [that] relevant but incompatible conceptual schemes should be given the chance to develop according to their own internal criteria (Govrin 531) so that multiple possibilities can be considered and the discipline can progress. Neither McLaughlin nor Govrin addresses the [different but related] ontological concerns identified by Derrida and Hassan in their initial scholarly output. Derrida, in his conference presentation, gave the world a challenge: to open a text [and indeed, everything is a text in the postmodern mind] to several meanings and interpretations using the elements present within the text to discover[], recognize[], and understand[] the underlyingand unspoken and implicitassumptions, ideas, and frameworks that form the basis for thought and belief (Jacques Derrida, Wikipedia article, online reference). The challenge is a curse for those who are invested in the world as it is, or rather, was, and a blessing for the inheritors of plurality. Hassan, in his early work The Dismemberment of Orpheus, suggested that nothing but silence, but the void, nothingness itself is at the center of postmodernism. Both McLaughlin and Govrin suggest alternatives to postmodernism that incorporate the scholarly skepticism and appreciation for text of postmodernism while pushing beyond to the socially useful and pragmatic. Post-postmodernism (maybe Reconstructivism is better; I love Paulo Freire), rather than there being no center, no locus, not a fixed locus but a function, is [with a

focus on verbs rather than nouns] walking into the desert after the center, more prison than shelter, has been destroyed, inundated in the sea of deconstruction. The rubble still clings to our feet as we move toward promises we cannot yet envision but must actively participate in constructing. What is currently present at the center is return, but we must choose what else will be at the center, or if there will even be a single center, and we will forever have the caveat that we cannot be entirely certain of our certainties, whether we write them or reconstruct them out of our collective past. We shall make no graven images. We must move on to something: standing still, staring at What Was with the khamsin parching our backs is not an option. Terminology: Why Anusim? The word anusim is a Hebrew word. It means the forced ones and is used to refer to those people in Spain who were forced to convert to Christianity upon pain of death. Etymologically, the word anusim is very closely related to (may at one time in Hebrew have been the same word as) anushim, which is one of the word used in Exodus to refer to the Jewish conscripted laborers in Egypt: Other words for these people include conversos [converts] and the pejorative marranos ["Jew or Moor converted to Christianity," 1583, from Spanish. The word marrano literally means pig or swine, and was an expression of contempt, from the Arabic muharram forbidden thing (eating of pork is forbidden by both Muslim and Jewish religious law), from haruma was forbidden (Online Etymological Dictionary). In my own work I use the term anusim because the word conversos means converted ones, which suggests an element of choice that was not present for the anusim, and marranos is a vile term to apply to

people confronted with the appalling choice of conversion or death. It further victimizes the victims. Large Numbers of Conversions On June 6, 1391, a wave of massacres began that ended the Golden Age of Jewish Spain. As is often the case when acts of hatred have occurred, the actions were preceded by years of hatemongering and propaganda, in this instance from the pulpit by Catholic Archdeacon Ferrand Martinez1. According to The Massacres of 5151 [1391], Martinez December 8, to the clergy of the various towns, commands, under pain of excommunication, to tear down, within three hours, the synagogues in which the enemies of God (G-d forbid), calling themselves Jews, performed their idolatry; the books, including the Law, were to be sent to him, and the building materials to be used for the repair of the churches; if resistance were offered, it was to be overcome by force, and an interdict was to be laid on the towns until the work was accomplished. (Lea n.p.) The massacres began in Sevilla but spread throughout the kingdoms [now regions] of Spain. Within three months, most of the Jewish communities in Spain were destroyed, their inhabitants [G-d forbid] dead, forced to convert, or transformed into refugees. Many of the synagogues were burned or, more often, taken over by the Catholic Church. Much of the property of the Jews who were killed was confiscated by the royal houses of each region (Mindel, online source). Rabbi Hasdai Crescas, an eyewitness to more than one of the massacres, after burying his son and other family members, sent a letter to the Jewish communities of Avignon, France detailing what had befallen the Jewish communities of Spain: On the bitter day of Rosh Hodesh Tammuz 5151, the Lord stretched the enemys bows at the community of Seville, wherein were seven or eight thousand heads of households. They set ablaze its gates and killed many, but most of them converted; others among the children and women were sold to the Ishmaelites,
1

Who held several titles: Archdeacon of Ecija, Canon of the Cathedral of Sevilla, and Official, or judicial representative of the archbishop (Lea 2).

and the streets of the Jews were deserted. Many died a martyrs death, and many violated the holy covenant. From there the fire spread and consumed all the cedars of Lebanon [of] the community of Cordova. There, too, many converted, and [the community] was destroyed. [] On the 17th of Tammuz [] the anger of the Lord lighted on []the community of Toledo [] there the rabbis publicly died a martyrs death []. (Crescas, pub. on ISLC webpage) This same Rabbi Crescas worked tirelessly after the massacres were over to rebuild the Jewish communities. Many of the royal houses assisted with that rebuilding effort, possibly because of financial and other assistance rendered by Jewish courtiers to the kings (Mindel, online source)2 According to the International Sephardic Leadership Council, between 100,000 and 250,000 Jews converted between 1391 and 1492; some Jewish people in those years chose martyrdom or remained Jewish. The descendants of the ones who chose to remain Jewish after 1391 were expelled by royal decree in 1492 (Inquisition Reference Material, Sephardic Council website), while the descendants of the ones who converted were being harassed, tortured, and often killed by the Inquisition. The Edict of Expulsion In the year 1492, early modern Spain under Ferdinand and Isabella became the precursor to the 20th century totalitarian state (Antisemitism: A Historical Survey, Simon Wiesenthal Center): in January, Moorish Grenada was captured by the Catholic Spanish forces, thus physically uniting most of what is now Spain under one comonarchy, in March, the Catholic co-regents Ferdinand and Isabella issued the Alhambra Decree, which expelled all [remaining] Jews from Spain under threat of death, and also in March, the co-regents agreed to finance Christopher Columbus voyage west in search of a trade route to India. While Hannah Arendt theorizes that modern antisemitism grew as traditional nationalism declined (11), actually the Expulsion Edict was issued in part for
2

For an English translation of this letter, see the Sephardic Council at http://www.sephardiccouncil.org/crescas.html .

the purpose of strengthening the joint rule of Ferdinand and Isabella over Spain, just as the Inquisition was founded in order to homogenize the kingdom, thus using religion as a unifying factor (Spain, The European Jewish Congress). When Isabella ascended the throne of Castile upon the death of her half-brother in 1472, she inherited a kingdom in chaos caused by abuses during the reign of Henry IV, a dispute among the nobility over who would claim the throne upon his death, and the attempted invasion by Alfonso the Fat, King of Portugal (Carroll, online source). This actually supports Arendts point that modern antisemitism and totalitarianism arise in a situation where civil order has been disrupted. The Alhambra Decree, which is what the Edict of Expulsion was called, was issued on March 31, 1492. The document states that the Jews were to be expelled from the lands under the dominion of Ferdinand and Isabella because the Jews were instructing Christians in matters of religious faith and were therefore causing corruption in the Catholic Church: Furthermore, we are informed by the Inquisition and others that the great harm done to the Christians persists, and it continues because of the conversations and communications that they have with the Jews, such Jews trying by whatever manner to subvert our holy Catholic faith and trying to draw faithful Christians away from their beliefs. These Jews instruct these Christians in the ceremonies and observances of their Law, circumcising their children, and giving them books with which to pray, and declaring unto them the days of fasting, and meeting with them to teach them the histories of their Law, notifying them when to expect Passover and how to observe it, giving them the unleavened bread and ceremonially prepared meats, and instructing them in things from which they should abstain, both with regard to food items and other things requiring observances of their Law of Moses, making them understand that there is no other law or truth besides it. All of which then is clear that, on the basis of confessions from such Jews as well as those perverted by them, that it has resulted in great damage and detriment of our holy Catholic faith. (Alhambra Decree)

The Jews were given three months, until the end of July, to sell their property and depart from the kingdoms ruled by Ferdinand and Isabella. They were not allowed to take any gold, silver, or minted money with them, and any person found harboring Jews after the end of July would be punished by loss of their belongings, vassals, fortresses, and hereditary privileges (Alhambra Decree). What Happened to the Refugees? Scholars estimate that somewhere between 100,000 and 250,000 Jews converted between 1391 and 1492 (Inquisition Reference Material, online source). Another source estimates that over 100,000 Jews fled Spain (Spain, European Jewish Congress); still another source estimates 300,000 (HaLevy, Last Inquisition)3. Of the Jews who converted, a significant portion also left Spain because of the persecutions of the Spanish Inquisition, which had been founded in 1478 by Ferdinand and Isabella. Though the foundations of the Inquisition go back to the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215, the Spanish Inquisition was founded specifically to []examine evidence and judge whether a person was a faithful Christian or an enemy of Church and country (Carroll, online source); the people who were most scrutinized [tortured] by the Inquisition were formerly-Jewish Conversos. Many of these Conversos also fled Spain to places where they would not be harassed by the Inquisition or where they could practice Judaism in relative peace. Many went to other countries in Europe, most famously Holland (the Amsterdam Jewish Community figures prominently in the works of Rembrandt) but also France, Italy, England, and others; a significant portion were invited by the Sultan Beyazid II to settle

I hope that soon a scholar in population studies/statistics will do a study on the exact number of people who left Spain because of the Expulsion Edict.

in the Ottoman Empire because of the Sephardic reputation for high culture, education, and finance; still others went to the Spanish colonies in the Americas. Many of the exiles had the experience of leaving more than one country: as the Inquisition came to the Americas, to Brazil, Mexico, and Cuba, many of the Conversos, who had reverted to Jewish worship, fled to the interior (to what is now New Mexico, Texas, and Arizona), or to some of the English and Dutch colonies. Much has been written about the Twenty Three, the bedraggled Jewish refugees who fled Recife, Brazil when the Portuguese captured the colony of Brazil from the Dutch; they fled out of fear of the Inquisition, were captured by pirates who intended to sell them into slavery, and were rescued by a Dutch ship, which then took most of their money and possessions as passage to the colony of New York, where Peter Stuyvesant tried unsuccessfully to prevent them from settling. These Twenty Three became the first Jewish settlers of what later became New York City (Birmingham, Steven. The Grandees: Americas Sephardic Elite. 1971. New York: U of Syracuse P, 1985.) One commentator makes the point that it is only in hindsight that we can know where the exiles would be safe. The people who fled from Spain to Portugal were often subject to forced conversion, and one source reports that 5000 children of these refugees in Portugal were kidnapped by the Church to be raised as Christians, while 20,000 Jews who were gathered at the port in Lisbon to leave Portugal [after the Inquisition was invited into the country by the king] were forcibly converted (HaLevy, Last Inquisition). Many of the exiles who attempted to flee to the Ottoman Empire, where they had been invited to come by the sultan, were sold into slavery by unscrupulous ship captains. Many exiles went from Amsterdam, to London, to the Americas, seeking

financial restoration after the disaster that had befallen them, and many of these people and their descendants were never Jews in public again. It is the close knit Anusim communities within this categorythe hidden Jewsthat are the focus of much of the scholarship and outreach about and to the descendants of the Anusim currently. This paper would be incomplete if I did not mention the many attempts that the nation of Spain has made to reverse the Alhambra Decree. After the expulsion of the Jews, Spain went from being the world power with an undefeatable navy and a wealth of colonies to being a European backwater with little international power. In 1868 the Spanish Republic was established, and the new Spanish Constitution granted religious freedom to all foreigners resident in Spain (Hilton, online source); Jews were considered foreigners and began to settle in Spain again in small numbers. Even more interesting, in 1924, President Primo de Rivera of the Republic of Spain granted Spanish citizenship to all Sephardic Jews scattered throughout the world (Hilton, online source). Christian Leitz reports that [b]etween 20,000 and 35,000 Jewish refugees managed to enter Spain during the war [World War II], only a small percentage remained there. In the vast majority of cases the regime's officials did not turn back refugees at Spain's border, rarely, however, for humanitarian reasons or because of a rejection of Nazi policies (Leitz, online source). Franco reversed the Expulsion Edict again in 1967 by proclaiming that Spain would have freedom of worship (Riding, New York Times article). In an emotional ceremony that began with King Juan Carlos II attending a worship service with President Chaim Herzog of Israel at the re-established Beth Yaakov Synagogue of Madrid on the anniversary of the Expulsion Edict, Juan Carlos II officially reversed the Expulsion Edict proclaimed by Ferdinand and Isabella from the position of a

Spanish monarch. In his speech, he expressed thanks for the hospitality of the countries that received the Jewish exiles, and he told the Sephardic Jews who had resettled in Madrid and were present at the ceremony that their return begins "to fill the vacuum left by your absence," and pledging that "never again will hate and intolerance provoke desolation and exile" (Riding, New York Times article). The issue of who the Anusim were and that they have descendants who are very much interested in Judaism began to come to public attention in the United States in the early 1990s. One of the earliest books popularizing the stories of the Anusim was Trudi Alexys The Mezuzah in the Madonnas Foot (1994), which is the story of how one woman found out that her ancestors were Anusim and returned to Judaism [made tshuvah]. Several public figures have revealed that they have discovered that their families had once been Jewish, most notably former Secretary of State Madeleine Albright and former presidential candidate John Kerry. Since the publication of Alexys book, there has been a groundswell of interest and published information on the Anusim, scholarly and otherwise. One of the problems I had in organizing this paper was the sheer volume of material that has been published on the Anusim. In addition to the numerous chat rooms and informal sources of information, there are Anusim Studies organizations, such as Casa Shalom, Kulanu, and Amishav; there are web resources, such as the extensive research database on the Spanish Inquisition on the International Sephardic Leadership Council website and the website of Shulamith Halevy, an independent Israeli scholar who works to assist the descendants of the Anusim; there are scholarly articles published in various academic journalsone search on Lexus-Nexus yielded hundreds of articles; and there are histories written and

published under the auspices of several historically-Sephardic congregations, such as Shearith Israel, the Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue in New York City, Kahal Kodesh Beth Elohim in Charleston, South Carolina, and Congregation Mickve Israel, right here in Savannah, Georgia. In an article titled Marranos Come Home published on the European Jewish Congress website, Rabbi Eliyahu Birnbaum of the Shavei Israel Foundation, one organization that assists with the conversion process among the Marrano descendants, writes that over the years individual Marranos have converted to Judaism , but now, thanks to the foundations efforts, entire communities of Marrano offspring are converting to Judaism and reclaiming their ancient heritage. If you asked people in Israel, they would probably tell you that Marranos are merely a blurb on the annals of history [I am not so sure this is true], but here we see definitive proof that people still view themselves as Marranos and children of Marranos, and that this is a very real, spiritual phenomenon, said Rabbi Birnbaum. (Newman, online source) The possibility of return, even after 500 years, has become a reality, even in the very strict Beit Din [rabbinical court] that oversees the question of who has the right to immigrate to Israel under the Law of Return. Gloria Mound, whose own groundbreaking scholarship on the Anusim began in the Balearic Islands off the coast of Spain in 1978, reports the outcome of the case of an Anusim family from Cuba who had immigrated to Israel and needed to prove that they were Jews in order to be allowed to remain. Mound had assisted this family by compiling a report for the court using the considerable scholarly information on Jewish family names, rituals, and customs. Mound writes: The Rabbinical Court having heard my evidence, which included seeing a resume of the Institute's work, plus the present Casa Shalom Journal and the Testimonials of Rabbi Vinas, our Cuban Rabbi member from New York, was as follows: "The Family should IMMEDIATELY be given a CERTIFICATE OF RETURN and immediately be accepted as Jews, without any need for Conversion." (Mound, qtd from Casa Shalom: The Institute for Marrano-Anusim Studies website, July 2006)

As Mound says in her report, this is an exceptionally rare ruling! Rabbi Yanki Tauber in his article How to Change the Past, published in the Chabad.org online magazine, writes that [m]an is an amalgam of matter and spirit [] our connection with the spiritual essence of our lives that grants us the capacity for teshuvah--the capacity to "return" and retroactively transform the significance of past actions and experiences (Tauber, online source). I would suggest that the wave of return to Judaism by the descendants of Jews is within that category: it is a way to retroactively transform the past. I think perhaps Jacques Derrida might be proud of this particular emanation from his 1966 conference paper critiquing Claude Levi-Strauss analysis of nature and culture. Bibliography and References The Alba Bible. Facsimile Editions. http://www.facsimileeditions.com/en/ab/index.html. Accessed 11 February 2008. Alexy, Trudi. The Mezuzah in the Madonnas Foot: Marranos and Other Secret Jews A Woman Discovers Her Spiritual Heritage. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1994. Antisemitism: A Historical Survey. Online publication. Museum of Tolerance Multimedia Learning Center. Simon Wiesenthal Center. http://motlc.wiesenthal.com/site/pp.asp?c=gvKVLcMVIuG&b=394713. Accessed 13 February 2008. Arendt, Hannah. The Origins of Totalitarianism. 1948. New York: Schocken Books, 2004. Birmingham, Steven. The Grandees: Americas Sephardic Elite. 1971. New York: U of Syracuse P, 1985. Carroll, Anne W. The Inquisition. The Catholic Education Resource Center. http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/history/world/wh0009.html. Accessed 12 February 2008. Casa Shalom: The Institute for Marrano-Anusim Studies. Gan Yavne, Israel. http://www.casa-shalom.com/. 31 January 2008.

Congregation Kahal Kodesh Beth Elohim. Charleston, South Carolina. http://www.sephardicstudies.org/csi.html. 14 February 2008. Congregation Mickve Israel. Savannah, Georgia. http://mickveisrael.org/. Accessed 14 February 2008. Congregation Sheareth Israel: The Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue. New York City. http://www.sephardicstudies.org/csi.html. Accessed 14 February 2008. Crescas, Rabbi Hasdai. Firsthand Account of Rabbi Hasdai Crescas. Letter to the Jewish Community of Avignon. Published by the International Sephardic Leadership Council. http://www.sephardiccouncil.org/crescas.html. Accessed 11 February 2008. Derrida, Jacques. Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences. 1966 at Johns Hopkins U. Writing and Difference. Trans. Alan Bass. U of Chicago P, 1978. 278-294. Govrin, Aner. The Dilemma of Contemporary Psychoanalysis: Toward a Knowing Post-postmodernism. JAPA 54:2 (2006): 507-535. Hassan, Ihab. The Dismemberment of Orpheus: Toward a Postmodern Literature. New York: Oxford UP, 1971. Hilton, Ronald. Spain: The Return of Sephardic Jews. Online article published under the auspices of the World Association for International Studies, Stanford University. 5 June 2005. http://wais.stanford.edu/ztopics/week040105/spain_050401_returnofsephardicjew s.htm. Accessed 14 February 2008. Inquisition Reference Material. Introductory page to collection compiled by the International Sephardic Leadership Council. http://www.sephardiccouncil.org/inquisition.html. Accessed 12 February 2008. International Sephardic Leadership Council. http://www.sephardiccouncil.org/index.html. Accessed 11 February 2008. Halevy, Schulamith. On the Anusim (Crypto-Judaism). http://www.cs.tau.ac.il/ %7enachumd/sch/sch/anusim.html. Accessed 14 February 2008. Lea, Henry Charles. Ferrand Martinez and the Massacres of 1391. The American Historical Review 1:2 (January 1896): n.p. Published as an online article

by the International Sephardic Leadership Council. http://www.sephardiccouncil.org/lea.html . Accessed 11 February 2008. Leitz, Christian. Spain and the Holocaust. Excerpt from a work in progress. Published under the auspices of the World Association of International Studies. Stanford University. http://wais.stanford.edu/Spain/spain_FrancoWantedWWII(110303).html . Accessed 14 February 2008. Marrano. Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=marrano&searchmode=none. Accessed 11 February 2008. Mindel, Nissan. The Massacres of 5151. Published at Chabad.org, online journal: http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/112389/jewish/The-Massacres-of5151.htm. Accessed 11 February 2008. McLaughlin, Robert L. Post-Postmodern Discontent: Contemporary Fiction and the Social World [S]ymploke 12.1-2 (2004): 53-68. Available online at http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/symploke/v012/12.1mclaughlin.html. Accessed 10 February 2008. Morrissey, Lee. Derrida, Algeria, and Structure, Sign, and Play. Postmodern Culture 9:2 (January 1999): n.p. http://www.iath.virginia.edu/pmc/text-only/issue.199/9.2morrissey.txt. Accessed 10 February 2008. Newman, Gabi. Marranos Come Home. European Jewish Congress. http://www.eurojewcong.org/ejc/news.php?id_article=1080. Accessed 13 February 2008. Riding, Alan. 500 Years After Expulsion, Spain Reaches Out to Jews, New York Times 1 April 1992: n.p. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html? res=9E0CE1D8143FF932A35757C0 A964958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all. Accessed 14 February 2008. Ruby, Walter. Off the Beaten Path in Tarazona, Spain: Rescuing a Corner of the Past. Online source. Heritage Tours. Published at http://www.heritagetoursonline.com/jewish_heritage/tarazona.html. Accessed 10 February 2008. Spain. European Jewish Congress. http://www.eurojewcong.org/ejc/news.php?id_article=117. Accessed 13 February 2008. Spanish and Portuguese Jews Congregation & Bevis Marks Synagogue. London,

United Kingdom. http://www.sandp.org/. Accessed 14 February 2008. Tauber, Yanki. How to Change the Past. Spirituality Feature, published in Chabad.org online magazine. http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/2551/jewish/How-to-Change-thePast.htm. Accessed 14 February 2008.